INTRODUCTION

TO
LOGIC
WHAT IS
LOGIC?
 LOGIC
Logic (from the Greek "logos",
which has a variety of meanings
including word, thought, idea,
argument, account, reason or
principle) is the study of
reasoning, or the study of the
principles and criteria of valid
inference and demonstration. It
attempts to distinguish good
reasoning from bad reasoning. (
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om/branch_logic.html)
 LOGIC
Logic comes from the
Greek word logike,
meaninng thought.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
who started the study of
logic, believes that it is
"organon" or instrument
for discovering and
presenting truths.
 Aristotle defined
logic as "new and
necessary
reasoning", "new"
Aristotle defined logic as "new and necessary reasoning", "new"
because it allows us to learn what we do not know, and "necessary"
because its conclusions are inescapable. It asks questions like "What is
correct reasoning?", "What distinguishes a good argument from a bad
one?", "How can we detect a fallacy in reasoning?" Logic investigates and
classifies the structure of statements and arguments, both through the
study of formal systems of inference and through the study of arguments in
natural language. It deals only with propositions (declarative sentences,
used to make an assertion, as opposed to questions, commands or
sentences expressing wishes) that are capable of being true and false. It is
not concerned with the psychological processes connected with thought, or
with emotions, images and the like. It covers core topics such as the study
of fallacies and paradoxes, as well as specialized analysis of reasoning using
probability and arguments involving causality and argumentation theory. (
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 Logical systems should have three things:
1. consistency (which means that none
of the theorems of the system
contradict one another);
2. soundness (which means that the
system's rules of proof will never allow a
false inference from a true premise);
and
3. completeness (which means that
there are no true sentences in the
system that cannot, at least in principle,
be proved in the system).
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 It is not concerned with emotions.

Logic is the science of laws which the intellect must obey in order to
acquire readily and surely the knowledge of truth.

Logic is of great utility for advancing the cognition of truth, for

guarding against error, and acquiring proficiency in any science whatever.

Logic allows us to better understand the nature of truth.

Because natural sciences can only advance through reasoning, logic

plays a vital role in these traditional sciences as well.
 LOGIC AS BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
• The term logic can be traced back to the writings of Marcus Tullius
Cicero (Sullivan, 1963).
• Cicero's works are relevant to the history of logic, namely: the creation
of the Latin philosophical vocabulary (invention of a Latin terminology
corresponding to the Greek one) and information on Stoic logic thus we
become aware that the Romans practiced those forms of logic.
• It is derived from the Greek word “LOGOS” which means “word”.
Etymologically therefore, logic means the word by which the inward
thought is expressed. It may also mean the inward thought or reason
itself. Logic is the practical philosophy of correct reasoning (Reyes et
al, 1978). It is generally understood and accepted as the study of the
laws and principles which govern reason (Armada et al, 1984).
• Most commonly, it is defined as the study of correct thinking or the
science of correct reasoning (Copi, 2004). Logic is basic study and skill
to any field that makes use of arguments, persuasions and nowadays,
even in mathematical computation and ICT development.
 LOGIC AS BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
• Logic is the branch of philosophy which reflects on the
nature of reasoning itself. It is so intertwined with all
branches of philosophy that it becomes a natural and
necessary preparation to philosophy and all other field of
specialization.
• Logical describes something that comes from clear
reasoning. The Greek word logos, also means "reason, idea,
or study." So calling something logical means it's based on
reason and sound ideas, something that has been carefully
studied — in other words, thought out with mathematical
precision and removed from emotion.
 LOGIC AS BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
• Logic is knowledge that is sought as a guide for action, that is, it is a practical
type of knowledge
• It is a philosophy that perfects the will by principles to be practiced. It aims
directly at giving criteria for correct reasoning.
• It can be studied for different purposes: as an intellectual training, as an aid
in developing good communication skills especially in argumentation a nd
persuasion), as an instrument in settling disputes, a tool in gaining scientific
and philosophical knowledge.
• Logic helps us better understand good arguments—it helps us differentiate
between good and bad reasons to believe something. We should want to
have well-justified beliefs. We want to know what we should believe.
 Logic is the instrument of all scientific
investigations. Why?
It is through logical methods that the
sciences discover the truths peculiar to
their subject matter. It is also through
logical demonstrations or argument that
they prove their findings to be true and,
therefore, acceptable. Logic then is a
prerequisite of all the sciences.
 Natural Logic

The Supreme Creator has seen it fit to endow each creature with talent or
power commensurate to its nature. The wonders of His gifts may be glimpsed in
the fierceness of the lion, in the speed of the horse, in the strength of the
elephant, in the flight of the sparrow, in the sight of the eagle, in the agility of
the shark and in the docility of the carabao. But the rarest of the gifts belongs
to man.

