INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKES

• What is an earthquake? An earthquake is a natural phenomenon characterized by the

sudden release of energy in the earth's crust, resulting in seismic waves that travel through
and around the earth. This vibration of earth's surface can range from barely noticeable to
catastrophically destructive.

• Formal definition: "an earthquake is shaking of the surface of earth, caused by sudden
movement in the earth's crust. They are the result of a sudden release of energy in the
earth's crust that creates seismic waves.“

• THE SCIENCE BEHIND EARTHQUAKES:

• Earth's crust is constantly under stress due to tectonic forces

• When stress exceeds rock strength, sudden rupture occurs

• Energy releases in form of seismic waves

• These waves travel through earth causing ground shaking

 EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY & STRUCTURE

1. Focus (Hypocenter):
•Origin point of the earthquake
•Location where rocks first break
•Point of initial energy release
•Can be at various depths within Earth
2. Epicenter:
•Point directly above focus on Earth's
surface
•Reference point for earthquake location
•First point to experience seismic waves
•Used for earthquake reporting and
measurements
3. Focal Depth:
4. Epicentral Distance:
•Vertical distance from focus to surface
•Distance from epicenter to any point of
•Determines earthquake classification:
interest
• Shallow: < 70 km
•Critical for:
• Intermediate: 70-300 km
• Calculating earthquake intensity
• Deep: > 300 km
• Determining damage potential
• Planning emergency response
 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

• A. NATURAL CAUSES:

• 1. TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES Tectonic earthquakes occur when energy stored in rocks is

suddenly released due to movement along fault lines. These movements are driven by the constant
motion of tectonic plates beneath earth's surface. When stress builds up in rocks over time, they
eventually reach their breaking point, causing a sudden rupture that releases seismic waves. These
account for approximately 90% of all recorded earthquakes and are typically the most destructive in
nature. The energy release can occur at various depths, from near the surface to hundreds of
kilometers deep within the earth.
 TECTONIC PLATE THEORY (TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES)

• Plate tectonics is the movement of 7 major plates of earth crust. Movement of these plates
is due to the generation of convective current inside the earth. Generation of this
convective current is due to huge temperature differences between core and crust. Due to
this movement, displacement will take place in the rocks of earth crust, due to
displacement work has been done and work will be stored in the form of energy called as
strain energy.

• Due to this displacement, a slip will take place in the faults of rock. Length of faults may
vary from 1 m to many km. Due to slip stored strained energy will be released which will
induce violent shaking of earth called earthquake.

• 99% of eq’s taken place on the boundaries of plate (the countries like japan, california and
san francisco lie on the border of the plates) such eq are called as interplate eq, 1% of eq
takes place within the plates called intreplate eq’s

Tectonic plates

1) North American Plate 2) South American Plate 3) Eurasian Plate 4) African Plate

5) Indo-Austrailian Plate 6) Pacific Plate 7) Antartic Plate

 ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY:

• After divesting EQ in san francisco in 1906 a fault trace was discovered that could be
followed along the ground in more or less straight line for 270 miles. It was found that the
earth on 1 side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on thru other side of the
fault upto 21 feet and this fault drawn the attention of many scientists, but no 1 was able
to explain what happening within the earth to cause EQ.

• Prof. Of geology H F reid (1911) introduced the concept of possible mode of orgin of
tectonics EQ and is known as elastic rebound theory. According to this theory materials of
the earth being elastic and can withstand a certain amount of stress without deforming
permanently, but if the stress is continued for long time or if the magnitude is increased,
the rocks will first take permanent deformation . A fault is a fracture in the materials of
the earth along which there has been displacement. When the rupture occurs, rock on
either side of the fault tends to return to their original shape because of their elasticity and
elastic rebound occurs. This rebound sets up seismic waves, thus the energy storied in the
system through decade is released instantaneously causing underground dislocation of
rock and setting up vibration.
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY:-

• Continental drift was a revolutionary scientific theory developed in the years 1908-1912 by
alfred wegener, a german meteorologist, climatologist, and geophysicist, that put forth the
hypothesis that the continents had all originally been a part of one enormous landmass or
supercontinent about 240 million years ago before breaking apart and drifting to their current
locations. Based on the work of previous scientists who had theorized about horizontal
movement of the continents over the earth’s surface during different periods of geologic time,
and based on his own observations drawing from different fields of science, wegener postulated
that about 200 million years ago this supercontinent that he called “pangaea,” (which means “all
lands” in greek) began to break up.
• Over millions of years the pieces separated, first into two smaller supercontinents during the
jurassic period, called laurasia and gondwanaland, and then by the end of the cretaceous period,
into the continents we know today.
• 2. Volcanic earthquakes these earthquakes are intimately connected with volcanic
processes and occur in or near volcanic regions. They are triggered when magma and
volcanic gases move through the earth's crust, creating pressure that fractures surrounding
rock formations. While usually smaller in magnitude compared to tectonic earthquakes,
volcanic earthquakes are significant because they often serve as early warning signs of
impending volcanic eruptions. The tremors are typically shallow and their effects are
usually localized to the volcanic region.

