IT NOTES

Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipu-
late data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered
to be a subset of information and communications technology (ICT).
Information and communication technology or (ICT) is an extensional term for information tech-
nology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecom-
munications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise
software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to access, store, trans-
mit and manipulate information.

Quantum Computing
What is Quantum computing?
Quantum computing is a new way of computing that uses the principles of quantum mechan-
ics to perform calculations. In traditional computing, data is processed using bits, which are ei-
ther a 0 or a 1. But in quantum computing, the data is processed using quantum bits or qubits,
which can be both a 0 and a 1 at the same time. This property of qubits is called superposition,
which allows for multiple calculations to be performed simultaneously, making quantum comput-
ing exponentially faster than traditional computing for certain types of problems.

Foundational Concepts of Quantum Mechanics

1. Wave-Particle Duality: Small objects exhibit both particle and wave characteristics.
2. Quantum Superposition: Particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously until mea-
sured.
3. Entanglement: Linked particles affect each other regardless of distance.
4. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: The position and speed of a particle cannot both be
known with perfect accuracy simultaneously.

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Quantum Science and Tech
Potential socio-economic impacts of quantum computing:
Impact on society:
1. Privacy and Data Security: Quantum computing’s ability to break current encryption rais-
es privacy and data security concerns. Governments, businesses, and individuals must
adapt by developing quantum-resistant encryption and secure communication protocols.
2. Disruption of Industries and Jobs: Quantum computing can disrupt industries like fi-
nance, healthcare, and transportation, introducing efficiency but also potential job
displacement.
1. Workforce preparation is vital to mitigate negative employment impacts.
3. Ethical Considerations: Ethical concerns surrounding responsible use, equitable ac-
cess, and potential misuse of quantum technology must be addressed with clear frame-
works and guidelines.
4. Digital Divide: Widespread quantum computing may worsen the digital divide. Ensuring
equitable access to resources and education is essential to prevent further social and eco-
nomic disparities.
Economic impact
1. Scientific advancements: Quantum computing could accelerate scientific research by sim-
ulating complex quantum systems, revolutionizing drug discovery, materials science,
and climate modelling.
1. This can lead to breakthroughs in healthcare, energy, and environmental protec-
tion, benefiting society at large.
2. Faster data analysis: Quantum computers excel at specific types of calculations, allowing
for significantly faster data analysis. This speed boost is vital for addressing big data chal-
lenges, particularly those involving large datasets generated at high speeds.
3. Enhanced machine learning: Quantum computing enhances machine learning, optimiz-
ing algorithms efficiently, particularly in computer vision for faster and more accurate
image and video analysis.
1. Generative AI, offers better real-time recommendations, benefiting driverless

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 cars and digital public services.
4. Optimization for complex problems: Quantum computers can solve complex optimiza-
tion problems much faster than classical computers. This capability is essential for tackling
intricate analytics challenges, resulting in more efficient solutions for complex sys-
tems.
5. Advancements in industrialization: Quantum computing fuels Industry 4.0 and beyond,
powering technologies like digital twins. It boosts the efficiency of distributed computing,
federated learning, IoT, blockchain, and more, yielding higher-quality results.
2030. For instance, adopting quantum tech could add $280-310 billion to India’s
economy by 2030.
6. Process efficiency in digital transformation: Quantum computing’s real-time data analy-
sis capabilities can accelerate process automation within organizations.
1. This means that tasks can be automated more quickly and efficiently, contributing to
overall digital transformation efforts.
Challenges Associated with Quantum Computing:
1. Error Correction: Develop effective error correction techniques, as quantum computers
are susceptible to errors due to their inherent sensitivity.
2. Cost of Implementation: Quantum computers and their infrastructure are expensive to
develop and maintain which may hinder widespread adoption, limiting access to quantum
computing resources.
3. Lack of Skilled Workforce: There is a shortage of professionals with expertise in quantum
computing which may impede the effective utilization of quantum technologies.
4. Ethical and Security Concerns: Addressing ethical considerations surrounding quantum
computing, especially in fields like cryptography and AI.
1. Ensuring responsible use and preventing malicious applications to avoid poten-
tial security threats.
5. Integration with Classical Systems: Developing effective interfaces and integration mech-
anisms between quantum and classical computing systems.
1. Seamless integration is essential for practical applications in hybrid computing
environments.
6. Environmental Impact: Quantum computers require extremely low temperatures, con-
tributing to high energy consumption.
1. Addressing the environmental impact and energy efficiency of quantum computing
systems is crucial for sustainable implementation.
Ethical Considerations of Quantum Computing:
1. Misinformation and Bias: Risk of AI algorithms amplifying biases, leading to unfair out-
comes.
2. Privacy Infringement: Potential for more intrusive data analysis; robust privacy protec-
tion needed.
3. Autonomous Weaponry: Concerns about creating independent, life-or-death deci-
sion-making weapons.
4. Societal Repercussions: Potential disruptions in employment, economy, and social dy-
namics.
5. Technical and Security Challenges: Ethical issues related to decoherence, error correc-
tion, and security implications.

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Government Initiatives:
Initiatives Description
National Quantum Mission To seed, nurture, and scale up scientific and industrial R&D and create
(2023) a vibrant & innovative ecosystem in Quantum Technology.
Quantum Enabled Science
A research program to build quantum capabilities.
& Technology (QuEST)
Quantum Computing Ap- To accelerate quantum computing-led research and development and
plications Lab (QCAL) enable new scientific discoveries.

National Mission on quantum technologies and applications: The Government in its 2021
budget allocated INR 8000 Crore towards the National Mission on quantum technologies and
applications to spur developments in quantum computing, cryptography, communications, and
material science.
 Quantum Computing Laboratory: In December 2021, the Indian Army set up a quantum
computing laboratory and an AI centre at a military engineering institute at Mhow, Mad-
hya Pradesh. It is also backed by the National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS).
 Quantum Communication Lab: The Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT)
launched a quantum communication lab in October 2021. It can support more than 100
km of standard optical fibre.
 Collaborations: The Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DIAT) and the Centre
for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) agreed to collaborate and develop
quantum computers.
 I-HUB Quantum Technology Foundation: The Department of Science and Technology and
about 13 research groups from IISER Pune launched I-HUB Quantum Technology Foun-
dation (I-HUB QTF) to further enhance the development of quantum tech.

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Cloud Computing
It is the delivery of computing services—including servers, storage, databases, networking, soft-
ware, analytics, and intelligence—over the Internet (“the cloud”) to offer faster innovation, flexible
resources, and economies of scale.

The Government of India is embracing cloud computing technology for expanding its e-governance
initiatives throughout the country. In India, the focus of e-governance is to reduce corruption and
ensure the government schemes are reaching people living in rural areas of the country. Further,
e-governance services ensure quicker service delivery and eliminate the involvement of middlemen
who tend to capitalize on loopholes for quick money by means of exploiting people.
In order to utilise and harness the benefits of Cloud Computing, Government of India has embarked
upon an ambitious initiative – “GI Cloud” which has been named as ‘MeghRaj’. This initiative is to
implement various components including governance mechanisms to ensure proliferation of Cloud
in the government. The focus of this initiative is to accelerate delivery of e-services in the country
while optimizing ICT spending of the Government.
MeghRaj will ensure optimum utilization of the infrastructure and speed up the development and
deployment of eGov applications. The architectural vision of GI Cloud encompasses a set of discrete
cloud computing environments spread across multiple locations, built on existing or new (augment-
ed) infrastructure, following a set of common protocols, guidelines and standards issued by the
Government of India.

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Advantages:
• Seamless Connectivity: Cloud-based software offers companies from all sectors a number
of benefits, including the ability to use software from any device either via a native app or a
browser. As a result, users can carry their files and settings over to other devices in a com-
pletely seamless manner.
• Higher Accessibility: Cloud computing is far more than just accessing files on multiple
devices. Thanks to cloud computing services, users can check their email on any computer
and even store files using services such as Dropbox and Google Drive.
• Improved Disaster Recovery: Cloud computing services also make it possible for users to
back up their music, files, and photos, ensuring those files are immediately available in the
event of a hard drive crash.
• Cost-Saving: It also offers big businesses huge cost-saving potential. Before the cloud be-
came a viable alternative, companies were required to purchase, construct, and maintain
costly information management technology and infrastructure.
• Scalability: can be improvised to cater to increased demand, say in SMART city mission
• Companies can swap costly server centers and IT departments for fast Internet connec-
tions, where employees interact with the cloud online to complete their tasks.
• The cloud structure allows individuals to save storage space on their desktops or laptops.
• Increased Collaboration and flexibility: It also lets users upgrade software more quickly
because software companies can offer their products via the web rather than through more
traditional, tangible methods involving discs or flash drives.
• For example, Adobe customers can access applications in its Creative Suite through an
Internet-based subscription. This allows users to download new versions and fixes to their
programs easily.
• Environmentally friendly: Cloud computing reduces a company’s carbon footprint by
minimizing energy consumption and carbon emissions by more than 30%. For small busi-
nesses, the decreased energy usage can reach up to 90% = A huge money saver.

