1

Basics of Civil Engineering

1.1 Role of Civil Engineers in Society

Civil engineering is one of the oldest stream of applied sciences. It comprises the
design, construction, as well as maintenance of public structures and infrastructure. In
other words, any engineering process that is done for a public project as opposed to
an individual project such as construction, repair or maintenance of roads, water and
sanitation systems, and so on is considered to be part of Civil engineering
Civil engineers play a vital role in society by designing, constructing, and main-
taining the infrastructure that we rely on every day. This infrastructure includes roads,
bridges, buildings, dams, airports, water systems, and sewage systems. Without the
work of Civil engineers, our world would be a very different place. Here are some of

Figure 1.1: Well engineering design for highway crossing bridge

the specific roles that Civil engineers play in society:

1.1 Role of Civil Engineers in Society 2

1. Designing and constructing buildings, bridges, and other structures: Civil engi-
neers use their knowledge of physics, math, and engineering principles to design
structures that are safe, efficient, and aesthetically pleasing. They also oversee the
construction of these structures to ensure that they are built according to plan.

2. Developing and managing water resources: Civil engineers design and build
water supply systems, wastewater treatment plants, and dams. They also work to
protect water resources from pollution.

3. Planning and designing transportation systems: Civil engineers design roads,

railways, airports, and other transportation systems. They also work to improve
traffic flow and safety.

4. Mitigating natural disasters: Civil engineers design and build structures that are
resistant to earthquakes, floods, and other natural disasters. They also work to
develop plans to mitigate the effects of these disasters.

5. Addressing climate change: Civil engineers are working to develop solutions to

climate change, such as designing more energy-efficient buildings and infrastruc-
ture.

6. Civil engineers are essential to the development and maintenance of our society:
Their work helps to ensure that we have safe and reliable infrastructure, clean
water, and transportation systems. Civil engineers are also playing a leading
role in addressing some of the world’s most pressing challenges, such as climate
change.

There are many different areas in Civil Engineering such as construction, transportation,
water resources, environmental engineering. Civil engineers are in high demand. There
are many job opportunities, if you are a creative and problem-solving individual who
is interested in making a difference in the world, then Civil engineering may be the
perfect career for you. The introduction will usually contain an overview of what is in
your project document. Typically, it will be the last section you write.
3 Basics of Civil Engineering

1.1.1 Future of Civil Engineering

The future of Civil engineering is exciting, as the field is evolving rapidly in response
to changing social, environmental, and technological trends. Here are some of the key
areas that will shape the future of Civil engineering:

1. Sustainability: Civil engineering will continue to prioritize sustainability, with

a focus on reducing waste and pollution, using renewable energy sources, and
conserving natural resources. There will also be an emphasis on designing infras-
tructure that is resilient to the impacts of climate change.

2. Digital technologies: Civil engineers are increasingly using digital technologies

such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and 3D printing to design and
build infrastructure more efficiently and cost-effectively. These technologies will
continue to transform the field, enabling faster and more accurate design and
construction processes.

3. Smart infrastructure: Civil engineers are also exploring the potential of smart in-
frastructure, which incorporates sensors and other digital technologies to monitor
and optimize the performance of infrastructure in real-time. This can help reduce
energy consumption, improve safety, and enhance the overall functionality of
infrastructure.

4. Advanced materials: The use of advanced materials such as high-performance

concrete, composites, and nano-materials is expanding, allowing for the creation
of more durable and resilient infrastructure that can withstand extreme conditions.

5. Integrated project delivery: Finally, Civil engineering is shifting towards more

integrated project delivery models, which bring together architects, engineers,
contractors, and owners in a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach to design
and construction. This approach can help ensure that infrastructure is designed
and built more efficiently, with a focus on reducing costs and improving outcomes.

In short, the future of Civil engineering is bright, with a focus on sustainability, digital
technologies, smart infrastructure, advanced materials, and integrated project delivery.
These trends will enable Civil engineers to design and build infrastructure that is more
1.2 Various Disciplines of Civil Engineering 4

resilient, efficient, and effective, and that meets the evolving needs of society in the
years to come.

1.2 Various Disciplines of Civil Engineering

There are many different disciplines of Civil engineering, each with its own unique
focus.
Here are some of the most common:

1. Structural Engineering: This discipline deals with the design, analysis, and con-
struction of structures, such as buildings, bridges, and dams. Structural engineers
must ensure that these structures are safe and can withstand the forces they are
subjected to.