This is the ability to reason.

 The ability to reason correctly is innate to man. He has the gift of common
sense which St. Thomas Aquinas defines as "the habit of the first principles".
This is natural logic. It was natural logic which guided man to the use of fire and
of the wheel. These discoveries, long before man ever thought of building a
schoolhouse, laid the cornerstone of of progress and civilization. And yet,
common sense needs to be trained and sharpened to bring out the fullness of
its of its potentials. Without proper instruction, common sense is prone to
mistakes, leaving the process of reasoning to "trial- and-error" The singer, the
dancer, the athlete, the painter, and the speaker - all need systematized
instruction on how to develop their natural talents and how to use them
effectively. In like manner, each person needs the science and art of logic to
develop the habit of confident reasoning. Logic does not do away with common
sense. It presupposes it and codifies its laws, shaping it into a reliable
instrument for the acquisition of knowledge.3
 DO YOU BELIEVE THAT LOGIC THE STUDY OF CORRECT THINKING?

LOGIC AS SCIENCE
• Logic is defined as the science of correct thinking.
• Logic is a science because it is a body of knowledge systematically arranged
and demonstrated to be true. Logic, however, differs from the empirical
sciences such as, biology, physics, sociology and others, because these give
us information about the world around us while logic does not. Logic deals
with the reasoning process leading to the discovery of truths.
 LOGIC AS SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Logic is the science of correct argument.
A good example of an argument is a prosecuting attorney's summation to a
jury. The prosecutor will suppose that the jury, at the end of the trial,
having heard the testimony and seen the evidence, is convinced of
certain propositions. The prosecutor will suppose that the jury already
accepts that the gun identified by the ballistics expert as the murder
weapon was registered in the defendant's name, that Mrs. McIvers, the
cleaning lady, overheard the defendant quarreling with the deceased an
hour before the shooting, and so on. These propositions that the
prosecutor supposes that the jury already accepts are the premisses of
the prosecutor's argument. The prosecutor's job is to convince the jury
that these premisses give them compelling reason to accept the
conclusion that the defendant is guilty of murder. The purpose of the
argument is to lead the jury from the premisses to the conclusion, to persuade
them that, having accepted the premisses, they ought to accept the conclusion
as well.
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• It is noteworthy to cite Galileo, the father of modern science, who
championed the important role of scienticfic investigation to human
knowledge. For him, modern science entail’s the logic of discovery.

• Sir Isaac Newton, the greatest scientist before Einstein, for instance also
suggested that modern science must befreed from speculative nature of
metaphysics. Knowledge, Newton argues, must be based on firm ground. To
achieve this aim, any scientific investigation must be based on mathematics.
In order to produce legitimate results, the scientist must put nature to
experiments, systems and methods.
 Teachers Explanation
• Logic enables us to develop skills in reasoning through serious training in the methods, principles and laws of
reasoning. With a knowledge in logic, we become confident in communicating with others for it enables us to
think with ease, with order and without error. The examination of the causes of incorrect reasoning puts us on
guard against errors both in our own thinking and in the thinking of others. When others are in error, we can
respectfully and carefully pinpoint their errors and at the same time would be able to avoid them ourselves.
• Logic can be considered a science in the sense that it is a body of knowledge that follows a rigorous and
systematic way of analyzing things. It has to be done in an orderly manner that it would also demand accuracy
and consistency. As a science in its own right, it has its formal and material object. On the other hand, it is
considered as an art in a way that it is a skill to be developed which entails one’s creativity and passion. It is a
habit of thinking easily and correctly with certain degree of order and harmony.
• Logic is needed in order to think with ease and without error, to reason out in a clear and
orderly fashion. As man thinks, he has ideas, and he compares these ideas. From comparing
and associating ideas, he makes a judgment and moves on to make another judgment. When
a person thinks deeper, he makes a new judgment from previous judgments. From this
judgment, he offers a new idea. A man who thinks deeply unto his judgments cannot rest
content with a mass of unrelated judgments. He has to think deeper to put together related
ideas and judgments together in an orderly manner and discard unrelated judgment and
ideas. In doing so, he challenges his mind to come up with solutions to problems he is
confronted with. We call this process as reasoning. Yet, all these acts are but thinking.
 TEACHER’S INSIGHT
Being a form of science, logic investigates the formal structure of propositions
and arguments. Logic deals with inference, both mediate and immediate in
order to see the relation between propositions and the premises. The scope of
logic ventures into topics such as fallacies and modalities, to the analysis of
reasoning such as probability and cause and effect relationship and the ideas
involving ordinary language,where formal logicis not explicit through ideas in
operative in the structure or arguments.
To sum up, Human Thought is a very vast ocean of uncharted channels(maboloc, Pascua,
Logic 2012). To make sound judgement, we need to use proper tools. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
said that “ from adrop of water a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a
Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other”. This power to know reality, how
and why things are, is a skill made possible by logical thingking
Logic, as “reason of reasonable” is about finding the true relationship between
things. We study causes, implications, conditions, and syntactical rules in order
to find out the truth about things. Logic serves as the skeletal structure that
enables the mind to grasp the actual states of affairs of the world.
.
LOGIC AND JUDGEMENT
• THE NATURE OF JUDGEMENT