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Limitations:
• With all of the speed, efficiencies, and innovations that come with cloud computing, there
are naturally risks.
• Security has always been a big concern with the cloud especially when it comes to sensitive
medical records and financial information.
• While regulations force cloud computing services to shore up their security and compliance
measures, it remains an ongoing issue. Encryption protects vital information, but if that
encryption key is lost, the data disappears.
• Servers maintained by cloud computing companies may fall victim to natural disasters,
internal bugs, and power outages, too.
• The geographical reach of cloud computing cuts both ways: A blackout in California could
paralyze users in New York, and a firm in Texas could lose its data if something causes its
Maine-based provider to crash.
• As with any technology, there is a learning curve for both employees and managers. But
with many individuals accessing and manipulating information through single portal, inad-
vertent mistakes can transfer across an entire system.
• Maintenance costs: While the upfront or capital cost for the cloud-based server is very low
compared to traditional hosting, the cloud server requires the same amount to be paid each
month to maintain both servers as well as data.
• Internet connectivity: For cloud-based services, consistent internet connection is import-
ant because if any one of the cloud-based service providers loses connectivity, then the
company will be out of business until that internet connection returns.
• A common argument from critics is that cloud computing cannot succeed because it means
that organizations must lose control of their data, such as an email provider that stores
data in multiple locations around the world. A large regulated company, like a bank, might
be required to store data in the United States.
Cloud computing in Indian Governance:
• E-Gram Panchayat
o The majority of the Indian population lives in villages, and the Panchayats represent
the face of governance for these villagers. To improve the quality of governance, the
Indian government initiated an e-governance scheme known as ePanchayat to sim-
plify and enhance internal government operations. The module was constructed in 4
phases of e-governance.
• Indian Railways on Cloud
o Governed by the Central Railway Ministry of India, the Indian railway network is the
largest rail network in Asia and second-largest rail network in the world. A research
carried by the railway ministry says out of 17 million passengers every day, only 1
million passengers carry confirmed rail tickets. This results in substantial monetary
loss. To avoid loss, the Indian government decided to implement cloud technology
for Indian railways. Today, the central government maintains the railway data on the
cloud.
• Kisan Suvidha
o The Indian government came up with the portal Kisan Suvidha to help farmers with
the relevant information instantly. It delivers farmers with detailed knowledge on
weather, market prices, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, agriculture machinery, dealers,
agro advisories, plant protection and IPM practices. It notifies them with extreme

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 weather conditions and the changing market price.
• DigiLocker
o DigiLocker is the public cloud-based storage introduced by the Indian government
for the citizens of India. It is much more than an online drive where you upload
your documents to be accessed depending on your convenience. The documents are
digitally verified and signed by the government of India in a few seconds with an
authentic DigiLocker verification seal. With more than 57.13 million users and 4.27
billion issued documents, DigiLocker has proved to be one of the biggest success sto-
ries of cloud in the government.
• eHospital
o eHospital is the cloud-based healthcare projected implemented by the government
of India to ease the process of healthcare management. The system was designed to
speed up services like online registration, payment of fees and appointment, online
diagnostic reports, checking on the availability of blood online, etc. This hospital
model assigns a unique identification number to every patient at the time of regis-
tration. The medical history of a particular patient can be accessed using the num-
ber.

Third-gen web (Web 3.0)

What is World Wide Web?
It is a collection of websites or web pages stored in web servers and connected to local comput-
ers through the internet.

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How India can benefit from the third-generation web:
Area of Benefit Example
Intellectual Proper-Digital tokens minted by Web 3 platforms can enable India’s handicraft
ty Rights Protectionindustry to secure their innovations
Rapid Dissemina- Web 3-based instruction tools can enable master artisans to share their in-
tion of Grassroots novations with fellow members, improving the economic fortunes of crafts-
Innovations men and artisan communities in north-east, western and peninsular India
Web 3.0 can be used to provide data analytics and insights in rural devel-
Deployment in Ru-
opment projects MGNREGA, mapping the water use habits of communities,
ral Areas
and improving early warning systems for floods
Web 3.0 analytics systems can be used to analyze community data gen-
Community Data
erated by IoT-enabled development programs like the Jal Jeevan Mission,
Analytics
providing valuable insights
Tokenization for India’s National Blockchain Strategy 2021 proposes to explore tokenization
Development Pro- and apply blockchain solutions for development programs, making Web 3.0
grams a useful tool for achieving this goal
Creation of dis- Native digital tokens, Central Bank Digital Currency and cryptocurrencies
tributed economic would be used for monetary circulation, making the transaction fast, trace-
system able and effortless.
Web3’s non-custodial wallets function as digital passports for users to
Creation of an own- access blockchain-enabled transaction platforms. Using these, creators
ership economy themselves control their content. Fundamentally, they work as digital proof
of identity.

Challenges in the deployment of Web 3.0:

• Limited awareness and understanding of the technology
• Inadequate infrastructure
• A lack of technical expertise
• Absence of clear regulations and policies for Web 3.0 implementation
• Issues related to privacy and data security
• High cost of hardware and software needed for Web 3.0 deployment

What is Web 5.0?

Being developed by Dorsey’s Bitcoin business unit, The Block Head (TBH).
• Simply put, Web 5.0 is Web 2.0 plus Web 3.0 that will allow users to ‘own their identi-
ty’ on the Internet and ‘control their data’.
• Both Web 3.0 and Web 5.0 envision an Internet without threat of censorship – from
governments or big tech, and without fear of significant outages.
• The aim is to return “ownership of data and identity to individuals”.

What Are VR AR MR XR And its Differences?

Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), Mixed Reality (MR), and Extended Reality (XR) are
terms used to describe immersive technologies that allow users to interact with digital content in a
simulated environment. VR is fully immersive, while AR overlays digital information onto the real

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world. MR combines both VR and AR elements, creating a hybrid environment. XR is a catch-all term
that encompasses VR, AR, and MR.
What is Reality?

In the fast-evolving world of technology, the term “reality” has taken on a new meaning with the
advent of virtual, augmented, mixed, and extended reality (VR, AR, MR, and XR). These technologies
blur the line between what is real and what is not, creating a whole new world of possibilities for
people to experience.
VR (Virtual Reality) is a completely simulated environment, created through the use of computer
technology, that immerses users in a completely artificial environment.
AR (Augmented Reality) is the integration of digital information with the physical world, where
virtual objects are superimposed onto real-world scenes.
MR (Mixed Reality) is a hybrid of VR and AR, blending virtual objects with real-world surroundings
in a way that enhances the user’s experience.
XR (Extended Reality) is a broad term that encompasses all forms of VR, AR, and MR.

Virtual Reality
Virtual Reality origins can be traced back to the 1960s when computer scientist Ivan Sutherland
developed a prototype head-mounted display (HMD) capable of displaying basic wireframe
graphics. Since then, VR technology has advanced significantly. Virtual Reality is using computer
technology to create a simulated environment that can be explored in 360 degrees. Unlike tradi-
tional interfaces, VR places the user inside the virtual environment to give an immersive experi-
ence.
Virtual Reality (VR) is an immersive technology that simulates a lifelike computer-generated en-
vironment, providing users with a profound sense of presence and the ability to interact with virtual
objects and surroundings. Individuals can be transported to virtual realms and encounters that are
visually and audibly convincing by donning a VR headset, which is often coupled with handheld con-
trollers or alternative input devices. Virtual Reality is an ever-changing technology that transports
users to new worlds and provides transformative experiences.
According to Statista, the global AR/VR market was worth US$ 28 billion in 2021 and is expected
to be worth US$ 250 billion by 2028. According to Research and Markets, the total augmented
reality and virtual reality market in India is expected to grow at a CAGR of 38.29% to US$ 14.07
billion by 2027, owing to increased smartphone penetration and widespread internet connectivity.
• Components:
o Hardware: Sensory Displays, Computer, Process Acceleration Cards, Tracking Sys-
tem, Input Devices.
o Software: 3D Modeling, 2D Graphics, Digital Sound Editing, VR Simulation.
• Working: Virtual reality simulates a realistic three-dimensional environment using a
combination of hardware and software.
o VR technology is built on an end-to-end mechanism that replaces the natural envi-
ronment with a convincingly realistic simulation.
o This simulation is extremely realistic. Modern AI algorithms are commonly used to
best adapt the digital world to the real world.
o The task of these is to project new and familiar elements onto a mathematically
defined surface. As a result, users are presented with a virtual world that appears to
be deceptively real.
o Real-time tracking of the user’s movements and gestures is provided by the hard-