2. Geotechnical Engineering: This discipline deals with the properties of soil and
rock, and how these materials affect the design and construction of structures.
Geotechnical engineers must understand how soil and rock behave under different
conditions, such as when they are subjected to load or vibration.

3. Transportation Engineering: This discipline deals with the planning, design,

construction, and operation of transportation systems, such as roads, railways,
and airports. Transportation engineers must consider factors such as traffic flow,
safety, and environmental impact.

4. Water resources Engineering: This discipline deals with the management of water
resources, such as water supply, wastewater treatment, and flood control. Water
resources engineers must understand the hydrologic cycle and how to develop
and implement sustainable water management practices.

5. Environmental Engineering: This discipline deals with the protection of the envi-
ronment from pollution. Environmental engineers design and implement wastew-
ater treatment plants, air pollution control systems, and other environmental
remediation projects.

6. Construction Engineering: This discipline deals with the planning, scheduling,

and management of construction projects. Construction engineers must be able
5 Basics of Civil Engineering

Figure 1.2: Disciplines of Civil Engg

to coordinate the activities of different contractors and ensure that projects are
completed on time and within budget.

7. Coastal Engineering: This discipline deals with the design, construction, and
maintenance of structures that protect coastal areas from erosion and flooding.
Coastal engineers must understand the forces of waves and tides and how to
design structures that can withstand these forces.

8. Earthquake Engineering: This discipline deals with the design and construction of
structures that can withstand earthquakes. Earthquake engineers must understand
the forces of earthquakes and how to design structures that can absorb these forces
without collapsing.

9. Materials Engineering: This discipline deals with the properties of materials, such
as concrete, steel, and wood. Materials engineers study how these materials
behave under different conditions and how to improve their properties.

Civil engineers work in a wide variety of industries, including construction, government,

and consulting. They play a vital role in the development and maintenance of our
infrastructure and environment.
The hardest discipline in Civil engineering is subjective and depends on the individ-
ual’s skills and interests. However, some of the most challenging disciplines include
structural engineering, geotechnical engineering, and environmental engineering. These
1.3 Structural Engineering 6

disciplines require a strong understanding of math and physics, as well as the ability to
solve complex problems.

1.3 Structural Engineering

Structural engineering is a branch of Civil engineering that deals with the design,
analysis, and construction of structures. Structures can be anything from buildings and
bridges to dams and tunnels. The goal of structural engineering is to design structures
that are safe, efficient, and aesthetically pleasing.
Structural engineers use their knowledge of physics, math, and engineering princi-
ples to design structures that can withstand the forces they are subjected to. These forces
can include gravity, wind, earthquakes, and impact. Structural engineers also consider
the materials that will be used to construct the structure and how these materials will
behave under different conditions. The design process for a structure typically begins

Figure 1.3: Structural Engineering

with an analysis of the loads that the structure will be subjected to. The engineer will
then select the materials and dimensions of the structure to ensure that it can withstand
these loads. The design process also includes an analysis of the structure’s stiffness and
stability.
Once the design is complete, the structural engineer will work with a contractor to
construct the structure. The engineer will oversee the construction process to ensure
that the structure is built according to plan.
Structural engineering is a challenging and rewarding career. Structural engineers
play a vital role in the design and construction of our infrastructure. They must be
7 Basics of Civil Engineering

creative and innovative in their approach to problem-solving, and they must have a
strong understanding of physics, math, and engineering principles.
Here are some of the key concepts in structural engineering:

1. Loads: The forces that act on a structure. Loads can be due to gravity, wind,
earthquakes, impact, or other sources.

2. Materials: The materials used to construct a structure. The properties of the

materials, such as strength, stiffness, and weight, will affect the design of the
structure.

3. Stiffness: The ability of a structure to resist deformation. A stiff structure will be

less likely to bend or collapse under load.

4. Stability: The ability of a structure to remain upright. A stable structure will not
topple over under load.

5. Analysis: The process of determining the forces and stresses in a structure. Struc-
tural analysis is used to design structures that are safe and efficient.

6. Design: The process of creating a plan for a structure. The design process includes
selecting the materials, dimensions, and shape of the structure.

7. Construction: The process of building a structure. The construction process must

follow the design plans to ensure that the structure is safe and meets the engineer’s
specifications.

1.4 Geo-technical Engineering

Geo-technical engineers investigate and determine the properties of subsurface condi-
tions and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining struc-
tures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which
may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of
natural hazards. Some of the key concepts in geotechnical engineering include:

1. Soil: A naturally occurring material that is composed of mineral particles and or-
ganic matter. Soils are classified based on their grain size, shape, and composition.
1.4 Geo-technical Engineering 8

Figure 1.4: Geotechnical Engineering

2. Rock: A naturally occurring solid material that is composed of one or more

minerals. Rocks are classified based on their composition, texture, and structure.

