ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH USING PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION

BY

SHAIBU IDRIS

(PGS/2011-2012/2020507)

Being a Research proposal submitted to postgraduate School, Abubakar Tafawa

Balewa University, Bauchi, In Partial Fulfillment of The Award of the Degree of

Master of Engineering in Electronics Engineering

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

Supervisors;

Dr.Y.S.Haruna

November 2016
 ABSTRACT

The modern power system around the world has grown in complexity of interconnection and power
demand. The focus has shifted towards enhanced performance, increased customer focus, low cost,
reliable and clean power. In this changed perspective, scarcity of energy resources, increasing power
generation cost, environmental concern necessitates optimal economic dispatch. In reality power stations
neither are at equal distances from load nor have similar fuel cost functions. Hence for providing cheaper
power, load has to be distributed among various power stations in a way which results in lowest cost for
generation. Practical economic dispatch (ED) problems have highly non-linear objective function with
rigid equality and inequality constraints. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is applied to allot the active
power among the generating stations satisfying the system constraints and minimizing the cost of power
generated. The viability of the method is analyzed for its accuracy and rate of convergence. The economic
load dispatch problem is solved for three and six unit system using PSO and conventional method for both
cases of neglecting and including transmission losses. The results of PSO method will be compared with
other methods to show its effective and efficiency.
 INTRODUCTION

The fundamental ingredient for the growth of any country is how effective their power sector is. Power

system holds the key to the development of the world. Electricity produce in Nigeria has it date back to

1896 when two (2) small generating sets were installed to serve the then Colony of Lagos. The total

capacity of the generator used then was 60kW. The maximum demand was even lesser than the 60kW

generated. It was fifteen years after England has been experience power supply this occurrence happened

in Nigeria

In 1946, the Nigerian government electricity undertaking was established under the jurisdiction of

Public Works Department (PWD) to take over the responsibility of electricity supply in Lagos State. By

an Act of Parliament in 1951, the Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) was established, and in 1962,

the Niger Dams Authority (NDA) was also established for the development of Hydro Electric Power.

However, a merger of the two (2) was made in 1972 to form the National Electric power Authority

(NEPA). Since ECN was mainly responsible for distribution and sales and NDA was created to build and

run generating stations and transmission lines, the primary reasons for the merging the organizations were.

For over twenty years prior to 1999, the power sector did not witness substantial investment in

infrastructural development. During that period, new plants were not constructed and the existing ones

were not properly maintained, bringing the power sector to a deplorable state. In 2001, generation went

down from the installed capacity of about 5,600MW to an average of about 1,750MW, as compared to a

load demand of 6,000MW. Also, only nineteen out of the seventy-nine installed generating units were in

operation.
The National Electric Power Authority was a vertical-integrated utility responsible for the power sector in

Nigeria. And between 1970s and 1980s, NEPA developed new generating capacity in both hydro and

thermal power. NEPA was solely responsible for the generation, transmission and distribution of

electricity until year 2005 the unbundling and the power reform took place under the administration of

President Olusegun Obasanjo whereby the organization name was changed to Power Holding Company of

Nigerian (PHCN).

In March 2005, when President Olusegun Obasanjo signed the Power Sector Reform Bill into law, private

companies were given opportunities to participate in electricity generation, transmission and distribution.

The deregulation of PHCN was to consists eleven distribution companies (DISCOS), six generating

companies (GENCOS), and one transmission company (TRANSCOS). TRANSCO was to be under the

control of the Federal Government. It is to be noted that the establishment of PHCN was to cater for the

lack of inefficiency of NEPA, and to improve power system in Nigeria. On August 8, 2005, the peak

generation was 3774 MW out of the available generation of 4000MW. This improvement was said to be

as a result of the participation of the private investors and rehabilitation of generating plants.

By 2010, however, five years into the latest reform, very little restructuring had been undertaken, and

available generation capacity was less than 4,000 MW (a figure largely unchanged since the 2005

reforms), for a population of over 150 million.

Due to emergency power situation of the country, and the opportunity for private investors to participate

in the sector, the genealogy of Independent Power Producers (IPPs) started from these scenarios. The first

Nigeria’s IPP was established in 1999 by the Lagos State Government, the Federal Ministry of Power &

Steel and NEPA.

As of 2012, three large-scale IPPs produce approximately 25 percent of Nigeria’s electric power, with the

balance provided by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) and State governments, viz. about
1,000 MW (IPPs) and 3,000 MW (non-IPP), respectively. The introduction of IPPs has been gradual

(dating to 1999), but according to the ‘Road Map’, the private power component will more than double in

less than five years, including via the country’s sale of its generating assets. Given the significant

imminent change, a clear understanding of past experience with IPPs is paramount.