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 ware.
o To simulate a fully immersive experience, the software creates a digital environ-
ment using computer-generated graphics, audio, and other sensory inputs.
Types of Virtual Reality
• Non-Immersive Virtual Reality: It is a type of virtual reality in which you control the
activities within the experience using a computer. Non-immersive VR experiences include
video games such as Warcraft and Dota.
o In these games, interaction in the virtual environment is an indirect one, as one does
not experience the sense of being actually in it, and the platform does not fully block
your field of view.
• Semi-immersive Virtual Reality: Digital components overlay real-world objects in
semi-immersive VR. As a result, these virtual elements can be used in the same way that
real objects can.
o Common examples are pilot training or the deepening of technical skills.
• Fully Immersive Virtual Reality: In a fully immersive Virtual Reality, users perceive only
the virtual environment. During use, there is no fixed point of reference to the real world.
Fully immersive VR technology is currently found primarily in the gaming industry.
Advantages of Virtual Reality
• Time flexibility and location independence: Virtual Reality makes it possible to hold
meetings, training sessions, or conferences in virtual rooms. This eliminates the need to
travel to the respective locations.
• Supports the personalisation of virtual experiences: Haptic and auditory stimuli are
important in this context. In the long run, VR should allow for the customization of the user
experience. This would open up entirely new possibilities in the areas of marketing, enter-
tainment, and education.
• Enhance Collaboration: VR could make collaboration in companies much easier. At the
same time, employees from various locations would be able to meet directly in the digital
space.
• Immersive Gaming Experience: Moreover, Virtual Reality technology has the potential to
transform the entertainment industry, creating immersive gaming experiences that allow
players to become fully immersed in a virtual world.
Applications of Virtual Reality
• Industries: VR simulations have a wide range of applications, including training simula-
tion, prototyping, designing, and testing tools and objects.
o Examples: Driving simulators, flight simulators for pilots, and combat simula-
tors for military personnel are some of the most commonly used VR simulations in
the industrial domain.
• Healthcare: Virtual Reality is making a significant impact in healthcare. In 2021, the FDA
approved prescription-use EaseVRx for the treatment of pain reduction in adults.
o The system uses cognitive behavioural therapy and other behavioural principles
such as deep relaxation, attention-shifting, and others, to aid in the reduction of
chronic pain.
• Education: VR headsets are also useful in blocking out visual and auditory distractions,
allowing teachers to interact one-on-one with students.
o For example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a surge in virtual learning,
with many classes held via online meeting platforms.

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 • Social Interaction: Virtual Reality enables interaction with other users which provides an
opportunity to create social connections. Users can participate in virtual cognition train-
ing to improve their social skills, such as emotion recognition, social attribution, and ana-
logical reasoning.
• Travel and tourism: Users can enjoy immersive tourism in simulated environments
based on real landscapes or locations with virtual tourism.
o Virtual museum visits and navigating areas using apps such as Google Street View
are examples of VR tourism.
Limitations of Virtual Reality
• Privacy concern: A key VR privacy issue is the highly personal nature of the collected data
i.e., biometric data such as iris or retina scans, fingerprints and handprints, face geometry,
and voiceprints.
• Technological limitations: Because of the lack of standardisation, it is difficult to trou-
bleshoot bugs and receive proper support for any issues. Other issues include Virtual Real-
ity development software tends to take up a lot of data space on computers and has high
power consumption.
• Cybersickness:Cybersickness is a phenomenon where users will feel symptoms similar to
motion sickness (i.e., nausea, and dizziness) as a result of using a VR device.
o A conflict occurs when there is an excessive mismatch between the motion a user
perceives visually and the lack of the corresponding movement in their body.
• Accessibility: The cost of VR headsets and VR-ready computers on the market is still high-
er making this out of reach for most people.
• Security concern: If a hacker gains access to a VR headset’s motion-tracking data, they can
potentially use it to create a digital replica (also known as deep fakes) and thus undermine
Virtual Reality security.
India and Virtual Reality
• Some of the startups focused on virtual reality are:
o Look Mobility: World’s first foldable VR headset.
o AbsentiaVR: VR Headset.
o Merxius: RealSim Editor or RED is a flagship product, such as Photoshop, for virtual
reality.
o Xenium: Live VR streaming for enterprise and education.
• Government Initiatives:
o Consortium for VR/AR/MR Engineering Mission in India’ (CAVE): Indian Insti-
tute of Technology Madras launched the country’s first consortium for virtual reality
called CAVE.
 Main Objective: To enable members to create new advanced technologies
and applications in Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, Mixed Reality (XR),
and haptics together.

Augmented Reality
Augmented Reality (AR) is a real-world augmented experience in which simulated digital im-
agery is superimposed or mixed with the real world as seen through a camera or display, such as a
smartphone and heads-up display (HUD).
Augmented Reality (AR) is the state-of-the-art technology that superimposes computer-generat-
ed elements on the physical world, improving users’ perception and interaction with their sur-

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roundings. Individuals can seamlessly blend virtual content with reality by using AR-capable devic-
es such as smartphones or AR glasses, creating a seamless and captivating experience.
The size of the global augmented reality and virtual reality market stood at US$ 28 billion in
2021 and is projected to reach US$ 250 billion by 2028. Similarly, its market size in India is ex-
pected to grow at 38.29%CAGR to US$ 14.07 billion by 2027, mostly driven by increased smart-
phone usage and widespread internet connectivity.
• History: AR was invented by Morton Heilig in 1957, followed by Ivan Sutherland who
developed the first head-mounted display system in 1968.
o Since then, the technology has come a long way, touching upon almost every indus-
try from NASA leveraging Augmented Reality to assist in providing better naviga-
tion during test flights to Google developing AR glasses for immersive experiences.
• Components:
o Software: Artificial intelligence, AR software, and Processing.
o Hardware: Processor, display, sensors, and input devices, AR-capable devices such
as smartphones or AR glasses.
• Working:
o AR is powered by a combination of hardware, software, and sensors. The process
begins with a device equipped with a camera and sensors, such as a smartphone or
AR headset.
o The camera records the user’s perspective of the physical world, while the sensors
record information about the user’s position and orientation.
o The software analyses camera input and sensor data to determine the user’s loca-
tion and where virtual objects should be placed in the real world.
o The digital content is then rendered and overlayed onto the live camera feed, align-
ing it with the physical environment.
o This blending of real and virtual elements creates the illusion that the virtual ob-
jects are physically present in the user’s surroundings.
o The user can interact with augmented reality by moving the device or interacting
with virtual objects via touch or gestures, providing a dynamic and immersive
experience.
• Difference from Virtual Reality: While both augmented reality and virtual reality are
designed to provide users with a simulated computer-generated 3D experience, VR tends
to replace the real world up to total immersion, while AR attempts to add the virtual by
projecting digital information on top of the environment already being experienced by the
users.
Types of Augmented Reality
• Marker-based AR: These apps are activated by unique physical images or markers cap-
tured by the smartphone camera to place digital components on top of it. A marker can be
an object or a visual, such as a logo or QR code.
• Markerless AR: They do not rely on markers and allow users to choose where the content
is displayed. These apps collect information about their surroundings using the camera,
GPS, compass, and accelerometer.
Significance of Augmented Reality
• AR enables people to process both the physical and digital worlds at the same time, elimi-
nating the need to mentally bridge the two. This improves our ability to absorb information
quickly and accurately, make decisions, and complete tasks quickly and efficiently.