3. Soil mechanics: The study of the behavior of soils under the influence of loading
forces and soil-water interactions.

4. Rock mechanics: The study of the behavior of rocks under the influence of loading
forces and stress conditions.

5. Geotechnical engineering principles: The principles of soil mechanics and rock

mechanics are used to solve engineering problems involving earth materials. These
principles are used to design foundations, earthworks, and other geotechnical
structures.

6. Geotechnical site investigation: The process of collecting and interpreting data

about the subsurface conditions at a site. This data is used to design and construct
geotechnical structures that are safe and reliable.

7. Geotechnical risk assessment: The process of identifying and assessing the risks as-
sociated with a geotechnical project. This assessment is used to develop mitigation
strategies to reduce the risks.

Geo-technical engineering is a diverse and challenging field. Geo-technical engineers

play a vital role in the design and construction of our infrastructure. They must have
9 Basics of Civil Engineering

Figure 1.5: Classification of geo-technical engineering

a strong understanding of the engineering behavior of earth materials and be able to

apply this knowledge to solve real-world problems.

Fig. 1.5 demonstrates several branches related to geotechnical engineering and

their overlap. Geotechnical engineering activities are a part of a team effort involving
other disciplines including geology, structural engineering, construction management,
hydraulics, earthquake and transportation engineers, and other pertinent branches. The
final design of any project reflects a collaboration of these professions.

Geotechnical engineers work in a variety of industries, including construction,

government, and consulting. They typically work full-time and may have to travel for
work. The salary for geotechnical engineers varies depending on experience, education,
and location.

If you are a creative and problem-solving individual who is interested in making a

difference in the world, then geotechnical engineering may be the perfect career for you.
1.5 Transportation Engineering 10

1.5 Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is a branch of Civil engineering that deals with the planning,
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of transportation systems. Trans-
portation systems include roadways, railways, waterways, and airports. Transportation
engineers work to ensure the safe, efficient, and sustainable movement of people and
goods.

Figure 1.6: Transportation Systems

Some of the key concepts in transportation engineering include:

1. Traffic flow: The study of the movement of vehicles on a transportation network.

Traffic flow is influenced by factors such as the number of vehicles, the speed of
the vehicles, and the capacity of the network.

2. Transportation planning: The process of developing long-term plans for trans-

portation systems. Transportation planning takes into account factors such as
population growth, economic development, and environmental impact.

3. Transportation design: The process of designing specific transportation facilities,

such as roads, bridges, and tunnels. Transportation design must consider factors
such as traffic flow, safety, and environmental impact.

4. Transportation operations: The management of transportation systems on a day-

to-day basis. Transportation operations includes tasks such as traffic control,
maintenance, and emergency response.

5. Transportation economics: The study of the costs and benefits of transportation

systems. Transportation economics is used to evaluate different transportation
options and to make decisions about how to fund transportation projects.
11 Basics of Civil Engineering

6. Transportation policy: The development and implementation of laws and regula-

tions that govern transportation systems. Transportation policy is influenced by
factors such as safety, environmental protection, and economic development.

Transportation engineers work in a variety of settings, including government agencies,

private consulting firms, and transportation companies. They typically work full-
time and may have to travel for work. The salary for transportation engineers varies
depending on experience, education, and location. Transportation engineering is a
challenging and rewarding career. Transportation engineers play a vital role in the
development and maintenance of our transportation systems.
Here are some of the recent trends in transportation engineering:

1. Intelligent transportation systems (ITS): ITS are using technology to improve

the efficiency and safety of transportation systems. ITS technologies include
traffic signal control systems, variable message signs, and electronic toll collection
systems.

2. Sustainable transportation: Transportation engineers are working to develop

transportation systems that are more sustainable. This includes using alternative
fuels, such as electric vehicles, and designing transportation systems that are less
polluting.

3. Shared mobility: Shared mobility services, such as ride-hailing and bike sharing,
are becoming increasingly popular. Transportation engineers are working to
integrate these services into transportation systems.

4. Self-driving vehicles: Self-driving vehicles are still in the early stages of develop-
ment, but they have the potential to revolutionize transportation. Transportation
engineers are working to develop the infrastructure and regulations that will
support self-driving vehicles.