It was initially stated that the PHCN is unbundled into eighteen successor companies. Strategically, the

objectives of the reform include (i) the transfer of management and financing of successor companies

operations to the organized private sector; (ii) the establishment of an independent and effective regulatory

commission to oversee and monitor the industry; and (iii) focusing the FGN on policy formulation and

long-term development of the industry. This will lead to (i) increased access to electricity services; (ii)

improved efficiency, affordability, reliability and quality of services; and (iii) greater investment into the

sector to stimulate economic growth. However, the unbundling leaves the Federal Government with three

hydro and seven thermal generating stations with a total installed capacity of about 6,852MW, with

available capacity of 3,542MW (as of 31st July 2010).

Each entity had been incorporated as a single-asset generating company; a radial transmission grid

(330kv and 132kv), owned and managed by the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), with the

responsibility of undertaking the system operation and market settlement functions, respectively as well as

eleven distribution companies (33kv and below) that undertake the wires, sales, billing, collection and

customer care functions within their area of geographical monopoly.

A competitive tender was thereafter carried out to receive bids from core investor groups

(inclusive of competent generation asset owner/operators) for a minimum of 51% of equity in the

following successor thermal generating companies including

 Afam Power Plc;

 Sapele Power Plc;

  Ughelli Power Plc;

 Geregu Power Plc

As well as a separate concession process for successor hydro generating companies including

 Shiroro Hydro Power Plc;

 Kainji Hydro Power (note: that Jebba power station is part of Kainji Hydro Power Plc).

A similar competitive tender was carried out to receive bids from core investor groups (inclusive of

competent distribution asset owner/operators). They are

 Abuja Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Benin Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Eko Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Enugu Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Ibadan Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Ikeja Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Jos Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Kaduna Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Kano Electricity Distribution Plc;

 Port Harcourt Electricity Distribution Plc and

 Yola Electricity Distribution Plc.

The generating stations are as follows with their respective installed capacities()

Existing Govt. Owned Power Stations ;

1. Kainji Power Station ( 760 MW)

2. Jebba Power Station (540 MW)

 3. Shiroro Power Station (600 MW)

4. Egbin Power Station (1320 MW)

5. Geregu Power Station( 414 MW)

6. Omotosho Power Station(304 MW)

7. Olorunsogo Power Station (304 MW)

8. Delta (Ugeli)Power Station (900MW)

9. Sapele, Power Station (1020 MW)

10. Afam Power Station (726 MW)

11. Calabar Power Station(6.6 MW)

12. Achi Power Station (10 MW)

Normally, power stations are operated under normal operating conditions, where the total production level

must equal the load consumptions and system losses. The task of the operating engineer is not just to

operate the units within their normal operating limits but also to minimize the cost of operation.

The major components of electric power cost to the consumer comprised the costs of generation,

transmission, distribution, managerial and interest (Bakare, 2001).

Considering the thermal generation alone, as found in many countries, fuel cost contribute significantly to

the total generation cost of electric power to the consumers (mahalanabis et al,1991),which is the main

concern of this research.

The sole aim of the Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) is to distribute the total power demand among

the generating units at the same time minimizing the cost of generation while satisfying system

constraints. The important factors to be considered for economic operation of the system are efficiency of

the generating units, fuel and operating costs, and transmission losses (Haruna 2004).
PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION

Introduction

Most of the engineering optimization problems in power system are complex in nature having nonlinear

characteristics employed with equality and inequality constraints. Many stochastic techniques have been

implemented successfully to solve the optimization problems over the past decade (Rahmat et al 2012).

Some of the popular stochastic optimization techniques include GA, PSO, EP, DE eta. Out of them,

particle swarm optimization method being a salient optimizer and can be used in variety of nonlinear and

complex engineering optimization problems (Oruke 2013). Kennedy and Eberhart in 1995 motivated by

social activities of individuals such as schooling of fishes and bird flocking for the first time introduced

particle swarm optimization technique. Particle swarm optimization technique involves a number of

particles forming the swarm moving around a specified searching area where particles forming the swarm

are allowed to move in the search space and acquiring a best position based on their personal best values

and the global best value of the system considered and obtaining global best solution (Orike et al 2012).

During the optimization procedure, each particle makes a track of position following its coordinates in the

pre-specified searching area (Bulbul et al 2014).

Particle swarm optimization is basically a population-based searching process which searches in

parallel and does not leading to elimination of any of the solution. It is a kind of searching method which

traces its progression based on the evolving movement of birds flocking or fish schooling search for food

(Affijulla et al 2011). It initializes particles randomly into the specified search space and these particles

gather information through their corresponding positions (Dieu et al 2012). The modification in position

of each particle in the swarm is based on their own personal best experience and their neighbor’s

experiences. The inertia weight introduced at the velocity updating step is responsible for the momentum

of each particle. It was introduced by Shi and Eberhart and it works by weighing the involvement of the
previous velocity for the purpose of eliminating the requirement for velocity clamping (R.K.Swain et al

2012). Value of w decides the particle velocity updating and thus whole system direction is based on its

value. With w having a value greater than 0, divergent behavior of the system result due to increase in

system’s velocity and thus particles fail to acquire the best position. With w being less than 0, deceleration

of particles takes place which result in slow convergence to the best solution. Static inertia values or

adaptive values may lead to convergent solution (Manisha et al 2011).