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 • AR has proliferated into a variety of domains and proven its worth in revolutionising
them. For example, Augmented Reality algorithms are used to assist surgeons during med-
ical procedures.
• Augmented reality can increase brand awareness and boost sales, as per the commercial
perspectives.
Applications of Augmented Reality
• Retail: Augmented Reality enables retailers to meet customer demand, increase sales, and
improve operational efficiency. The technology allows customers to try products without
purchasing.
o Example: Virtual fitting rooms in stores: AR fitting mirrors are used in some
clothing stores. The AR-powered mirror-screen superimposes clothing on the cus-
tomer’s reflection, allowing them to adjust everything using simple gestures and
on-screen buttons.
• Education: Technology contributes to making educational tools more accessible and adapt-
able. Teachers can use visual representations to explain a particular topic.
o It employs sensory immersion, navigation, and information manipulation to
promote emotional mediators for improving the learning process and learning out-
comes.
• Manufacturing: AR enables rapid prototyping and remote assistance in maintenance
processes. It helps to streamline the manufacturing cluster while reducing the workload on
employees.
o AR applications extend into aerospace and defence manufacturing by ensuring
quality and standardising and digitising work instructions.
• Logistics: Augmented Reality can provide logistics providers with instant access to an-
ticipatory information at any time and from any location. This is critical for the precise
planning and execution of tasks such as delivery and load optimization, as well as for
providing higher levels of customer service.
o AR has the potential to improve freight transportation even further in areas like
completeness checks, international trade, and driver navigation.
• Healthcare: AR is widely used in medical education, diagnostics, surgery, and fitness.
o AR-powered diagnostics help contain the spread of the COVID-19 virus and provide
support during complex surgical procedures.
o With the help of AR, patients can see how the drug works in 3D in front of their eyes
instead of just reading long descriptions on the bottle.
• Defence: AR can be used for -
o Training soldiers, sailors, and pilots in a more immersive way akin to operational
environments.
o Helmet-mounted AR display to be beneficial in enhanced night vision, and tactical
information.
o Tactical Augmented Reality by mounting on drones, fighter jets, and reconnais-
sance aircraft.
• Navigation: An augmented reality navigation system essentially combines explicit navi-
gation information with real-world objects. Such systems have a wide range of applications,
including motorised navigation, pedestrian navigation, indoor navigation, and so on.
o Based on the intended destination, AR navigation generates a virtual path over the
real world using the user’s location and smartphone camera.

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Examples of Augmented Reality
• IKEA: The Swedish company,Ikea has developed The Place app, which allows shoppers to
use augmented reality with their smartphone’s camera to place pieces of furniture in their
homes to visualise exactly how the part would look in their setting.
• BMW: They use augmented reality to allow car buyers to walk into car dealerships and
customise cars of different colours or styles using their tablets or phones.
• Lenskart: India’s Lenskart.com, the largest eyeglasses retailer has implemented virtual
try-ons to help its customers choose the right frames.
• Restaurants: Giving diners the option of an augmented reality menu can speed up their
decision-making on what to order, improve customer satisfaction, and decrease the number
of complaints.
o One example is Menu.AR, which offers customers the option to see their dish in
augmented reality before ordering it via an app.
• Niantic’s Pokemon GO: It allows users to catch Pokemon by superimposing images of the
creatures within the real world. However, the real genius of the experience is GPS inte-
gration, the game detects your location and populates Pokemon for you to catch based on
where you live.
o As a result, some rare Pokemon can only be caught in certain parts of the world. This
structure led to Pokemon GO forums and communities to track rare Pokemon and
encouraged trades between users to catch them all.
Concerns and Challenges in Augmented Reality
• Privacy Concern: Using AR is risky because it can see what the users are doing.
o It collects a lot of information which can be a privacy concern if a hacker gains ac-
cess to a device.
• Creates confusion: Augmented Reality creates confusion between what’s real and what’s
generated by the computer by augmenting.
• Data Collection Challenges: Close collaboration between the customer subject matter
expert and the implementation data collection team is required for data collection. Visual
information gathering for a specific scene is time-consuming and requires multiple runs.
• The construction phase, which takes up a significant amount of time and money in the
project life cycle, is plagued by several issues, including increased errors and rework, la-
bour shortages, unqualified labour, an ineffective safety system, decision-making, and so on.
• Lack of legitimate Use Cases: The current R&D mainly focuses on the gaming and enter-
tainment world. They are yet to find applications that will make these technologies essen-
tial for consumers and businesses.
• Need for Cheaper Technology: AR products come with a heavy price tag with them that’s
why consumers are not ready for them as of now.

Metaverse
Metaverse refers to an immersive and persistent three-dimensional (3D) virtual realm that
is shared with many users. It spans various digital platforms and merges with the physical world,
allowing people to shop, work, play, and hang out together in real-time.
The metaverse is an immersive, three-dimensional virtual world in which users interact in re-
al-time across digital platforms, combining with the physical world. It represents the internet’s
transformation into an experience, intending to create a massively scalable, interoperable network.
It provides realistic settings for work, entertainment, socialisation, healthcare, and education,
which are made possible by virtual and augmented reality technology.

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Despite its potential, concerns such as privacy, technology constraints, and regulatory issues
are yet to be addressed. Experts continue to disagree on the future of the metaverse, with augment-
ed reality improvements predicted to play a large role in changing societal relations and increasing
human experiences.
• It represents an evolution of the Internet into a space where users do not just access con-
tent but are part of a real Internet experience.
• However, this concept extends beyond current digital interactions, aiming for a massively
scaled, interoperable network of real-time rendered 3D virtual worlds.
o These worlds can be explored simultaneously by nearly infinite users, each with
their own sense of presence.
• The metaverse also ensures the continuity of data, such as identity, history, entitlements,
objects, communications, and payments, across these virtual experiences.
• Examples: Roblox, Fortnite, Meta Horizon, Second Life, Minecraft, etc.
Working of the Metaverse

The metaverse operates as a digital ecosystem built on a variety of 3D technologies, real-time

collaboration software, and blockchain-based decentralised finance tools.
• Its functionality depends on the interoperability among virtual worlds, data portability,
governance, and user interfaces.
• This ecosystem allows for the creation of immersive, three-dimensional environments
where users can interact with each other and digital objects in real-time, much like they do
in the physical world but within a virtual space.
• The degree to which these elements are integrated and accessible will determine the over-
all experience and utility of the metaverse.
How to Access the Metaverse?
• Virtual reality creates a simulated 3D environment that users can interact with in a way
that mimics real-life experiences, typically accessed through a VR headset that encom-
passes the user’s field of vision.
o This technology allows for fully immersive interaction with the virtual environment,
aided by haptic feedback devices like gloves, vests, and full-body tracking suits.
• Augmented reality, on the other hand, overlays digital information in the real world, al-
lowing users to interact with both simultaneously.
o This less immersive experience can be accessed through devices like AR glasses,
which add digital elements to the user’s view of the real world.
• While VR and AR are important, the metaverse can also be experienced through browsers
or mobile devices connected to the internet, making it accessible in various ways depend-
ing on the level of immersion desired.
Applications of the Metaverse

Beyond gaming, the metaverse may lead to new developments in the fields of healthcare, educa-
tion, business, and the creative industries.
• Business and work: The metaverse introduces a novel approach to business and work
environments, enhancing comfort and cooperation.
o By using virtual avatars in immersive virtual reality settings, teams can experience a
sense of friendship comparable to real-life interactions in a conference room.
• Entertainment: Entertainment within the metaverse spans immersive video games and

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 virtual concerts, eliminating geographical constraints.
o Notably, Fortnite enables virtual attendance at concerts, showcasing the
metaverse’s capacity to host large-scale events without the need for physical pres-
ence.
• Socialisation: Social connections in the metaverse, facilitated by the immersive nature of
the VR-based internet, could surpass traditional online interactions, offering more en-
gaging and meaningful experiences.
• Healthcare: Innovations such as augmented reality displays, exemplified by Johns Hop-
kins Hospital’s use in surgeries, demonstrate the metaverse’s potential to improve effi-
ciency and outcomes in healthcare practices.
• Education: The metaverse holds significant promise for education, offering VR and AR-
based tools for training and learning.
• It enables students to participate in virtual lessons, an invaluable feature during disrup-
tions like the COVID-19 pandemic, ensuring continuity in education.
Metacrimes

Metacrimes are crimes that happen within the metaverse. These crimes are similar to cybercrimes
but have unique features that require new ways of reporting and investigating. One important as-
pect of meta crimes is the immersive VR experience, which makes negative interactions like harass-
ment more impactful. If there are no recording tools, it can be hard to gather evidence. Current user
controls in VR may not stop these incidents effectively.
Challenges Associated with the Metaverse
• Privacy: Privacy issues are at the forefront of the metaverse’s challenges, with the potential
for invasive data collection and violations of personal privacy being a significant con-
cern.
• Technological limitations: The metaverse’s development is currently hampered by its
reliance on expensive and, in some cases, theoretical technology, resulting in a world that
is not yet fully realised.
• Impact on real-world interactions: There’s a risk that the metaverse may discourage
real-world interpersonal interactions, leading to a preference for virtual existence.
o Reintegrating individuals who become deeply immersed in the virtual world into
real-world social settings poses a considerable challenge.
• Risk awareness: The immersive nature of VR experiences in the metaverse can make users
oblivious to potential risks in their immediate environment, such as hacking, theft, and
human rights violations.
• Lack of regulation: The metaverse operates in a largely unregulated space, which is
problematic given its cross-border nature and the need for international governance to
ensure safe and equitable use.