Meaning is grasped by the act of judgment. Through judgment, we form

concepts. According to Kenneth Gallagher, judgment is the process of
seizing a present object in terms of the ideas we associate to it. Meaning,
therefore is the concept we assign to the reality of an object. But the
validity of a concept does not rely alone in our senses. The senses serve as
a link to the reality of the world, but the world exists as a disorganized set
of raw data. In the process of thinking , therefore the mind organizes the
data that pass through the senses. This results to the formation of an
insight. An Insight is a meaning that one arrives at after relating or
associating the data that enter the mind. The mind, in this regard is a kind
of an instrument. It synthesizes the data to form concepts. Concepts help
us picture out reality. Logic provides the mechanism, or in computer
parlace, the software that systemizes the act of judging.
LOGIC MEANING JUDGEMENT IDEA- MIND THROUGH SENSES CONCEPT
 LOGIC AND THOUGHT
• By definition, logic is the process by which we systematize our way of
knowing the thruth.
• Science requires the existence of some evidence or proof to validate its
claims.
• Logic, as science, determines the accuracy of our judgements, and uses in
a systematic way certain principles, rules and methods.

The physicist Niels Bohr, who helped create the atom bonb, once said, “no, you are
not thinking, you are just being logical.”

TEACHER’S INSIGHT
In making judgments, we speak of the most logical judgment. This judgment must be one that adheres or
conforms to reason. The validity of a choice is dependent on the efficacy of a method used. In this case, it is
the logical method. Logic, therefore eneables us to reach avalid or legitimate judgment
Relate to Practice 1:
 LOGIC AND COMMON SENSE
Common Sense refers tour capacity to make judgement based on perceived
knowledge. This knowledge is naturally and universally accepted. Common
sense dictates that data and facts do not lie, and so, as the senses picture them
out, a valid judgement is arrived at.

GE Moore, a pioneer in 20th century analytic philosopy and who is also famous
for his essay , “ A Defense of common sense”, lists some very obvious thruths,
such “There exist at this time a living human body which is my body”, “My Body
has existed continuously on or near the Earth, at various distances from or in
contact with each other existing things, including other living human beings”,
and may others. He asserts in his essay that these statements are obvious to
the human intellect and ae held to be generally and naturally true
 Any logical Judgement must always consider the laws of common sense, for
instance, when scientist consider venturing into space, they need to understand
the data and the laws of physics in designing the best possible space craft. A
mistake, a lapse in common sense could result to a lapse in judgement. Scientist
need to consider the pull of the earth, the gravitational force of heavenly
bodies, the absence of oxygen in the atmosphere, etc. mistakes occur because
of man’s inability to make a correct judgement on what seems to be obvious;
that to much heat can destroy any object, that the absence of oxygen can
annihilate any life for, that the pull of gravity can cause any object to fall, among
others.
Reference: CHRISTOPHER RYAN B. MABOLOC AND ATTY. EDGAR B. PASCUA II;
REVISED EDITION ELEMENTS OF LOGIC, AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH; PAGES 2-
7, PUBLISHED BY REX BOOKSSTORE MANILA PHILIPPINES ;2012
 Self Reflection :
Answer the following as best as you can. Directions: State if each is a common
sense statement. Explain why.

I am a human being.

My brother is an engineer.

Nigeria is a beautiful country

The sky is bright

Manila is 7, 000 miles away from Stockholm

• Thank you gif