Particle swarm optimization has numerous key features that prove to be very reliable in different

applications where conventional optimization techniques might fail as compared to other evolutionary

optimization algorithms (Qun et al 2014). Following are some of the advantages of PSO over other

conventional algorithms:

 It makes use of basic logical and mathematical functions which are easy to handle and operate with

a sequence of procedure .

 It has fewer working parameters which are easy to operate .

 It utilizes real valued operational integers which eliminates the requirement of converting binary

form to real coded structure as in classical GA .

 It is better in terms of time utilized for computation and memory storage requirement .

3.1.1 Disadvantages of PSO

Particle swarm optimization prove to be very effective for solving many complex type of power system

problems very quickly and in a reliable manner but it gets trapped at local minima. As a result, it becomes

monotonous to obtain the global best value for such a complicated non-convex system with multiple local

minima. Following are some of the disadvantages of PSO:

 The velocities of the particle are random and thus it is very important to suitably identify their

value. With an inappropriate value selection, it may suddenly increase or decrease the searching
 speed that may result in fly off the particle out of the searching region or slow movement to

acquire a suitable position in space.

 It may convergence prematurely due to heavier constraints in PSO or handling problems with

multiple local optima.

 The performance of the PSO algorithm may deteriorate with a lengthy problem considered. Thus,

it may not lead to optimal solution due to lack of balance between exploration and exploitation.

For the solution to this problem, modified PSO includes an α-factor and β-factor to obtain a stable

point easily and ensure convergence. The objective of these two factors is to carry out the

optimization process in a well balance manner throughout the iteration.

Overview to Modified PSO

The theory of modified particle swarm optimization approach involves modification in the velocity of

each particle in swarm following its local best and global best position at the closing stages of every

iteration in a well defined manner. Every particle in the swarm try to improve its velocity and position

based on the distance between its local best value and current position using an α-factor which helps it to

achieve the optimal solution easily and the distance between its current position and global best solution

using an β-factor in order to exploit the solution to converge it to better results. Thus, the modified

velocity equation follows a better convergence by providing a balance between exploring the searching

area and exploiting those searched areas. Modified Particle swarm optimization is a modern heuristic

approach being effectively utilized to solve nonlinear engineering optimization problems. The position for

these particles can be updated using their current velocity and the distance between respective local best

and global best value. Following procedural steps are followed for the purpose of implementing modified

PSO approach:
Step1 Swarm initialization

Each particle in the swarm can be initialized randomly within their operational working limits. The

velocity and position initialized values follow a uniform random number approach lying between its

maximum and minimum values (Jaini et al 2010). Velocity and position can be represented as follows:

Vi = Vi1,Vi2 ,…, Vin 1

Pi = Pi1,Pi2, …, P in 2

The full swarm can be expressed as a matrix;

P1 ,1 P1 ,2 P1 ,G
swarm= P 2 ,1 P2 ,2 P2 ,G 3
PPR , 1 P PR ,2 P PR ,G

where G represent number of generators and PR is the number of particles in the swarm.

The velocity and position values are randomly initialized following the equation as

given indicated:

Vij = Vjmin + rand() * (Vjmax - Vjmin) (j = 1,2,3,……..G; I = 1,2,3…..PR) 4

Pij = Pjmin + rand() * (Pjmax - Pjmin) 5

All the initialized values are made to fall within the pre-specified operational limits of generating

unit as follows [34]:

Vijmin ≤ Vij ≤ V ijmax 6

Pijmin ≤ Pij ≤ Pijmax 7

Step2 Velocity updating

The velocities of each of the particles in the swarm of a modified PSO can be updated using α-factor and

β-factor using the following equation:

Vijnew = W * Vij + α * C1 * rand() * (Pijbest – Pij) + β * C2 * rand() * (Gibest – Pij ) 8

Such that α + β =1 providing dominant nature of exploration initially while at later stages, exploitation

follows. Thus, !-factor provides local searching while "-factor provide global exploitation of the obtained

results. It can be expressed as:

α = α max − (α max − α min) * IT/ITmax 9

where α max initial α-factor value, IT max maximum iteration number, IT iteration number, α min final value

of α-factor, C1 is a positive coefficient known as coefficient of the self-cognition component, C2 is also a

positive constant term, called as coefficient of the social component, Vij represents the velocity of each

particle in the swarm, rand()and rand() are the random numbers distributed uniformly in the interval

[0,1], and w is the inertia weight and can be expressed by the following expression [35]:

w = w max − (wmax – wmin) * IT/IT max 10

where Wmax initial weight and W min final weight.

Step3 Position updating

Each particle’s positions are updated between successive iterations using the updated

velocity term as explained above according to the following equation:

Pijnew =Pij + Vijnew (i=1,2,…..,PR;j=1,2,…,G) 11

Step4 Memory updating

The local best and global best values are modified using the following equation:

Pibest = Pi if F(Pi) < F(Pibest ) 12

Gbest = Pi if F(P i) < F(G best) 13

Where F( Pi ) is the value of objective function at ith individual’s position and F(G ) is the value of

objective function of global best individual’s position (Saber et al 2011)

Step5 Termination criteria examination

The algorithm is repeated until pre-specified terminating rules are satisfied.