Surface web vs deep web vs dark web

What is the Surface Web?
Surface web refers to the easily available part of internet, which can be reached and used by ordi-
nary individuals. Surface Web is that portion of the World Wide Web that is readily available to the
general public and searchable with standard web search engines.
What is the Deep Web?

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The Deep Web is a section of the Internet that is inaccessible via search engines but can be accessed
via normal browsers. It is composed of “non-indexed” content that is unreachable by the web crawl-
ers used by Google, Bing, and other search engines to find and link pages.
Pages on the Deep Web are commonly protected by a login page, password, paywall, or other means
of limiting access, and are designed to be private. Deep Web pages include personal pages like web-
mail inboxes and account pages on various sites. They also include internal company data and sites
that are accessible via the Internet but protected by authentication.
The Deep Web dwarfs the Surface Web. In fact, 90-95% of the total Internet lies within the Deep
Web, compared to 5-10% in the Surface Web.
What is the Dark Web?

The Dark Web is a section of the Deep Web that is inaccessible via traditional web browsers. To ac-
cess Dark Web sites, it is necessary to use a Tor-enabled browser. Additionally, many Dark Web sites
are discoverable only via special search engines, following links from one site to another, or word
of mouth.
The Dark Web is primarily used to conceal illegal activities. Dark Web marketplaces offer the sale of
stolen data and credentials, firearms, drugs, and illegal services. The Dark Web is also where cyber-
criminal gangs commonly congregate and plan their attacks. This also makes it a valuable source of
information regarding emerging cybersecurity risks and data breaches.
However, the Dark Web isn’t all bad, and, in fact, the technology that makes it possible, Tor, was orig-
inally created by the U.S. government for legitimate purposes. The Dark Web is also used to protect
the anonymity of journalists, activists, whistleblowers, and other parties whose lives would be at
risk or would face censorship if they used traditional, non-anonymous sites to spread their work.

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What Is Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)?
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio waves to passively identify a
tagged object. It is used in several commercial and industrial applications, from tracking items along
a supply chain to keeping track of items checked out of a library.
Key Takeaways
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a type of passive wireless technology that allows
for tracking or matching of an item or individual.
• The system has two basic parts: tags and readers. The reader gives off radio waves and gets
signals back from the RFID tag, while the tag uses radio waves to communicate its identity
and other information.
• The technology has been approved since before the 1970s but has become much more
prevalent in recent years due to its usages in things like global supply chain management
and pet microchipping.
• RFID tags can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of data.
• Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be mounted on a
post or overhead. Reader systems can also be built into the architecture of a cabinet, room,
or building.
The reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back
from the RFID tag. Tags, which use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information
to nearby readers, can be passive or active. Passive RFID tags are powered by the reader and do not
have a battery. Active RFID tags are powered by batteries.
Uses

RFID systems use radio waves at several different frequencies to transfer data. In health care and
hospital settings, RFID technologies include the following applications:
• Inventory control
• Equipment tracking
• Out-of-bed detection and fall detection
• Personnel tracking
• Ensuring that patients receive the correct medications and medical devices
• Preventing the distribution of counterfeit drugs and medical devices
• Monitoring patients
• Providing data for electronic medical records systems

GNSS-based Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) system

Context: The introduction of the GNSS-based Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) system in India
aims to eliminate delays at toll plazas by allowing vehicles to pass without stopping, replacing
the current FASTag system.
• The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) has developed a GIS-based soft-
ware for real-time monitoring of congestion at toll plazas, starting with 100 plazas.
• The GNSS-based tolling system will charge users based on the distance travelled and
will eventually replace toll barriers, allowing for seamless traffic flow.
• Initially, it will operate alongside the FASTag system, with dedicated GNSS lanes at toll

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 plazas.
• Over time, the entire system will shift to GNSS-based tolling.

A GNSS-based Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) system leverages Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) technology to enable automatic, location-based toll collection on highways
without the need for physical toll booths.
Unlike traditional toll collection systems, where vehicles stop at toll gates, a GNSS-based ETC system
uses satellite positioning to determine the vehicle’s location and calculate toll charges based
on the distance travelled.

Key Features of the System

1. Vehicles must be equipped with GNSS-enabled On Board Units (OBUs) to be part of this toll col-
lection system.
2. The NHAI plans to integrate this system within the existing FASTag ecosystem, starting with a
hybrid model that supports both RFID-based and GNSS-based ETC simultaneously.
Significance of the GNSS-based ETC System

1. The system is designed to ensure smooth vehicle movement along National Highways by elimi-
nating physical toll booths.
2. It offers a barrier-free tolling experience, significantly reducing congestion and wait times.
3. It implements distance-based tolling, where users are charged solely for the segments of the high-
way they use.
4. it aims to enhance toll collection efficiency by minimizing revenue leakages and preventing toll
evasion.

What Is Near-Field Communication (NFC)?

Near-field communication (NFC) is a short-range wireless technology that makes your smartphone,
tablet, wearables, payment cards, and other devices even smarter. Near-field communication is the
ultimate technology solution for connectivity.
With NFC, you can transfer information between devices quickly and easily with a single touch—
whether paying bills, exchanging business cards, downloading coupons, or sharing a research paper.
Key Takeaways

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 • Near-field communication (NFC) is a short-range wireless connectivity technology that lets
NFC-enabled devices communicate with each other.
• Such devices include mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and wearables.
• NFC began in the payment-card industry and is evolving to include applications in numer-
ous industries worldwide.
• It can also let you share content, establish or confirm a wireless connection, pair devices,
connect Bluetooth-enabled devices and smartphones to other devices and computers and
establish connections between two networked machines or devices.
• NFC technology can operate in one of three primary modes: reader/writer, peer-to-peer, or
card emulation.
How Does Near-Field Communication Technology Work?

NFC technology works by combining four key elements: an NFC microchip within a device, which
acts as an antenna and receiver; a reader/writer that scans and allows NFC devices to access data;
an NFC software application on the device that can use data received by the NFC chip; and an in-
formation or communications service provider (ISP) that manages all device communications that
occur through the ISP.
NFC is an extension of RFID technology, which relies on radio waves to track goods, supplies, and
merchandise. NFC replaces RFID chips with microchips that have the ability to store and encrypt
information. While RFID devices are passive and so lack the ability to access information, NFC-ena-
bled devices do.

What Is Voice-Over-Internet Protocol (VoIP)?

Voice-over-Internet protocol (VoIP) is communications technology that allows users to interact by
audio through an Internet connection, rather than through an analog connection. Voice-over-Inter-
net Protocol converts the voice signal used in traditional phone technology into a digital signal that
travels through the Internet instead of through analog telephone lines.
Key Takeaways
• Voice-over-Internet protocol (VoIP) is a technology that lets users make calls using a broad-
band Internet connection instead of a standard phone line.
• VoIP technology converts the voice signal used in traditional phone calls into a digital signal
that travels via the Internet rather than analog phone lines.
• Because calls are being made over the Internet, they are essentially free when made wher-
ever the Internet is available.
• The traditional telephone industry was hit hard by the VoIP boom, with many users aban-
doning it as some of its services have become nearly obsolete.

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What is 5G?
A: 5G is the 5th generation mobile network. It is a new global wireless standard after
1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. 5G enables a new kind of network that is designed to con-
nect virtually everyone and everything together including machines, objects, and devices.
5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra low latency,
more reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a more uniform user experi-
ence to more users. Higher performance and improved efficiency empower new user experiences
and connects new industries.
The previous generations of mobile networks are 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G.
First generation - 1G
1980s: 1G delivered analog voice.
Second generation - 2G
Early 1990s: 2G introduced digital voice (e.g. CDMA- Code Division Multiple Access).
Third generation - 3G
Early 2000s: 3G brought mobile data (e.g. CDMA2000).
Fourth generation - 4G LTE
2010s: 4G LTE ushered in the era of mobile broadband.
1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G all led to 5G, which is designed to provide more connectivity than was ever
available before.
5G is a unified, more capable air interface. It has been designed with an extended capacity to en-
able next-generation user experiences, empower new deployment models and deliver new ser-
vices.
With high speeds, superior reliability and negligible latency, 5G will expand the mobile ecosystem
into new realms. 5G will impact every industry, making safer transportation, remote healthcare,
precision agriculture, digitized logistics — and more — a reality.

