MODULE 2b-SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER

GENERATION-SOLAR CELLS
 INTRODUCTION

 The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the
photovoltaic effect, that is the conversion of light (or other electromagnetic
radiation) into electricity.

 The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as

a result of the absorption of radiation.

 Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by

the use of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells.

 A single converter cell is called a solar cell or, more generally, a photovoltaic
cell, and combination of such cells designed to increase the electric power output
is called a solar module or solar array.
 Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when
they absorb light.

 As photons are received, free electrical charges are generated that can be
collected on contacts applied to the surfaces of the semiconductors.

 Because solar cells are not heat engines, and therefore do not need to operate
at high temperatures, they are adopted to the weak energy flux of solar
radiation, operating at room temperature.

 These devices have theoretical efficiencies of the order of 25 per cent.

 Actual operating efficiencies are less than half this value, and decrease fairly
rapidly with increasing temperature.
 SOLAR CELL PRINCIPLES
 The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials, but
the materials that have shown the best performance in sunlight are the semi-
conductors.

 When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor, they create free
electrons with higher energies than the electrons which provide the bonding in
the base crystal.

 Once these electrons are created, there must be an electric field to induce these
higher energy electrons to flow out of the semi-conductor to do useful work.

 The electric field in most solar cells is provided by a junction of materials which
have different electrical properties.
Fig. Schematic View of a typical Solar Cell
 To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction a semi-conductor
three processes are required.

1.The photons have to be absorbed in the active part of the material and result
in electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.

2. The electron-hole charge carrier created by the absorption must be physically

separated and moved to the edge of the cell.

3. The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to a useful
load before they loose their extra potential.
A solar cell consists of:

(a)Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by absorption of

incident solar radiation.

(b) Region containing a drift field for charge separation

(c) Charge collecting front and back electrodes.

 In an intrinsic semi-conductor such as silicon, each one of the four valence
electrons of the material atom is tied in a chemical bond, and there are no free
electrons at absolute zero.

 If a piece of such a material is doped on one side by a five valence electron

material, such as arsenic or phosphorus, there will be an excess electrons in that
side, becomes an n-type semiconductor.

 The excess electrons will be practically free to move in the semiconductor lattice.

 When the other side of the same piece is dopped by a three-valence electron
material, such as boron, there will be deficiency of electrons leading to a p-type
semiconductor.

 This deficiency is expressed in terms of excess of holes free to move in the lattice.
 Such a piece of semi-conductor with one side of the p-type and the other of
the n-type is called a p-n junction.
 In this junction after the photons are absorbed, the free electrons of the n-side
will tend to flow to the p-side, and the holes of the p-side will tend to flow to
the n region to compensate for their respective deficiencies.
 This diffusion will create an electric field Ep from the n region to the p-
region.
 This field will increase until it reaches equilibrium for Ve, the sum of the
diffusion potentials for holes and electrons.
 If electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductor materials and the
contacts are connected through an external electrical conductor, the free
electrons will flow from the n-type material through the conductor to the p-
type material
 Here the free electrons will enter the holes and become bound electrons thus,
both free electrons and holes will be removed.

 The flow of electrons through the external conductor constitutes an electric

current which will continue as long as more free electrons and holes are being
formed by the solar radiation.

 This is the basis of photovoltaic conversion, that is, the conversion of solar
energy into electrical energy.

 The combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors thus constitutes a

photovoltaic (PV) cell or solar cell. All such cells generate direct current which
can be converted into alternating current if desired.
 The most normal configuration for a solar cell to make a p-n junction semiconductor is as
shown schematically in Fig. (1).

 The junction of the 'p type' and 'n type' materials provides an inherent electric field which
separates the charge created by the absorption of sunlight.

 This p-n junction is usually obtained by putting a p-type base material into a diffusion
furnace containing a gaseous n-type dopant such as phosphorus and allowing the n-dopant
to diffuse into the surface about 0.2 µm.

 The junction is thus formed slightly below the planar surface of the cell and the light
impinges perpendicular to the junction.

 The positive and negative charges created by the absorption of photons are thus encouraged
to drift to the front and back of the solar cell.
 The back is completely covered by a metallic contact to remove the charges to the
electric load.

 The collection of charges from the front of the cell is aided by a fine grid of narrow
metallic fingers.

 The surface coverage of the conducting collectors is typically about 5 per cent in
order to allow as much light as possible to reach active junction area. An
antireflective coating is applied on the top of the cell.
 EFFICIENCY AND POWER OUTPUT
 A solar cell usually uses a p-n junction and Current and voltage relationship
is given by,
 When light impinges on the junction, electron hole pairs are created at a
constant rate providing an electrical current flow across the junction.
 The net current is thus the difference between the normal diode current and
light generated current.
 The internal series resistance Rs is mostly due to the high sheet resistance of
the diffused layer which is in series with the junction.
 The light generated current acts as a constant current source supplying the
current to either the junction or a useful load depending on the junction
characteristic and the value of the external load resistance.
 The net current ‘J’ is given by,

 The internal voltage drop in a cell can usually be minimized, and for ideal
cell Rs may be assumed equal to zero i.e. Rs = 0.
 Open circuit voltage VOC for the ideal cell is then given by,
Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell (Isc)

 The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own
construction.