Convergence criteria; the process stops when the convergence criteria are satisfied; the most commonly

used criteria in PSO are;

 Under comparatively mild assumptions about the objective function, the particles find at

least a local optimum

 For a very large class of objective functions, PSO converges towards the optimum with

linear convergence speed, i. e., the distance between the global attractor and the actual

optimum is halved within a constant number of iterations.

Applications of Particle Swarm Optimization

There are many fields in which PSO has been used successfully to solve optimization problems

originating from real world applications. This collection gives just an impression on how different the

application fields and the underlying optimization problems are, for which PSO was the algorithm of

choice to produce good, though not optimal, solutions with reasonable effort and time, some of these

fields are;

In electrical power systems consisting of several producers (e. g., generators), intermediate nodes

and consumers, the control center needs to react on load changes of the consumers, PSO [YKF +00,MFo2]

has empirically proved capability to solve the underlying optimization problem. Different properties of an

antenna like its weight and its return loss depend on physical and electromagnetic characteristics, e. g., its

length, its overall shape and the number of corrugations per wavelength. In [RRSO4] PSO-based

approach, finds a design that matches these design goals by finding the optimal design of an antenna.

In mechanical engineering, PSO [HESO3a] is used to solve the problem of minimizing the total

cost of building a cylindrical pressure vessel, depending on its exact shape and form. Secondly PSO is use

for minimizing the cost of welding a rigid member onto a beam.

In biomedical research, PSO is used for image registration ([WSZ +O4]). e. g., Computer

Tomography (CT) provides images of bones while Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is suitable for

scanning soft tissues.

In mineralogy, a variant of PSO is used to find certain mineral-melt equilibria, allowing for a

better understanding of the behavior of magmas within the earth’s crust ([HMO6]). The chemical

reactions of silicate melts depend

 In Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), a multiple access scheme called Code

Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is used. The task of a good interference cancellation technique can be

rewritten as an optimization problem, which is in [ZWLKO9] solved using a PSO variant.

Basic PSO Algorithm

The step by step procedure of PSO algorithm is given as follows;

 Initialize a population of particles as Pi = (Pi1, Pi2, Pi3……………... Pi N) ‘ N’ is number of

generating units.

Population is initialized with random values and velocities within the d-dimensional search space.

Initialize the maximum allowable velocity magnitude of any particle Vmax. Evaluate the fitness of

each particle and assign the particle's position to P-best position and fitness to P-best fitness.

Identify the best among the P-best as G-best and store the fitness value of G-best.

 Change the velocity and position of the particle .

 For each particle, evaluate the fitness, if all decisions variable are within the search ranges.

 Compare the particle's fitness evaluation with its previous P-best. If the current value is better than

the previous P-best, then set the P-best value equal to the current value and the P-best location

equal to the current location in the d-dimensional search space.

 Compare the best current fitness evaluation with the population G-best. If the current value is

better than the population G-best, then reset the G-best to the current best position and the fitness

value to current fitness value.

 Repeat steps 2-5 until a stopping criterion, such as sufficiently good G-best fitness or a maximum

number of iterations/function evaluations is met.

The general flowchart of Classical PSO is illustrated as follows:
Aim and Objectives

The sole aim of the Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) is to allocate the total power demand among the

available generating units at the same time minimizing the cost of generation while satisfying system

constraints. This study is aimed at distributing the power demand and the losses among the generating

units at minimum operating cost as well as satisfying all the constraints. The objectives of the study

include;

 Collect data from the Jos Electricity Distribution (JED) on the generating station as well as

the transmission network

 Develop particle swarm optimization Algorithm software to carry out the Economic Load

Dispatch (ELD) analysis on a standard IEEE 3 generating units , 6-Bus test network and

compare with the results obtained using other optimization approaches such as classical

approach, Hopfield neural network and Genetic Algorithm .

 Then apply the tool to the Nigerian network first by neglecting the transmission losses by

executing a load flow program using MATLAB.

 Make appropriate recommendations and suggest means for further studies.

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

The Economic Dispatch (ED) is a nonlinear programming problem which is considered as a sub-problem

of the Unit Commitment (UC) problem. In a specific power system with a determined load schedule, ED

planning performs the optimal power generation dispatch among the existing generation units. The

solution of ED problem must satisfy the constraints of the generation units, while it optimizes the
generation based on the cost factor of the generation units. Equation (14) represents the total fuel cost for a

power system which is the equal summation of all generation units fuel costs, in a power system.
ng
Cost =∑ F J ( PJ ) (14)
j=1

Where ng is the number of generation units and Pj is the output power of jth generation unit. The cost

function in (14) can be approximated to a quadratic function of the power generation, therefore, the total

cost function will be changed to (15).

ng
Cost =∑ c J P2J +b J P J +a J (15)
J=1

Where Pj is generated power by jth is generation unit. a J , b J , c J , Fuel cost coefficients of unit j. Two set

of constraints are considered in the present study, including equality constraints and inequality constraints.