Transportation engineering is a rapidly evolving field. Transportation engineers who

are able to adapt to new technologies and trends will be in high demand in the years to
come.
1.6 Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering 12

1.6 Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering

Hydraulics and water resources engineering is a branch of Civil engineering that deals
with the flow of fluids, primarily water. It is a broad field that encompasses the design,
construction, and operation of hydraulic structures, such as dams, levees, and canals.
Hydraulic engineers also study the hydrology of watersheds, which is the science of
water movement in the environment. Some of the key concepts in hydraulics and water

Figure 1.7: Water cycle

resources engineering include:

1. Fluid mechanics: The study of the behavior of fluids, such as water and air. Fluid
mechanics is used to understand the flow of water through pipes, channels, and
other hydraulic structures.

2. Hydraulic structures: Structures that control the flow of water, such as dams, lev-
ees, and canals. Hydraulic structures are designed to protect people and property
from flooding, and to provide water for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use.

3. Hydrology: The science of water movement in the environment. Hydrology is

used to study the water cycle, the distribution of water in the Earth’s surface and
subsurface, and the impact of water on the environment.

4. Water resources management: The planning, development, and management

of water resources. Water resources management is used to ensure that there is
enough water available to meet the needs of people and the environment.
 13 Basics of Civil Engineering

Hydraulic and water resources engineers work in a variety of settings, including gov-
ernment agencies, private consulting firms, and engineering companies. They typically
work full-time and may have to travel for work. The salary for hydraulic and water
resources engineers varies depending on experience, education, and location.

Hydraulics and water resources engineering is a challenging and rewarding career.

Hydraulic and water resources engineers play a vital role in the management of our
water resources. They must be creative and innovative in their approach to problem-
solving, and they must have a strong understanding of math, science, and engineering
principles.

Here are some of the recent trends in hydraulics and water resources engineering:

1. Sustainable water management: Hydraulic and water resources engineers are

working to develop sustainable water management practices. This includes using
water conservation measures, such as rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse,
and developing drought-resistant crops.

2. Climate change: Climate change is affecting the water cycle, and hydraulic and
water resources engineers are working to adapt to these changes. This includes de-
veloping new methods for storing and distributing water, and designing hydraulic
structures that are more resilient to extreme weather events.

3. Water quality: Hydraulic and water resources engineers are working to improve
water quality. This includes developing methods for removing pollutants from
water, and designing hydraulic structures that protect water quality.

4. Water security: Water security is the ability of a country or region to access enough
water to meet its needs. Hydraulic and water resources engineers are working to
improve water security by developing new sources of water, such as desalination
plants, and by improving the efficiency of water use. Hydraulics and water
resources engineering is a rapidly evolving field. Hydraulic and water resources
engineers who are able to adapt to new technologies and trends will be in high
demand in the years to come.
1.7 Environmental Engineering 14

1.7 Environmental Engineering

The scope of environmental engineering is wide and covers a variety of areas, including:

1. Water resources engineering: This field deals with the management of water
resources, such as drinking water, wastewater, and storm water. Environmental
engineers in this field design and operate water treatment plants, develop water
conservation plans, and assess the impact of water pollution.

2. Air quality engineering: This field deals with the control of air pollution, such as
from vehicles, factories, and power plants. Environmental engineers in this field
design and operate air pollution control devices, develop emission standards, and
assess the impact of air pollution on human health and the environment.

3. Solid waste management: This field deals with the collection, transportation,
treatment, and disposal of solid waste. Environmental engineers in this field
design and operate landfills, incinerators, and recycling facilities, and develop
waste reduction programs.

Figure 1.8: Environmental Engineering

4. Environmental impact assessment: This field involves assessing the environmental

impacts of proposed projects, such as new construction or land development.
 15 Basics of Civil Engineering

Environmental engineers in this field collect data, conduct studies, and prepare
reports that are used to make decisions about whether or not to approve a project.

5. Environmental monitoring: This field involves collecting and analyzing data on

environmental quality, such as air quality, water quality, and soil quality. Environ-
mental engineers in this field use this data to identify and track environmental
problems, and to assess the effectiveness of pollution control measures.

6. Environmental remediation: This field involves cleaning up contaminated sites,

such as brownfields and Superfund sites. Environmental engineers in this field
design and implement remediation plans, and monitor the effectiveness of these
plans.

In addition to these specific areas, environmental engineers also work in a variety of

other fields, such as environmental policy, environmental consulting, and environmental
education.
The scope of environmental engineering is growing rapidly due to increasing con-
cerns about climate change, pollution, and other environmental problems. As a result,
there is a high demand for environmental engineers in India and around the world.