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LAN vs WAN vs MAN

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What is the Internet of Things (IoT)?
The term IoT, or Internet of Things, refers to the collective network of connected devices and the
technology that facilitates communication between devices and the cloud, as well as between the
devices themselves.
A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal with
a biochip transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire pres-
sure is low, or any other natural or man-made object that can be assigned an Internet Protocol
address and is able to transfer data over a network.
How does IoT work?
An IoT ecosystem consists of web-enabled smart devices that use embedded systems -- such as
processors, sensors and communication hardware -- to collect, send and act on data they acquire
from their environments.
What are the benefits of IoT to organizations?
IoT offers several benefits to organizations. Some benefits are industry-specific and some are ap-
plicable across multiple industries. Common benefits for businesses include the following:

• Monitors overall business processes.

• Improves the customer experience.
• Saves time and money.
• Enhances employee productivity.
• Provides integration and adaptable business models.
• Enables better business decisions.
• Generates more revenue.

What Is Big Data?

Big data refers to the large, diverse sets of information that grow at ever-increasing rates. It encom-
passes the volume of information, the velocity or speed at which it is created and collected, and the
variety or scope of the data points being covered (known as the “three v’s” of big data). Big data
often comes from data mining and arrives in multiple formats.
• Big data is a term for data sets that are so large or complex that traditional data processing
application software is inadequate to deal with them.
• “Big data” refers to the use of predictive analytics, user behavior analytics, or certain other
advanced data analytics methods that extract value from data.
• Big data is a great quantity of diverse information that arrives in increasing volumes and
with ever-higher velocity.
• Big data can be structured (often numeric, easily formatted and stored) or unstructured
(more free-form, less quantifiable).
• Nearly every department in a company can utilize findings from big data analysis, but han-
dling its clutter and noise can pose problems.
• Big data can be collected from publicly shared comments on social networks and websites,
voluntarily gathered from personal electronics and apps, through questionnaires, product
purchases, and electronic check-ins.
• Big data is most often stored in computer databases and is analyzed using software specifi-
cally designed to handle large, complex data sets.
• Big data can be understood as the consolidation and centralization of public data inputs from

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 various spheres of activities like commercial, consumer based, census, or even Aadhar con-
trolled personal information.
Facts:
• Almost 90% of the world’s data today was generated during the past two years, with 2.5
quintillion bytes of data added each day
• Approximately 90% of it is unstructured

What Is a Blockchain?
Blockchain technology was first outlined in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta, two re-
searchers who wanted to implement a system where document timestamps could not be tampered
with. But it wasn’t until almost two decades later, with the launch of Bitcoin in January 2009, that
blockchain had its first real-world application.
Blockchain defined: Blockchain is a shared, immutable ledger that facilitates the process of re-
cording transactions and tracking assets in a business network. An asset can be tangible (a house,
car, cash, land) or intangible (intellectual property, patents, copyrights, branding). Virtually any-
thing of value can be tracked and traded on a blockchain network, reducing risk and cutting costs
for all involved.
Key elements of a blockchain

• Distributed ledger technology

• Immutable records
• Smart contracts (To speed transactions, a set of rules — called a smart contract — is stored
on the blockchain and executed automatically.)

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How blockchain works

• As each transaction occurs, it is recorded as a “block” of data

• Each block is connected to the ones before and after it
• Transactions are blocked together in an irreversible chain: a blockchain

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Cryptocurrency
A cryptocurrency is a digital asset designed to work as a medium of exchange wherein individual
coin ownership records are stored in a ledger existing in a form of a computerized database.
It uses strong cryptography to secure transaction records, to control the creation of additional
coins, and to verify the transfer of coin ownership. It typically does not exist in physical form (like
paper money) and is typically not issued by a central authority.
Cryptocurrencies typically use decentralized control as opposed to centralized digital currency
and central banking systems.

Why is it in demand?
1. Funds transfer between two parties will be easy without the need of third party like credit/
debit cards or banks.
2. It is a cheaper alternative compared to other online transactions.
3. Payments are safe and secured and offer an unprecedented level of anonymity.
4. Modern cryptocurrency systems come with a user “wallet” or account address which is
accessible only by a public key and pirate key.
5. The private key is only known to the owner of the wallet.
6. Funds transfers are completed with minimal processing fees.

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Significance of Cryptocurrencies
1. Corruption Check: As blocks run on a peer-to-peer network, it helps keep corruption in
check by tracking the flow of funds and transactions.
2. Time Effective: Cryptocurrencies can help save money and substantial time for the remit-
ter and the receiver, as it is conducted entirely on the Internet, runs on a mechanism that
involves very less transaction fees and is almost instantaneous.
3. Cost Effective: Intermediaries such as banks, credit card and payment gateways draw al-
most 3% from the total global economic output of over $100 trillion, as fees for their ser-
vices.
4. Integrating blockchain into these sectors could result in hundreds of billions of dollars in
savings.

Concerns over Cryptocurrencies

1. Sovereign guarantee: Cryptocurrencies pose risks to consumers. They do not have any
sovereign guarantee and hence are not legal tender.
2. Market volatility: Their speculative nature also makes them highly volatile. For instance,
the value of Bitcoin fell from USD 20,000 in December 2017 to USD 3,800 in November
2018.
3. Risk in security: A user loses access to their cryptocurrency if they lose their private key
(unlike traditional digital banking accounts, this password cannot be reset).
4. Malware threats: In some cases, these private keys are stored by technical service provid-
ers (cryptocurrency exchanges or wallets), which are prone to malware or hacking.
5. Money laundering: Cryptocurrencies are more vulnerable to criminal activity and money
laundering. They provide greater anonymity than other payment methods since the public
keys engaging in a transaction cannot be directly linked to an individual.
6. Regulatory bypass: A central bank cannot regulate the supply of cryptocurrencies in the
economy. This could pose a risk to the financial stability of the country if their use becomes
widespread.
7. Power consumption: Since validating transactions is energy-intensive, it may have adverse
consequences for the country’s energy security (the total electricity use of bitcoin mining,
in 2018, was equivalent to that of mid-sized economies such as Switzerland).
Way Forward
1. Regulation is the Solution: Regulation is needed to prevent serious problems, to ensure
that cryptocurrencies are not misused, and to protect unsuspecting investors from exces-
sive market volatility and possible scams.
The regulation needs to be clear, transparent, coherent and animated by a vision of what it
seeks to achieve.
2. Clarity on Crypto-currency definition: A legal and regulatory framework must first
define crypto-currencies as securities or other financial instruments under the relevant
national laws and identify the regulatory authority in charge.
3. Strong KYC Norms: Instead of a complete prohibition on cryptocurrencies, the govern-
ment shall rather regulate the trading of cryptocurrencies by including stringent KYC
norms, reporting and taxability.
4. Ensuring Transparency: Record keeping, inspections, independent audits, investor griev-
ance redressal and dispute resolution may also be considered to address concerns around
transparency, information availability and consumer protection.

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 5. Igniting the Entrepreneurial Wave: Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain technology can
reignite the entrepreneurial wave in India’s start up ecosystem and create job opportunities
across different levels, from blockchain developers to designers, project managers, business
analysts, promoters and marketers.

What are non-fungible tokens (NFT)?

An NFT is a unique, irreplaceable token that can be used to prove ownership of digital assets
such as music, artwork, even tweets and memes.
Anything that can be converted into a digital form can be an NFT.
• Everything from your drawings, photos, videos, GIF, music, in-game items, selfies, and even
a tweet can be turned into an NFT, which can then be traded online using cryptocurrency.
What makes NFTs unique from other digital forms?
It is backed by Blockchain technology.
• NFT transactions are recorded on blockchains, which is a digital public ledger, with most
NFTs being a part of the Ethereum blockchain.
How do NFTs work?
NFT works on blockchain as it gives users complete ownership of a digital asset.
• For instance, if you’re a sketch artist, and if you convert your digital asset to an NFT, what
you get is proof of ownership, powered by Blockchain.
Differences between NFT and Cryptocurrency:
Cryptocurrency is a currency and is fungible, meaning that it is interchangeable.
• For instance, if you hold one crypto token, say one Ethereum, the next Ethereum that you
hold will also be of the same value. But NFTs are non-fungible, that means the value of one
NFT is not equal to another. Every art is different from other, making it non fungible, and
unique.

Artificial Intelligence and Robotics

Artificial intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave
like humans.
AI refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning,
problem solving and decision making.
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking,
perceiving, learning, problem solving and decision making. Initially conceived as a technology that
could mimic human intelligence.
AI has evolved in ways that far exceed its original conception. With incredible advances made in
data collection, processing and computation power, intelligent systems can now be deployed to
take over a variety of tasks, enable connectivity and enhance productivity.
As AI’s capabilities have dramatically expanded, so have its utility in a growing number of fields.
What are the Differences Between AI, ML and DL?
 The term AI, coined in the 1950s, refers to the simulation of human intelligence by ma-
chines. AI, ML and DL are common terms and are sometimes used interchangeably. But
there are distinctions.
o ML is a subset of AI that involves the development of algorithms that allow com-
puters to learn from data without being explicitly programmed.
• ML algorithms can analyze data, identify patterns, and make predictions
based on the patterns they find.