Equality constraints

Normally, in a power system the amount of generated power has to be enough to feed the load demand

plus transmission lines loss (16). Since the transmission lines are located between the generating units and

loads, Ploss can occur anywhere before the power reaches load (Pd). Any shortage in the generated power

will cause shortage in feeding the load demand which may cause many problems for the system and loads.

ng

∑ P J =P J + Ploss (16)
J =1

Where Pd is the load demand and Ploss is the transmission lines loss, while ng and Pj have the same

definition as (15). Here, the loss coefficient method which is developed by Kron and Kirchmayer, is used
to include the effect of transmission losses [4] [27]. B matrix which is known as the transmission loss

coefficients matrix is a square matrix with a dimension of ng×ng while ng is the number of generation

units in the system. Applying B-matrix gives a solution with generated powers of different units as the

variables. Equation (17) shows the function of calculating Ploss as the transmission loss through B-matrix.
ng ng
Ploss=∑ ∑ Pi Bij P j (17)
i=1 j =1

Where: Ploss total transmission loss in the system; Pi, Pj generated power by ith and jth generating units

respectively; Bij element of the B-matrix between ith and jth generating units.

2.2. Inequality constraints

All generation units have some limitations in output power regardless of their type. In existing power

systems, thermal units play a very important role. Thermal units can pose both maximum and minimum

constraints on the generating power, so there is always a range of operating work for the generating units.

Generating less power than minimum may cause the rotor to over speed whereas at maximum power, it

may cause instability issues for synchronous generators. So (18) has to be considered in all steps of

solving the ELD problem.

min max
PJ ≤ PJ ≤ P J (18)

For j=1, 2, …, ng.

Where Pmin
J and Pmax
J are the constraints of generation for jth generating unit.
MOTIVATION

In recent years, the Electric Power Authority has been experiencing serious problems in generation,

transmission, distribution, maintenance, financial constraints and increase in power demand (Madueme,

2002).Considering the generation/power demand problems, several units were on emergency/forced

outages, which led to system disturbances such as ; partial and total system collapses of which four were

total while five were partial. These problems were attributed to over stressing the units to generate outside

their normal operating conditions. This will thus lead to generating electric power at a loss.

The transmission/dispatch problem in Electric Power Authority was as a result of the following

constraints (Makoju, 2003);

 Fragile and inflexible state of the transmission network to wheel increased power levels.

 Absence of state-of-the art dispatch facilities.

 High technical losses.

In view of the above problems, it becomes necessary for one to study the cost functions of the

available thermal units, their power limits and the maximum power demand of the whole country

at a particular time so as to carry out the ELD problem.

Thesis Outline

The thesis consists of six chapters. The first chapter presents the general introduction of the Nigerian

power generating stations, the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and the Economic Load Dispatch

(ELD) problem. Chapter two covers the literature review of Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) problem and

the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). In chapter three, the study of the 330KV Nigerian network; line

parameters, bus voltages, power demand and power generated at each bus are presented. Also in chapter

three, the method followed, to achieve the ELD problem using PSO is presented. Chapter four presents the

simulation results of some sample systems. Furthermore, in this chapter, the results of economic dispatch
of the Nigerian hydro-thermal are presented. Discussion of the results falls under chapter five. Finally,

chapter six presents the summary and conclusion of the whole thesis.

Literature Review

Despite extensive research focusing on thermal economic load dispatch, much of the efforts still today

have involved so as to obtain the most optimal dispatch at most optimal cost.

Happ() and IEEE Working Group() present the work of authors from the inception of economy loading as

far back as the early 1920’s, when engineers were concerned with the problem of economic allocation of

generation or the proper division of the load among the generating units available. prior to 1930, various

methods were in use such as ;(a) the base load method where the next most efficient unit is loaded to its

maximum capability, then the second most efficient unit is loaded, etc., (b) “best point loading,” where

units are successively loaded to their lowest heat rate point, beginning with the most efficient unit and

working down to the least efficient unit,etc. it was recognized as early as 1930, that the incremental

method, later known as the equal incremental method, yielded the most economic results.

Carpentier () chronicles the development of optimal power flows from its inception in 1961 and goes on to

review several solution methods in existence in 1978. A review of the optimal power flow (OPF) method

is also provided by Talukdar, et al.() and Burchett, et al. (). The authors in both of these references discuss

the relative performance criteria for different methodologies being employed in these procedures.

Luo,et al.() reduce the economic dispatch problem to a concise set of quasi-linear equations resulting in a

solution form similar to that of an electric network. The equations are in terms of the bus incremental cost,

otherwise known as the Lagrange multipliers. Luo, et al.() using ideas from their previous paper () develop

a network model for the economic dispatch problem using the bus incremental costs as potential
quantities. According to the authors’ theory, an area system may be reduced to a Thevenin equivalent for

economic dispatching by means of the network model.

Lung et al. [1] have presented ELD using direct search method. Liang et al.(1902) proposed a dynamic

programming (DP) technique used to solve economic dispatch including transmission losses. But these

classical methods are totally based on assumption values and do not follow converging solution for

inappropriate values selected.