1.8 Building Construction and Planning

The scope of building construction and planning can vary greatly depending on the
size, complexity, and type of building.
However, some of the common tasks involved in building construction and planning
include:

1. Site selection and acquisition: The first step in any construction project is to select
the site where the building will be built. This includes evaluating the site’s physical
characteristics, such as its size, soil conditions, and proximity to utilities. The site
must also be acquired, which may involve purchasing the land or obtaining a
lease.

2. Design: Once the site has been selected, the next step is to design the building.
This includes creating architectural drawings and specifications that detail the
building’s layout, materials, and finishes.
1.8 Building Construction and Planning 16

Figure 1.9: Building Construction

3. Engineering: The engineering phase of a construction project involves design-

ing the building’s structural systems, such as its foundation, framing, and roof.
Engineers also design the building’s mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems.

4. Procurement: The procurement phase involves obtaining the materials and equip-
ment needed to build the building. This includes bidding out contracts to suppliers
and subcontractors.

5. Construction: The construction phase is when the building is actually built. This
involves erecting the structure, installing the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
systems, and finishing the interior and exterior of the building.

6. Testing and commissioning: Once the building is constructed, it must be tested

and commissioned to ensure that it meets all of the design and performance
requirements. This includes testing the building’s structural systems, mechanical
systems, and electrical systems.

7. Occupancy: Once the building has been tested and commissioned, it is ready
for occupancy. This may involve obtaining permits and licenses from the local
 17 Basics of Civil Engineering

government.

The scope of building construction and planning can also include other tasks, such
as environmental impact assessment, permitting, and financing. The specific tasks
involved will vary depending on the specific project.
The scope of work is a document that describes the work to be performed on a
construction project. It is typically prepared by the owner or their consultant and
included in tender documentation for construction works. The scope of work should be
clear, concise, and complete, and it should be agreed upon by all parties involved in the
project.
A well-defined scope of work is essential for the successful completion of a construc-
tion project. It helps to ensure that all parties involved have a clear understanding of
the work that needs to be done, and it helps to avoid disputes and delays.

1.9 Building Materials, Cement, Aggregate and Bricks

Building materials are materials used in the construction of buildings and other struc-
tures. They can be natural or man-made, and they are chosen for their strength, durabil-
ity, cost, and other properties.
Some of the most common building materials include wood, concrete, steel, brick,
and glass.

• Bricks are a type of building material made from clay that has been fired in a kiln.
They are strong and durable, and they can be used for a variety of purposes, such
as building walls, chimneys, and fireplaces.

• Cement is a binding agent that is used to hold together other materials, such as
sand and gravel. It is made from limestone, clay, and sand that have been heated
and ground into a fine powder. Cement is used to make concrete, mortar, and
grout.

• Aggregate is a term used to describe any inert material that is used to add bulk
to concrete, mortar, or grout. It can be made from sand, gravel, crushed stone,
or other materials. Aggregate helps to improve the strength and durability of
concrete.
1.9 Building Materials, Cement, Aggregate and Bricks 18

Figure 1.10: Building Materials

These are just a few of the many different types of building materials that are
available. The choice of which material to use will depend on the specific application
and the desired properties.
Here are some of the factors that are considered when choosing building materials:

1. Strength: The material must be strong enough to support the load that it will be
subjected to.

2. Durability: The material must be able to withstand the elements and other envi-
ronmental factors.

3. Cost: The material must be affordable and cost-effective.

4. Availability: The material must be readily available and easy to transport.

5. Appearance: The material must have the desired appearance.

6. Environmental impact: The material must have a low environmental impact.

The choice of building materials is an important decision that will affect the quality,
durability, and cost of a building. By carefully considering the factors involved, you can
choose the best materials for your project.

1.9.1 Good Qualities of Cement

1. The colour should be uniform.

2. Cement should be uniform when touched.

19 Basics of Civil Engineering

3. Cement should be cool when felt with hand. If a small quantity of cement is
thrown into a bucket of water, it should sink.

4. Cement should be free from lumps.

5. Cement mortar at the age of three days should have a compressive strength of
11.5 N/mm2 and tensile strength of 2 N/mm2 . Also, at the age of seven days,
compressive Basic Civil Engineering 1.16 strength should not be less than 17.5
N/mm2 and tensile strength should not be less than 2.5 N/mm2 .

6. In cement, the ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide should not be
less than 0.66.

7. When ignited, cement should not lose more than 4 per cent of its weight.

8. The total sulphur content of cement should not be greater than 2.75 per cent.

9. The weight of insoluble residue in cement should not be greater than 1.5 per cent.

10. Weight of magnesia in cement should not exceed 5 per cent.

11. The specific surface of cement as found from the fineness test should not be less
than 2250 mm2 /gm.

12. The initial setting time of cement should not be less than 30 minutes and the final
setting time shall be around 10 hours.