• 3. Collapse earthquakes collapse earthquakes result from the sudden failure of

underground cavities, whether natural or artificial. These cavities might be natural caves
formed by dissolution of rocks, or man-made spaces created by mining activities. When
the roof of such a cavity can no longer support the weight above it, it collapses,
generating seismic waves. Though generally smaller in magnitude, these earthquakes can
cause significant local damage, especially in mining regions.
 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

• B. Human-induced causes:
• 1. Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) this phenomenon occurs when large
bodies of water are created by dam construction. The immense weight of the
water exerts additional pressure on the underlying rock formations. This added
pressure can alter the stress patterns in the rock, potentially triggering
earthquakes along existing fault lines. A classic example is the 1967 koyna dam
earthquake in india, which reached a magnitude of 6.5, demonstrating how
human activities can trigger significant seismic events.

• 2. Mining activities human mining operations can trigger seismic activity

through various mechanisms. Underground explosions used in mining create
shock waves that can destabilize rock formations. The removal of large volumes
of underground material creates voids that can lead to ground subsidence. While
these induced earthquakes are usually small in magnitude, their frequent
occurrence and proximity to human settlements make them a significant
concern for mining communities. The impact is typically localized but can cause
cumulative damage to nearby structures over time.
 EFFECTS OF AN EQ

• 1. Direct effect- direct effect causes damages directly, including ground motion and
faulting.

• I) seismic waves, especially surface waves result in ground motion, such motion can
damage and sometimes completely destroy buildings

• Ii) EQ vibration may cause landslides and mud slides in the region consisting of hills and
steep slopes which can damage building and lead to loss of life

• Iii) soil vibration can either shake a building off its foundation or cause its foundation
disintegration

• Iv) in areas with very wet ground infilled land, near the coast or in location that have high
water table, ground shaking may lead to a problem of liquefaction.

• V) strong surface waves make the ground heavy and damage the structure.
 EFFECTS OF AN EQ

• 2. Indirect eeffect :- indirect effect cause damages indirectly as a result of the EQ

• I) following violent movement in the sea floor causes series of waves with extremely long
periods which are called tsunamis.

• Ii) sieches, similar to small tsunamis occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water in
reservoirs, lake and harbour shaken by eq.

• Iii) EQ can damage or rupture dams causing floods, resulting in damage of structure and
considerable loss of life.

• Iv) EQ can cause fire by damaging gas lines and snapping electric wires.
SEISMIC WAVES
 SEISMIC WAVES

• Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion.

• Response of material to the arrival of energy fronts released by rupture.

• Energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

Seismic waves defined by:

Where they move –Earth’s interior vs. Surface
How they move –vertically vs. Horizontally
How fast they move –meters per second
Types of Seismic Waves
There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different
ways.
Body waves
Surface waves.
Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only
move along the surfaces like ripples on water.
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.
TWO TYPES:
BODY WAVES
Travelling through the interior of the
earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an earthquake.
These waves are of a higher frequency
than surface waves.
• P OR PRIMARY WAVES
• S OR SECONDARY WAVES

SURFACE WAVES

• LOVE WAVES
• RAYLEIGH WAVE
 P or Primary waves

• The first kind of body wave is P wave or primary wave.

• This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to arrive at a seismic
station.

• P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth.

• It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air.

• P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they
do.

• Subjected to a p wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in,
which is the direction that the energy is travelling in, and is called the direction of wave
propagation.
 S OR SECONDARY WAVES

• The Second Type Of Body Wave Is The S Wave Or Secondary Wave,

Which Is The Second Wave You Feel In An Earthquake.
• S Wave Is Slower Than A P Wave And Can Only Move Through Solid
Rock, Not Through Any Liquid Medium.
• It Is This Property Of S Waves That Led Seismologists To Conclude That
The Earth's Outer Core Is A Liquid.
• S Waves Move Rock Particles Up And Down, Perpendicular To The
Direction That The Wave Is Travelling In (The Direction Of Wave
Propagation).
 SURFACE WAVES

• Travelling through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency

than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a
result.
• Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that are almost
enitrely responsible for the damage and destruction associated with
earthquakes.
• This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in
deeper earthquakes.
 LOVE WAVES

• THE FIRST KIND OF SURFACE WAVE IS CALLED A LOVE

WAVE, NAMED AFTER A.E.H. LOVE, A BRITISH
MATHEMATICIAN WHO WORKED OUT THE MATHEMATICAL
MODEL FOR THIS KIND OF WAVE IN 1911.
• IT'S THE FASTEST SURFACE WAVE AND MOVES THE GROUND
FROM SIDE-TO-SIDE.
• CONFINED TO THE SURFACE OF THE CRUST, LOVE WAVES
PRODUCE ENTIRELY HORIZONTAL MOTION.
 RAYLEIGH WAVES

• THE OTHER KIND OF SURFACE WAVE IS THE RAYLEIGH WAVE,

NAMED FOR JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT, LORD RAYLEIGH, WHO
MATHEMATICALLY PREDICTED THE EXISTENCE OF THIS KIND
OF WAVE IN 1885.
• A RAYLEIGH WAVE ROLLS ALONG THE GROUND JUST LIKE A
WAVE ROLLS ACROSS A LAKE OR AN OCEAN. BECAUSE IT
ROLLS, IT MOVES THE GROUND UP AND DOWN, AND SIDE-TO-
SIDE IN THE SAME DIRECTION THAT THE WAVE IS MOVING.
• MOST OF THE SHAKING FELT FROM AN EARTHQUAKE IS DUE TO
THE RAYLEIGH WAVE, WHICH CAN BE MUCH LARGER THAN THE
OTHER WAVES.