Classical approaches were replaced by stochastic techniques which are efficient and flexible than

conventional approaches because of their ability to obtain satisfactory solution with well defined handling

of constraints. Many techniques have been employed to minimize total generating cost in electric power

system which includes genetic algorithm (GA), bacteria foraging method, differential evolution (DE),

artificial immune system (AIS), gravitational searching algorithm, artificial intelligence (AI) techniques,

evolutionary programming (EP) etc. Similar to EP approaches, behavioral intelligence technique namely

gravitational search intelligence has been applied in various optimization fields. Hong-da liu et al. (2006)

suggested immune GA for solving ELD. Chukiat Worasucheep et al.(2012) introduced real-coded GA to

solve scheduling of generating unit problem. But all the above discussed methods suffer from the problem

of memory requirement. S.H. Ling et al. developed improved GA for obtaining the solution of standard

ELD problem considering valve-point loading. J. Hazra et al. (2008) using bacteria foraging optimization

method to solve ELD.

Nidul Sinha et al.(2007) discussed the solution of ELD problem using non-dominated sorting DE

algorithm. B.Vanaja et al.(2008) presented AIS algorithm for carrying out the optimization of constrained

ELD problem with valve-point loading effect and it has been tested by changing the size of population for

obtaining the fast convergence, robustness and improved efficiency.

T. Kumano et al. (2011) solved ELD optimization problem considering valve point loading effect and

transmission losses using gravitational searching algorithm. Jun Wang (2011) presented a modified

mutative scale chaotic optimization approach for solving ELD 3 optimization problem in which a

descriptive load map is entitled to ensure the perfect satisfaction of constraints.

H. T. Jadhav(2012) investigated plant growth simulation algorithm for the scheduling of various

diversified wind farms and coal based units by using waybill probability distribution function considering

various constraints like valve Kron’s power loss, ramp rates, point loading effect, and prohibited zones. N.

A. Rahmat et al. (2012) suggested differential evolution ant colony optimization to solve ELD problem.

Sunny Orike (2013) investigated the solution of power flow problem optimally for ELD in case of power

generating industry using modified EA combined with hill-climbing and smart mutation.

Following a smart mutation operator and benchmark instances involving operational limits, ramp rates,

prohibited operating zones and power balancing constraints. Sunny Orike et al.(2012) proposed a novel

EA with a smart mutation operator method to solve ELD problem that set its focus mutation towards

genes contributing regarding limit violation and cost minimization.

Sk Md Ali Bulbull et al. (2014) presented a modified structure of GSA to solve nonlinear ELD

optimization problem using quasi-oppositional GSA employing population initialization based on

opposition and accelerate the convergence velocity of conventional GSA using generation jumping and

numerical results demonstrates improved performance of the proposed scheme both based on quality of

the solution obtained and the numerical efficiency.

Shaik Affijulla et al. (2011) solved ELD problem considering valve point loading using gravitational

search algorithm. Dieu Ngoc Vo et al. (2017) solved ELD problem containing piecewise quadratic cost

functions using a continuous neural network having its energy function corresponding to augmented
Lagrangian function i.e. enhanced augmented Lagrange Hopfield network for the purpose of determining

fuel type in two phases. R.K.

Swain et al. (2012) suggested gravitational search algorithm based on mass interaction and law of gravity

to solve highly constrained ELD problems. Manisha Sharma et al. (2011) explored and compared the

performance of a variety of DE strategies improved with time-varying mutation for solving the reserve

constrained multi-area economic dispatch problem. Qun Niu et al (2014) proposed a hybrid harmony

search namely arithmetic crossover operation incorporated with opposition based learning algorithm to

enhance the diversity of solutions obtained in static ELD with valve point loading effects, ELD with

multiple fuel cells, ELD with restrictive operating zones, dynamic ELD and combined heat and power

economic dispatch (CHPED). Particle swarm optimization proves to be effective for solving various types

of problems. G.Pranava et al. (2013) proposed PSO to solve ELD problem. Yamille del Valle et al. (2008)

explained basic structure of PSO with its different form. Gary G. Yen et al. (2006) proposed information

exchanging method between distinct swarms of PSO. Jun Sun et al. (2004) investigated the searching

ability of a particle based on quantum behaved PSO. Abolfazl Zaraki et al. (2009) suggested a reliable

based on evolutionary approach, PSO to solve the constraint ELD problem considering the fuel cost

equation as piecewise quadratic function for each generation units and the transmission losses expressed

using B-coefficient. K. Vaisakh et al. (2012) presented integration of bacterial foraging optimization

algorithm, PSO and DE to evolve bacterial foraging PSO-DE algorithm for solving economic dispatch

problem considering security constraints eliminating the difficulty of stagnation in solution using PSO and

DE operators and fine tuning of the solution is possible through DE operator.