13. The expansion of cement should not be greater than 10 mm when soundness test
is conducted.

1.9.2 Uses of Cement

1. Cement mortar, a mixture of cement and sand, is used for masonry work, plaster-
ing, pointing and in joints of pipes, drains, etc.

2. Cement is the binding material in concrete used for laying floors, roofs and
constructing lintels, beams, weather sheds, stairs, pillars, etc.

3. Construction of important engineering structures, such as bridges, culverts, dams,

tunnels, storage reservoirs, lighthouses and docks needs cement.
1.9 Building Materials, Cement, Aggregate and Bricks 20

4. The manufacture of precast piles, pipes, garden seats, artistically designed urns,
flower pots, dust bins, fencing post, etc., requires cement.

5. For underwater construction, quick setting cement is used. Rapid hardening

cement is used for structures requiring early strength.

6. White and coloured cements are used for imparting coloured finishes to the floors,
panels and exterior surfaces of buildings.

7. Expansive cements, which expands while setting, can be used in repair works of
cracks.

1.9.3 Types of Cement

In addition to ordinary Portland cement there are many varieties of cement as

1. White Cement: The cement when made free from colouring oxides of iron, maga-
nese and chlorium results into white cement. In the manufacture of this cement,
the oil fuel is used instead of coal for burning. White cement is used for the floor
finishes, plastering, ornamental works etc. In swimming pools white cement is
used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing marbles and glazed tiles.

2. Coloured Cement: The cements of desired colours are produced by intimately

mixing pigments with ordinary cement. The chlorium oxide gives green colour.
Cobalt produce blue colour. Iron oxide with different proportion produce brown,
red or yellow colour. Addition of manganese dioxide gives black or brown
coloured cement. These cements are used for giving finishing touches to floors,
walls, window sills, roofs etc.

3. Quick Setting Cement: Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the per-
centage of gypsum and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate during
the manufacture of cement. Finer grinding also adds to quick setting property.
This cement starts setting within 5 minutes after adding water and becomes hard
mass within 30 minutes. This cement is used to lay concrete under static or slowly
running water.
21 Basics of Civil Engineering

4. Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime

content and burning at high temperature while manufacturing cement. Grinding
to very fine is also necessary. Though the initial and final setting time of this
cement is the same as that of portland cement, it gains strength in early days. This
property helps in earlier removal of form works and speed in construction activity.

5. Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat pro-
duced due to hydration of cement will not get dispersed easily. This may give rise
to cracks. Hence in such constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement. This
cement contains low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher
percentage (46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S).

6. Pozzulana Cement: Pozzulana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be

processed from shales and certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzulana
material is 10 to 30 per cent. It can resist action of sulphate. It releases less heat
during setting. It imparts higher degree of water tightness. Its tensile strength is
high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass concrete works. It is also
used in sewage line works.

7. Expanding Cement: This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved

by adding expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and a stabilizing agent to
ordinary cement. This is used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.

8. High Alumina Cement: It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and

bauxite. It is more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full
strength within 24 hours of adding water. It is used for under water works.

9. Blast Furnace Cement: In the manufacture of pig iron, slag comes out as a waste
product. By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag,
this cement is produced. The properties of this cement are more or less same as
ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since it utilise waste product. This cement is
durable but it gains the strength slowly and hence needs longer period of curing.

10. Acid Resistant Cement:This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggre-
gated such as quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has
1.10 Introduction to stones 22

good resistance to action of acid and water. It is commonly used in the construction
of chemical factories.

11. Sulphate Resistant Cement: By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate

C3A below five per cent in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used
in the construction of structures which are likely to be damaged by alkaline
conditions. Examples of such structures are canals, culverts etc.

12. Fly Ash Blended Cement: Fly ash is a byproduct in thermal stations. The particles
of fly ash are very minute and they fly in the air, creating air pollution problems.
Thermal power stations have to spend lot of money to arrest fly ash and dispose
safely. It is found that one of the best way to dispose fly ash is to mix it with cement
in controlled condition and derive some of the beneficiary effects on cement. Now-
a-days cement factories produce the fly ash in their own thermal stations or borrow
it from other thermal stations and further process it to make it suitable to blend
with cement. 20 to 30% fly ash is used for blending. Fly ash blended cements have
superior quality of resistance to weathering action. The ultimate strength gained
is the same as that with ordinary portland cement. However strength gained in
the initial stage is slow. Birla plus, Birla star, A.C.C. Suraksha are some of the
brand make of blended cement

1.10 Introduction to stones

Stone is a natural building material that has been used for centuries to construct some
of the most iconic and enduring structures in the world. It is a strong, durable, and
versatile material that can be used for a wide range of applications, from foundations
and walls to floors and decorative elements.