 It is measured by short circuiting the terminals of the cell at most optimized

condition of the cell for producing maximum output.
Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell(Voc)

 It is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the cell when no

load is connected to the cell.

 This voltage depends upon the techniques of manufacturing and temperature

but not fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface.

 Normally open circuit voltage of solar cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6 volt.

 It is normally denoted by Voc.

Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell(Pm )

 The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its standard
test condition.

Current at Maximum Power Point(Imp)

 The current at which maximum power occurs.

 Voltage at Maximum Power Point(Vmp )

The voltage at which maximum power occurs.
 The maximum power that can be derived from the device is given by,
Pmax = Vmp * Imp

where Vmp and Imp are the voltage and current at maximum power point

 Maximum efficiency for the cell is obtained by dividing Vmp Imp by the total
power density of the sunlight Pi.
Fill factor:

 It is a measure of squareness of the I–V characteristics of the solar cell and is

defined as FF = Maximum output power/(open-circuit voltage × short-circuit
current)

 A typical value of the fill factor for a good silicon cell is about 0.8.
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
 A basic photovoltaic system integrated with the utility grid consists of

i)Solar Array, large or small, which converts the insolation to useful DC electrical
power.

(ii) A Blocking Diode which lets the array-generated power flow only toward the
battery or grid. Without a blocking diode the battery would discharge back through the
solar array during times of no insolation.

(iii) Battery Storage, in which the solarly generated electric energy may be stored.

(iv) Inverter/converter, usually solid state which converts the battery bus voltage to
AC of required frequency and phase to match that needed to integrate with the utility
grid. Thus it is typically a DC-AC inverter

(v) Appropriate Switches and Circuit Breakers, to permit isolating parts of the system,
as the battery
Solar Cell Modules (Solar Photovoltaic Arrays)

 There may be tracking arrays or modules or fixed arrays.

 A tracking array is defined as one which is always kept mechanically

perpendicular to the sun-array line so that all times it intercepts the maximum
insolation specially in the north west direction.

 Such arrays must be physically movable by a suitable prime mover and are
generally considerably more complex than fixed arrays.

 A fixed array is usually oriented east west and tilted up at an angle

approximately equal to the latitude of the site.

 Fixed arrays are mechanically simpler than tracking arrays

The array designs fall into two broad classes :
(1) Flat-plate Arrays. Wherein solar cells are attached with a
suitable adhesive to some kind of substrate structure usually semi-rigid
to prevent cells being cracked.

(2)Concentrating Arrays. Wherein suitable optics, e.g. Fresnel

lenses, parabolic mirrors, compound parabolic concentrators (CPC), and
others, are combined with photovoltaic cells in an array fashion.
 This technology is relatively new to photovoltaics in terms of hardware
development, and comparatively fewer such arrays have actually been
built.
Solar cell connecting arrangements
 Cells may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and then
stacked in series to achieve the desired voltage.

 The optimum operating voltage of a photovoltaic cell is generally about 0.45

volt at normal temperatures, and the current in full sunlight may be taken to
be 270 amperes/sq. m.

 A decrease (or increase) in the solar radiation has little effect on the voltage,
but the current and power are decreased (or increased) proportionately.

 By combining a number of solar cells in series (i.e. in a string)the voltage is

increased but the current is unchanged
 If even a single cell in a string should fail, the whole string would become
inoperative.

 The cells in the remaining strings would maintain the voltage, but the current
(and power) output of the system would be decreased by the loss of one string of
cells.

 A short circuit in a cell would not disable the string, although there would be a
slight drop in voltage.

 There is a possibility that the other cells might cause current to flow in the wrong
direction through any string having a reduced voltage.

 This danger is eliminated by including a diode, which permits current flow in one
direction only, at end of each string
Battery Storage

 The simplest means of storage on a smaller moderate scale is in electric storage

batteries, especially as solar cells produce the direct electric current required for
battery charging.

 The stored energy can then be delivered as electricity upon discharge.

 The common lead acid storage batteries, such as are used in automobiles, are not
ideal for this purpose, but they are probably the best presently available.

 Extensive research in progress should lead to the development of more suitable

batteries
Inverters

 These are the devices usually solid state, which change the array DC
output to AC of suitable voltage, frequency, and phase to feed
photovoltaically generated power into the power grid or local load.

 These functional blocks are sometimes referred to as power conditioning.