Farheen et al. (2013) presented PSO algorithm to solve dynamic ELD satisfying all constraints including

generator constraints, valve point effect, transmission losses and ramp rate limits.
B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo et al. (2012) proposed time varying acceleration coefficients method to solve ELD

problem which is considered to be non-linear and non-convex in nature. Jong-Bae et al. (2003) suggested

new PSO framework approach to solve ELD problems considering with smooth cost functions as well as

with non-smooth cost functions with satisfactory satisfaction of equality and inequality constraints within

a realistic confiscation time. Ahmed Y. Saber et al. (2005) suggested modification of particle swarm

optimization technique to solve ELD problem which prove to be reliable and accurate method to track a

constantly varying solution with an suitable fitness function that lead to its convergence very quickly and

benchmark data is used to determine the effectiveness of the suggested method. Ahmed Y.

Saber et al. (2007) proposed a technique for effectively solving ELD problems using a novel modified

bacterial foraging technique (BFT) where particle’s best biased velocity is included to the random velocity

of BFT in order to minimize the randomness in movement. Xin MA et al. (2010) investigated the solution

of dynamic load economic dispatch problems in power systems using an improved PSO approach

considering constraints like prohibited operation zones and ramp rate limits including the loss criterion

where an improved strategy is utilized constraint handling that guarantee the feasible solution employed

with penalty functions resulting in high accuracy, fast speed and better convergence.

A. Jaini et al. (2010) suggested PSO algorithm to solve standards IEEE 26-bus RTS and the results

proved that the suggested approach has the merit of attaining feasible solution for solution of given

problems.

Yongqiang Wang et al. (2010) proposed a hybrid technique to solve ELD problem using PSO combined

simulated annealing method in which SA algorithm help PSO in jumping out of the local minima and

obtain a feasible converging solution employed with feasibility-based rule for the satisfactory handling of

the constraints. Shaik Affijulla et al. (2011) applied PSO technique to solve large scale ELD problem

including valve point loading, tested on standard test problems and results has shown that the proposed
method can handle large scale optimization problems with a great potential in obtaining feasible solution

in comparatively a short interval of time. Ahmed Y. Saber et al. (2011) suggested hybridized technique to

exactly provide a balance in local and global search to solve ELD problem taking into consideration non-

smooth cost functions and all realistic complex constraints using particle swarm differential evolution

optimization technique combining basic structures of PSO and DE strategies and was tested for standard

ELD problems to indicate the improved overall performance of the suggested PSDEO strategy. N.

Rugthaicharoencheep et al. (2011) investigated ELD solution using PSO approach and the performance

considering standard test systems is demonstrated which shows that developed methodology is better in

results when compared to other stochastic algorithms. T. Mabu Subhani (2012) presented PSO algorithm

with an automation strategy in which time varying acceleration coefficients (TVAC) are included for

controlling local and global searching more effectively to avoid premature convergence of the solution

using time varying acceleration coefficients based PSO in order to carry out the solution of ELD problem

considering non-convex cost functions and the results shows the better performance of the proposed

technique. Nagendra Singh (2013) suggested the solution of ELD optimization problem considering

emission as constraint using moderate-random PSO (MRPSO) which is combination of a novel PSO with

a moderate random search strategy and results shows the validation of the suggested MRPSO technique.

Farheen M.A. et al. (2013) presented the solution to basic dynamic ELD optimization problem using PSO

algorithm developed through the integration of a basic social system to search a feasible operating

schedule for each of the generator units considering various system constraints such as transmission

losses, valve point effect, generator constraints, and ramp rate limits. Koustav Dasgupta et al. (2014)

considered four modified structures of basic PSO i.e. PSO, PSO with constriction factor approach

(PSOCFA), PSO with inertia weight factor approach (PSOIWA) and PSO with constriction factor and

inertia weight factor approach (PSOCFIWA) algorithms to solve ELD problem obtaining the power output
and feasible minimal cost in a very short duration of time that shows successful implementation of these

evolutionary algorithms. Yu Zhu et al. (2013) presented a hybridized structured algorithm to solve basic

ELD problem following PSO approach employed with chaotic searching (CPSO) to avoid trapping in the

local optimum and obtaining improved performance and the results verified the validity of the proposed

technique. Chao-Lung Chiang (2005) suggested the solution of power ELD problem of units considering

valve-point effect using an improved GA with multiplier updating. Koustav Dasgupta et al. (2014)

investigated the performance of four evolutionary algorithms i.e. PSO, PSO with inertia weight factor

approach, PSO with constriction factor and inertia weight factor approach and PSO with constriction

factor approach algorithms to ELD.

In this thesis work, modified PSO technique is implemented to solve ELD solution to obtain the

best converging solution. During the iteration, acceleration constant is varied to improve the searching

capability of PSO. Thus, optimal solution of the problem is obtained assuring constraint satisfaction.

Results thus obtained using modified particle swarm optimization is converging in nature.
IMPLEMENTATION

ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH USING PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION (PSO)

Introduction

The ELD problem involves generation scheduling with minimized cost and all other constraints satisfied.