1.10.1 Sources of Stones

The primary source of stones for commercial use is quarrying. Quarrying is the process
of extracting stones from the ground.
Stones can be found in a variety of locations on Earth, including:
 23 Basics of Civil Engineering

1. Riverbeds and streams: Stones of all sizes can be found in riverbeds and streams,
where they have been deposited by flowing water.

2. Beaches: Stones can also be found on beaches, where they have been washed up
by the waves.

3. Mountains and hills: Stones are also found in mountains and hills, where they
have been exposed by erosion.

4. Caves and mines: Stones can also be found in caves and mines, where they have
been formed over millions of years.

Quarries can be found in a variety of locations, but they are most commonly found in
areas with large deposits of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

1.10.2 Types of building stones

There are many different types of building stones, each with its own unique properties
and characteristics. Some of the most common types of building stones include:

1. Igneous rocks: These rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of
magma or lava. Igneous rocks are typically very strong and durable, making them
ideal for use in building construction. Some common igneous building stones
include granite, basalt, and gabbro.

2. Metamorphic rocks: These rocks are formed from the transformation of existing
rocks through heat, pressure, or chemical processes. Metamorphic rocks are also
typically very strong and durable, and they can be found in a wide variety of
colors and textures. Some common metamorphic building stones include marble,
slate, and quartzite.

3. Sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the accumulation and com-
paction of sediments over time. Sedimentary rocks can be less strong and durable
than igneous and metamorphic rocks, but they are still widely used in build-
ing construction. Some common sedimentary building stones include limestone,
sandstone, and dolomite.
1.10 Introduction to stones 24

1.10.3 Properties of building stones

When selecting a building stone, it is important to consider the following properties:

1. Strength: The strength of a building stone is its ability to resist forces such as
compression, tension, and shear. Stronger stones are better suited for use in
load-bearing applications, such as foundations and walls.

2. Durability: The durability of a building stone is its resistance to weathering and

other forms of degradation. Durable stones are better suited for use in outdoor
applications.

3. Appearance: The appearance of a building stone is important for aesthetic reasons.

Stones come in a wide variety of colors, textures, and finishes.

4. Cost: The cost of a building stone is another important factor to consider. Some
stones, such as marble and granite, can be quite expensive.

1.10.4 Tests on Stones

To certain the required properties of stones, the following tests can conducted:

1. Crushing strength test

2. Water absorption test

3. Abrasion test

4. Impact test

5. Acid test.

1.10.5 Applications of building stones

Building stones can be used for a wide range of applications, including:

1. Foundations and walls: Building stones are often used to construct foundations
and walls because of their strength and durability.

2. Floors: Building stones can also be used for flooring applications. Stone floors are
durable and easy to clean.
25 Basics of Civil Engineering

3. Decorative elements: Building stones can also be used to create decorative ele-
ments, such as columns, arches, and fireplaces. Stone is a versatile material that
can be used to create a wide variety of architectural styles.

4. Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and
arches.

5. Landscaping: Stones are used in landscaping to create walkways, patios, and

other features.

6. Sculpture and art: Stones are used by sculptors and artists to create works of art.

7. Jewelry: Stones are used to make jewelry, such as rings, necklaces, and earrings.

8. Industry: Stones are used in a variety of industrial applications, such as the

production of glass and cement.
1.11 Sand 26

1.11 Sand
Building sand, also known as masonry sand, is a type of sand that is used in construction.
It is typically made up of small particles of decomposed rock, such as quartz, feldspar,
and mica. Building sand is typically well-graded, meaning that it contains a variety of
particle sizes. This makes it ideal for use in concrete, mortar, and other construction
materials.
Building sand is used in a wide variety of construction applications, including:

1. Concrete: Building sand is the second most common ingredient in concrete, after
water. It provides bulk and strength to concrete.

2. Mortar: Building sand is mixed with cement and water to create mortar, which is
used to bind bricks and stones together.

3. Plaster: Building sand is also used in plaster, which is a thin layer of material that
is applied to walls and ceilings to create a smooth surface.

4. Grout: Building sand is also used in grout, which is a fluid material that is used to
fill in voids and gaps in masonry construction.