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 o DL is a subset of ML that uses artificial neural networks to learn from data in a way
that is similar to how the human brain learns.
What are the Different Categories of AI?
 Artificial intelligence can be divided into two different categories:
o Weak AI/ Narrow AI: It is a type of AI that is limited to a specific or narrow area.
Weak AI simulates human cognition.
• It has the potential to benefit society by automating time-consuming
tasks and by analyzing data in ways that humans sometimes can’t.
• For example, video games such as chess and personal assistants such as
Amazon’s Alexa and Apple’s Siri.
o Strong AI: These are systems that carry on tasks considered to be human-like.
These tend to be more complex and complicated systems.
• They are programmed to handle situations in which they may be re-
quired to problem-solving without having a person intervene.
• These kinds of systems can be found in applications like self-driving cars.
What are the Advantages of AI?
 Enhanced Accuracy: AI algorithms can analyze vast amounts of data with precision, reduc-
ing errors and improving accuracy in various applications, such as diagnostics, predictions,
and decision-making.
 Improved Decision-Making: AI provides data-driven insights and analysis, assisting in
informed decision-making by identifying patterns, trends, and potential risks that may not
be easily identifiable to humans.
 Innovation and Discovery: AI fosters innovation by enabling new discoveries, uncovering
hidden insights, and pushing the boundaries of what is possible in various fields, including
healthcare, science, and technology.
 Increased Productivity: AI tools and systems can augment human capabilities, leading to
increased productivity and output across various industries and sectors.
 Continuous Learning and Adaptability: AI systems can learn from new data and expe-
riences, continually improving performance, adapting to changes, and staying up-to-date
with evolving trends and patterns.
 Exploration and Space Research: AI plays a crucial role in space exploration, enabling
autonomous spacecraft, robotic exploration, and data analysis in remote and hazardous
environments.
What are the Disadvantages of AI?
 Job Displacement: AI automation may lead to the displacement of certain jobs as ma-
chines and algorithms can perform tasks that were previously done by humans. This can
result in unemployment and require re-skilling or retraining of the workforce.
 Ethical Concerns: AI raises ethical concerns such as the potential for bias in algorithms,
invasion of privacy, and the ethical implications of autonomous decision-making systems.
 Reliance on Data Availability and Quality: AI systems heavily rely on data availability
and quality. Biased or incomplete data can lead to inaccurate results or reinforce existing
biases in decision-making.
 Security Risks: AI systems can be vulnerable to cyber attacks and exploitation. Malicious
actors can manipulate AI algorithms or use AI-powered tools for nefarious purposes, pos-
ing security risks.
 Overreliance: Blindly relying on AI without proper human oversight or critical evaluation

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 can lead to errors or incorrect decisions, particularly if the AI system encounters unfamiliar
or unexpected situations.
 Lack of Transparency: Some AI models, such as deep learning neural networks, can be dif-
ficult to interpret, making it challenging to understand the reasoning behind their decisions
or predictions (referred to as the “black box” problem).
 Initial Investment and Maintenance Costs: Implementing AI systems often requires
significant upfront investment in infrastructure, data collection, and model development.
Additionally, maintaining and updating AI systems can be costly.

What is Generative AI?

Generative AI is a type of artificial intelligence that involves creating new, original content or
data using machine learning algorithms.
• It can be used to generate text, images, music, or other types of media.
What is GPT?
A Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT) is a type of large language model (LLM) that
uses deep learning to generate human-like text.
• “generative” because they can generate new text based on the input they receive
• “pretrained” because they are trained on a large corpus of text data before being fine-
tuned for specific tasks
• “transformers” because they use a transformer-based neural network architecture to pro-
cess input text and generate output text
Uses of Generative AI:
• Create realistic images and animations
o Text-to-image programs such as Midjourney, DALL-E and Stable Diffusion have
the potential to change how art, animation, gaming, movies and architecture, among
others, are being rendered
• Generative AI can be used to compose music and create art
• Create brand logo: E.g. many startups are exploring services like DALL.E2, Bing Image
Create, Stable Diffusion, and MidJourney to create their brand logo
• Generate text messagesg. ChatGPT to generate news articles, poetry, and even code.
• AI-assisted drug discovery
• Generative AI can be used to design and control robotic systems
• Automate things e.g. Microsoft-owned GitHub Copilot, which is based on OpenAI’s
Codex model, suggests code and assists developers in autocompleting their programming
tasks.
Issues Associated with Generative AI:
• Governance: Companies such as OpenAI are self-governing the space through limited re-
lease strategies, and monitored use of models, however, self-governance leaves chances for
manipulation
• Fear of Job losses:g. automation of tasks that were previously done by humans, such as
writing news articles or composing music.
• Reduced need for human cognition:g. young children who will see AI as their friend to do
their homework.
• Fear of Societal Bias being replicated by AI
• Issues surrounding intellectual property and copyright: The datasets behind generative

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 AI models are generally scraped from the internet without seeking consent from living
artists or work still under copyright
• Fear of Misinformation and Mistrust by manipulation of information, creating fake
text, speech, images or video
• Fear of Concentration of Power in the hand of a few companies
• Risks for national security using automated troll bots, with advanced capabilities
Suggestions:
• Need to make generative AI modelsmore transparent, so that the public can under-
stand how and why the model is making certain decisions
• Use of diverse training data, as well as techniques like fairness constraints or adversarial
training to mitigate bias.
• Privacy: Ensuring the privacy of people
• Accountable governance esp. of BigTech companies using a designated “AI ethicist” or “AI
ombudsman”
• Designing a system wherein humans make the final decision and AI can be used as a
support system
• Collaboration with civil society and policymakers: To mitigate the impact of Generative
AI on -the disruption of labour markets, legitimacy of scraped data, licensing, copyright and
potential for biased or otherwise harmful content, misinformation, and so on.

Robotics

Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural
depositions, manufacture   and   application   of   robots. Today Robotics is the rapidly growing
field and it is continue in research, design, and build new robots that serve various practical
purposes
Laws of Robotics

The Laws of Robotics are a set of laws, rules, or principles, which are intended as a fundamental
framework to underpin the behavior of robots designed to have a degree of autonomy. Robots of this
degree of complexity do not yet exist, but they have been widely anticipated in science fiction, films
and are a topic of active research and development in the fields of robotics and artificial intelligence.
Three Laws are:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the
First or Second Laws

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QR Code and Barcode
The QR Code is a two-dimensional version of the barcode. ‘QR’ stands for “Quick Response”,
which refers to the instant access to the information hidden in the Code.
Working:
• It consists of black squares arranged in a square grid on a white background.
• Up to 7089 digits or 4296 characters can be entered in one Code.
• The hidden information can be read by an imaging device such as a camera and the re-
quired data is then extracted from patterns that are present in code.
Parame-
QR Code Barcode
ters

Masahiro Hara from Denso Wave Norman Joseph Woodland developed a

Developers developed QR codes in 1994. Toyota barcode for the first time in 1952. It was
used it to track vehicles and parts. initially only used in grocery stores.

There can be two types of barcodes.

These codes come in only one type.
Types These are either one-dimensional or
They can be only two-dimensional.
two-dimensional codes.

Comes in a small square box. Inside, it It looks like a small box of black parallel
Appearance has combinations of shapes and pixels lines, having various widths and contains
based on Morse code. a combination of numbers at the bottom.

Contains information in both vertical Contains information in a horizontal

Information
and horizontal directions. Moreover, direction. But stores lower information
Retention
stores more info than barcodes. than QR codes.

Have a lower error rate than barcodes. Are more error prone and may not work
Error Cor-
For instance, it will work even if the if the code surface is damaged, which is a
rection
code surface is damaged. disadvantage.

Storage QR codes have much higher storage Barcodes have much lower storage ca-
Capacity capacity. It is up to 2 kilobytes. pacity. It cannot exceed 100 bytes.

Are used in supermarkets and stores Are mainly used in different stores and
Uses for tracking purchases and also for hospitals for tracking purchases and
digital payments and transactions. keep track of records.