In general, power system tends to deal with such objectives to achieve economic operations. Economic

load dispatch problem with quadratic nature of cost function is incorporated with some of the equality and

inequality constraints which are required to be handled in an organized manner. Modified particle swarm

optimization is an algorithm used to solve such load dispatch problems. But the main problem with such a

technique is its unconstrained nature. A constraint handling method should be incorporated in the PSO

technique for solving the power generation optimization application for solving ELD problem. Modified

PSO can be employed to the given problem by allocating optimally the power generation within its

working limits and thus satisfying the total demand for the system.

Formulation of Objective Function

The formulation of ELD problem attempts to minimize cost with all the constraints satisfied. It can be

done by formulating the given problem being implemented by modified PSO which may include an

objective function containing a cost function component and error values (Farheen 2013). The cost

function corresponding to fossil fuel employed for each of the generator is expressed as a quadratic

expression [41]. Thus, the total cost of fuel in terms of power output can be represented as:
G

[ {
F=∑ ( ai P2i +b i P i +c i + d i sin ei ( P min
i =1
}]
i −Pi ) )

4.2.1 Equality and inequality constraint handling:

Out of all the units, one of the generating units is selected randomly as a dependent operating unit in order

to satisfy the heat balance constraint (Zhu et al 2013). The power corresponding to this depended

generating unit is calculated as follows:

{ }
G
P1 = P D − ∑ P i ; Pi=0
i=1, i≠dp 2)

The dependent generating unit can be set at its respective limiting values in case it violates the respective

constraint as indicated in the equation:

{
min; Pi< P
Pi
min
i

P= max
Pi Pi >P max (i = 1,2,…G,i ≠ dp) ()(4.3)
i
min max
0; P i ≤ Pi ≤ P i

If the solution lies outside the limits, corresponding error can be computed as follows:

E ( P )=¿ ()4

Thus, for violation of constraint regarding the power of dependent unit, inequality constraint handling

technique as explained in equation above is incorporated. In case it violates the limit then error term is

calculated and a penalty term is incorporated to the objective function after restricting the value of the

dependent generator within the limit (Chiang 2005).

4.2.2 Objective function:

In order to judge the modified particle swarm optimization technique effectiveness on ELD problem, the

objective function is evaluated for each of the generating units (K.vaisakh et al 2012). It is evaluated by

simulating the cost function and penalty and the main objective is to minimize this objective function with

satisfactory handling of constraints which expressed in the following equation:

OF(P) = F(P) + r * error (5)

where error = E(P) and ‘r’ represent penalty parameter.

The procedure of mapping the technique to the given problem directly affects its feasibility and

performance. Thus following steps are followed while implementing the modified PSO algorithm to the

ELD problem (R.K. Swain et al 2012):

Step1 Parameter setting

The parameters for the modified PSO technique must be selected correctly since it is a parameter

dependent approach. These parameters may include cognitive coefficients, swarm size, social coefficient,

Inertial Weight, constriction factor, operational limits of the generating units and maximum number of

iterations.

Step2 Generation of initial population

The population is initialized randomly within the restrictive maximum and minimum limits for each of the

generating units such that whole of the population thus formed must be satisfying all the constraints

(R.K Swain et al 2012).

Step3 Treatment of constraints

Constraint must be satisfied throughout the optimization process and it can be obtained by following the

independent equality and inequality constraint handling techniques as explained before in equation (15)

and (16).

Step4 Objective function evaluation

Objective function for each of the generating units is formulated by simulating cost function and penalty

value and thus objective is to minimize this function as explained in equation (18).

Step5 Updating the best local values for each generating unit

The local best values can be updated by comparing the modified values with the previous local best ones

(Manisha et al 2011). In every iteration previous values and the updated values are compared for each of

the units to obtain local best value. In a similar manner, the global best value can be updated by comparing
the previously obtained global best to the minimum value out of the local best values. At each iteration,

all obtained values are compared and resulting value forms the global best solution.

Step6 Checking the updated population for bound violations

It is possible that constraints may get violated during the updating process. Thus, each of the generating

unit is checked for the restrictive values and in case found violated, it made to follow the procedure as

indicated in equation (15) to (17).

Step7 Stopping criterion

The above procedural steps are followed in the provided sequence until maximum number of iteration is

reached where the optimization process terminates and obtained global best value forms the minimum cost

and the local best values corresponding to each of the generating units represents the required solution.

EXPECTED RESULTS

The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed PSO algorithm will be tested with a standard IEEE 3

generating units system, 6-bus test system which will be applied to the coordination of the Nigeria thermal

generating station based on the data obtain. five methods will be used for solving the Economic load

Dispatch. Firstly the problem is solved by conventional genetic algorithm (CGA) method. Secondly by

micro genetic algorithm (MGA), thirdly by Differential Evolutionary (DE), fourthly by Then finally the

proposed PSO method will be applied to solve the problem using MATLAB software program and verify

on the IEEE 3-Generating units, 6-bus test system and Nigeria network. A reasonable loss coefficients
matrix of power system network will be employed to draw the transmission line loss and satisfy the

transmission capacity constraints. The generator cost coefficients, generation limits and B- coefficient

matrix of six units system will be taken.

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