 The current can be used in two modes : (1) as an inverter changing DC to

AC or (2) as a rectifier changing AC to DC, thus charging the battery.
 Applications of Solar Photovoltaic System
1.Solar Water Pumps
 In solar water pumping system, the pump is driven by motor run by solar
electricity instead of conventional electricity drawn from utility grid.
 A solar photovoltaic water pumping system consists of a photovoltaic array
mounted on a stand and a motor-pump set compatible with the photovoltaic
array.
 It converts the solar energy into electricity, which is used for running the
motor pump set.
 The pumping system draws water from the open well, bore well, stream,
pond, canal, etc.
 There are more than 10,000 solar powered water pumps in use in the world
today.
 They are widely used on farms to supply water to livestock.
2.Solar Vehicle

 It is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar

energy.

 Usually, photovoltaic(PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the sun’s

energy directly into electric energy.

 The term ‘solar vehicle’ usually implies that solar energy is used to power all
or part of a vehicle’s propulsion.

 Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications or

controls or other .
3.Solar Lanterns

 When solar lantern is plugged into a

solar photovoltaic cell, its
rechargeable battery stores the
electricity produced so that it can be
used to light home or power a radio.

 When fully charged, the lantern

will give light for 4 to 5 h, and the
radio will run for 15 h.

 If both are used simultaneously, the

listening and lamp time will be
shorter.
3.Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Power Systems
 These are power systems energized by photovoltaic panels that are connected
to the utility grid.
 Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems comprise photovoltaic panels,
battery charging regulators, solar inverters, and grid-connected equipments.
 When conditions are right, the grid-connected PV system supplies the excess
power, beyond consumption by the connected load, to the utility grid.
 Residential grid-connected photovoltaic power systems that have a capacity
less than 10 kW can meet the load of most consumers.
 It can feed excess power to the grid, which, in this case, acts as a battery for
the system.
4.Cathodic Protection Systems

 Cathodic protection is a method of protecting metal structures from

corrosion.
 It is applicable to bridges, pipelines, buildings, tanks, wells, and railway
lines.
 To achieve cathodic protection, a small negative voltage is applied to the
metal structure and this prevents it from oxidizing or rusting.
 The positive terminal of the source is connected to a sacrificial anode that is
generally apiece of scrap metal, which corrodes instead of the structure.
 Photovoltaic solar cells are often used in remote locations to provide this
voltage.
5.Electric Fences
 Electric fences are widely used in agriculture to prevent stock or predators
from entering or leaving an enclosed field.
 These fences usually have one or two ‘live’ wires that are maintained at about
500 V DC.
 These give a painful, but harmless shock to any animal that touches them.

 This is generally sufficient to prevent stock from pushing them over. These
fences are also used in wildlife enclosures and secure areas.
 They require a high voltage, but very little current and they are often located
in remote areas where the cost of electric power is high.
 These requirements can be met by a photovoltaic system involving solar
cells, a power conditioner, and a battery.
6.Remote Lighting Systems
 Lighting is often required at remote locations where the cost of power is too
high to use the grid.
 Such applications include security lighting, navigation aids, illuminated road
signs, railway crossing signs, and village lighting.
 Solar cells are suited to such applications, although a storage battery is
always required in such systems.
 They usually consist of a solar photovoltaic panel, a battery charging
regulator, a storage battery, high-efficiency DC fluorescent lamp.
 These systems are very popular in remote areas, especially in developing
countries and this is one of the major applications of solar cells.
7.Telecommunications and Remote Monitoring Systems
 Good communications are essential for improving the quality of life in
remote areas.

 However, the cost of electric power to drive these systems and the high cost
of maintaining conventional systems has limited their use.

 Solar panel has provided a cost-effective solution to this problem through the
development of remote area telecommunications repeater stations.

 These stations typically consist of a receiver, a transmitter, and a solar cell-

based power supply system.
8.Rural Electrification

 Storage batteries are widely used in remote areas to provide low-voltage

electrical power for lighting and communications as well as for vehicles.

 A photovoltaic-powered battery charging system usually consists of a small

solar cell array and a charge controller.

 These systems are widely used in rural electrification projects in developing

countries.
9.Water Treatment Systems

 In remote areas, electric power is often used to disinfect or purify drinking

water.

 Photovoltaic cells are used to power a strong ultraviolet light that can be used
to kill bacteria in drinking water.

 This can be combined with a solar-powered water pumping system.

 Desalination of brackish water can be achieved via PV-powered reverse

osmosis systems.
Advantages of solar photovoltaic system

 Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple

solid state device.

 Absence of moving parts.

 Ability to function unattended for long periods as evidence in space

programme.

 Modular nature in which desired currents, voltages and power levels can be
achieved by mere integration.

 Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate.

 They do not create pollution.

 They have a long effective life.

 They are highly reliable.

 They consume no fuel to operate as the sun's energy is free.

 They are easy to fabricate, being one of the simplest of semi conductor devices

 They have wide power handling capabilities from microwatts to kilowatts or even
megawatts when modules are combined into large area arrays.
Disadvantages

 At present the costs of solar cells are high, making them economically
uncompetitive, with other conventional power sources

 The efficiency of solar cells is low. As solar radiation density is also low
large area of solar cell modules are required to generate sufficient useful
power.

 As solar energy is intermittent ,some kind of electrical energy storage is

required. This makes the whole system more expensive