Pager and how it works

Recently, a series of pager explosions across Lebanon killed at least eight people and injured 2,750
others. Hezbollah reported that the pagers used by their personnel exploded mysteriously.
About Pager

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1. About Pagers: A pager is a small, portable electronic device used for receiving short messages
or alerts. Pagers were popular before the widespread use of mobile phones and are still in use in
certain professional settings today.
2. Pagers operate on dedicated radio frequencies to receive messages.
3. How Pagers Work: Pagers receive messages via radio frequencies from a base station or a cen-
tral dispatch. These messages can either be numeric (e.g., a phone number) or alphanumeric (text-
based). When a message is received, pagers alert users with a beep, tone, or vibration. Some ad-
vanced pagers, known as two-way pagers, allow users to send and receive messages, similar to basic
text messaging.
4. Types of Pagers: Numeric Pagers and Alphanumeric Pagers:
Numeric Pagers can only display numbers, typically used to alert someone to call a specific number.
Alphanumeric Pagers can display both numbers and letters, allowing for more detailed messages,
including short text communications.

Advantages of Using a Pager

1. Reliable Communication: Pagers have a larger coverage area compared to early mobile phones,
making them reliable in remote or poor signal areas.
2. Simple Design: They are easy to use, with minimal features, and are less prone to technical is-
sues.
3. Untraceable: One-way pagers are often untraceable because they don’t transmit signals back to
the base station.
4. Long Battery Life: Pagers typically have longer battery life compared to mobile phones, typically
lasting several days.
Disadvantages: Lithium batteries are common in consumer electronics like cellphones and lap-
tops. They can overheat, melt, or catch fire upon reaching temperatures up to 1,100°F (590°C) which
potentially causing pager explosions.

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3D Printing and Additive manufacturing
Context: Bengaluru (Cambridge Layout in Ulsoor) is set to have India’s first post office built using
3D printing technology.
Benefits: The 1,100 sqft building is expected to cost 30-40% less than conventional buildings.

3D printing:
3D printing is a phrase coined by the media and is often used to refer to all types of additive
manufacturing.
However, 3D printing is defined as “fabrication of objects through the deposition of a material
using a print head, nozzle or other printer technology”.
Industrial 3D printing has begun to transform manufacturing in Western countries. The 3D
printing has not yet entered our everyday lexicon, and even people who have heard of it view it as
a toy technology that geeks play with, creating prototypes of robots using small machines.
By eliminating the need to hold a large inventory of parts, set up an assembly line and purchase
costly machines, 3D printing and adaptive manufacturing reduces capital and space requirements
as well as the carbon footprint.
What is Additive Manufacturing?
Additive manufacturing which was defined by the industry as “making objects from 3D data,
usually layer upon layer”.
In additive manufacturing, the physical object to be built is first designed in software. This de-
sign is fed to computerised machines, which build that object layer by layer.
In practice the phrases 3D printing and additive manufacturing may be used interchangeably by
some sources so it’s important to understand the process which is actually being discussed.
• Additive manufacturing is the industrial version of 3-D printing that is already used to
make some niche items, such as medical implants, and to produce plastic prototypes for
engineers and designers.
• And while 3-D printing for consumers and small entrepreneurs has received a great deal
of publicity, it is in manufacturing where the technology could have its most significant
commercial impact.
• There are in fact a number of different subtypes of additive manufacturing including 3D
printing, but also rapid prototyping and direct digital manufacturing (DDM). Recent
advances in this technology have seen its use become far more widespread and it offers
exciting possibilities for future development.
• Additive manufacturing machines work directly from a computer model, so people can
devise completely new shapes without regard for existing manufacturing limitations.
• Breaking with traditional manufacturing techniques, such as casting and machining materi-
al, Additive Manufacturing product gives designers far greater flexibility.

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Advantages of 3D Printing

3D printing confers several unique advantages over traditional manufacturing methods:

• Customised Production: 3D printing easily creates customised products tailored to indi-
vidual needs rather than mass-standardised products. It enables affordable personalisation
and tool-less manufacturing.
• Complex Geometries: Intricate shapes and complex internal structures like lattices, and
honeycombs that enhance strength and functionality can be 3D printed. These are impos-
sible to manufacture otherwise.
• On-Demand Local Production: Digital inventories and distributed 3D printing reduce
shipping costs, delays, carbon emissions and the need for global supply chains. Spare parts
can be printed on-site.
• Material Savings: Additive 3D printing deposits only required material minimising waste.
Scrap can be recycled into filament, powder or feedstock.
• Democratised Manufacturing: 3D printing grants access to affordable, quality manufac-
turing capabilities to individuals, startups, and small firms. Reduces barriers of expensive
tools, moulds and dedicated factories.
• Rapid Design Iteration: The ability to swiftly 3D print design prototypes enables faster in-
novation cycles, improvements and performance optimisation before finalising the design.
• Education and Training: 3D printing develops creative design thinking and spatial
skills. Student engagement and understanding of concepts like design, engineering, arts,
and mathematics improve.
• Supply Chain Resilience: On-site 3D printing of parts using digital inventories reduces
supply chain disruptions due to geopolitical tensions, pandemics, and natural disasters. It

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 strengthens localised manufacturing capacity.
Key sectors adopting 3D printing across various applications are:
• Aerospace: Lightweight printed aircraft and spacecraft parts can replace traditionally
manufactured parts to reduce weight and material needs.
o HAL and Wipro 3D printed an air blower component for the TEJAS aircraft using
direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). It achieved a 50% weight reduction com-
pared to conventional manufacturing.
o GE’s first 3D-printed jet engine fuel nozzle component manufactured in India
improved durability and thermal efficiency.
• Automotive: The automotive industry uses 3D printing for rapid prototyping and to pro-
duce specialised parts and tools. Printed parts help improve design and can reduce weight.
o Mahindra produces around 200 3D-printed polymer parts annually for vehicle
prototypes. This has accelerated design verification and development.
o Tata Motors uses selective laser sintering to batch-produce plastic and rubber
spare parts. It has reduced costs by 80-90% compared to conventional techniques.
• Construction: 3D printing technology is being used to construct scale models of buildings,
bridges, and even full-scale houses and other structures using concrete and other materials.
o India’s first 3D-printed house was built in just 2 weeks by Tvasta using the con-
crete extrusion technique. It enables faster, sustainable construction.
o ‘Amaze 28’, Kerala’s first 3D printed building, was constructed in just 28 days at
75% reduced labour cost.
• Healthcare: 3D printing is revolutionising healthcare with customised prosthetics, im-
plants, anatomical models for surgery practice, and pharmaceuticals.
o 3D printed skull implant by medtech startup Yaantra enabled surgeons to accu-
rately visualise tumour shape and remove guesswork during surgery.
o Ossio’s 3D-printed orthopaedic implants made from proprietary Ossioglass
match natural bone strength and hardness.
• Consumer: With 3D printing, products can be easily customised or personalised to an indi-
vidual’s specs.
o Imaginarium Rapid offers 3D printing services to leading jewellery retailers for
custom designs in gold and silver.
o Companies like Dochub and Carbon Heel adopt 3D printing for customized and
flexible footwear designs.
• Public Infrastructure: India’s first 3D printed post office built in just 45 days by L&T
and IIT Madras demonstrates rapid construction capabilities.
• Biomimicry and 3D Printing: Biomimicry is the material design by taking analogies
from the functional aspects of similar structures of living things. Examples include spi-
der-web-inspired lightweight structures, lotus leaf self-cleaning surfaces, etc.
o By imitating nature’s time-tested patterns, biomimicry can help 3D printing produce
optimised shapes, stronger structures, customised surfaces and more using less
material.
o Integrating biomimicry principles into 3D printing offers exciting possibilities for
sustainable manufacturing.
What are the concerns of 3D printing?
• Scalability- In conventional techniques, once a design has been set, multiple copies can be
made much faster. But 3d printing is slow.

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 • High cost- The initial set up of 3d printing and pre and post processing in healthcare is
costly.
• Job loss- Due to automation it may have impact on employment opportunities.
• Limited materials- Raw materials is not exhaustive in 3d printing, it poses a serious chal-
lenge.
• Skilled labour- It needs talented individuals to work with additive manufacturing.
What are the initiatives taken to promote 3D printing?
• Atal Innovation Mission (AIM)- It is a flagship initiative to create and promote entrepre-
neurship and innovation across the country.
• Atal Tinkering Labs - It is launched under AIM which aims to foster creativity and innova-
tion in young minds.
• It focuses on Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) concepts.
• Dedicated workspaces have been set up with do-it-yourself (DIY) kits including 3D printers,
robotics and miniaturised electronics are installed.
• National Strategy on Additive Manufacturing- The strategy aims to increase India’s
share in global AM to 5% with a target to add nearly US 1$bn to the GDP by 2025.

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