5. It is used for filling in the basement of buildings to receive the flooring concrete.

6. It is used as a binding material on the top of bituminous road.

7. It imparts mechanical strength to the mortar and prevents shrinkage and cracking
of mortar while setting.

8. It forms major portion of mortar and reduces the cost of mortar.

9. It is mixed with expensive clay soils to stabilise them and prevent cracking of clay
soils due to seasonal moisture changes.

Building sand is typically graded according to its particle size. The most common
grades of building sand are:

1. Fine sand: Fine sand has particles that are less than 0.19 mm in diameter. It is
typically used in plaster and mortar.
 27 Basics of Civil Engineering

2. Medium sand: Medium sand has particles that are between 0.19 mm and 0.63 mm
in diameter. It is typically used in concrete and mortar.

3. Coarse sand: Coarse sand has particles that are between 0.63 mm and 2.0 mm in
diameter. It is typically used in concrete and masonry construction.

When choosing building sand, it is important to select the appropriate grade for the
intended application. It is also important to make sure that the sand is clean and free of
impurities.
Here are some additional things to keep in mind about building sand:

1. Building sand should be washed to remove any impurities, such as clay, silt, and
organic matter.

2. Building sand should be well-graded, meaning that it should contain a variety of

particle sizes. This helps to create a strong and durable concrete or mortar mix.

3. Building sand should be free of salts, which can attract moisture and cause corro-
sion.

4. Building sand should be stored in a dry place to prevent it from becoming con-
taminated.

1.11.1 Classification of sand

According to the nature of source, sand is classified into two groups:

1. Natural Sand : Natural sand Is the one which is carried by the river water and is
quarried from the river bed, when the river becomes dry.

2. Artificial Sand: Artificial sand Is the one which is the outcome of crushing and
breaking stones into different sizes of stone aggregates in a stone crushing plant
(or) crushed gravel sand.

1.11.2 Qualities of Good Sand

1. Sand should be clean, hard and durable and

1.12 Introduction to Cement Concrete 28

2. It should be free from mica, chemical salts, organic and inorganic impurities and
outer foreign matters.

3. It should preferably be free from clay, silt and fine dust. In case if the presence of
them is unavoidable, they should not be present by more than 5% by weight (or
7% by volume).

4. Sand particles should be well graded and shall have sizes ranging from (150
micron) 0.15 mm to 4.75 mm.

5. The fineness modulus of sand shall be from 1.6 to 3.5.

Stone is a strong, durable, and versatile building material that has been used for cen-
turies to construct some of the most iconic and enduring structures in the world. When
selecting a building stone, it is important to consider the strength, durability, appear-
ance, and cost of the stone. Building stones can be used for a wide range of applications,
including foundations, walls, floors, and decorative elements.

1.12 Introduction to Cement Concrete

Cement concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with
a fluid cement that cures over time. It is the most widely used building material in the
world, and is used to construct a wide range of structures, including buildings, bridges,
roads, dams, and tunnels.
Cement and concrete are two important materials used in construction. Cement
is a binder that is used to hold aggregates (such as sand and gravel) together to form
concrete whereas concrete is a versatile material that can be used to make a wide variety
of structures, from simple footings to complex bridges.

• Cement : Cement is a fine powder that is made from limestone, clay, and other
materials. When mixed with water, cement forms a paste that hardens over time.
The hardening process is called hydration. The hydration reaction produces a
hard, strong material that is resistant to water, fire, and chemicals.

There are many different types of cement, but the most common type is Portland
cement. Portland cement is made from limestone, clay, and sand that are heated
279 Basics of Civil Engineering

to high temperatures in a kiln. The resulting product is a fine, gray powder that is
used to make concrete.

• Concrete : Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures.

The aggregates are the inert materials that make up the bulk of the concrete. They
can be sand, gravel, crushed stone, or a combination of these materials. The water
is used to activate the cement and form the paste. Admixtures are chemicals that
are added to the concrete to improve its properties. For example, air-entraining
admixtures are added to concrete to make it more resistant to cracking.

The proportions of the ingredients in concrete can vary depending on the desired
properties of the concrete. For example, concrete that will be exposed to water
will need to have a higher cement content than concrete that will be used indoors.

Concrete is a strong, durable, and versatile material that is used in a wide variety
of construction applications. It is the most widely used building material in the
world.

Figure 1.11: Reinforced concrete

• Reinforced Concrete : Reinforced concrete is a composite material that consists

of concrete and steel. The steel is embedded in the concrete and helps to resist
tensile stresses. This makes reinforced concrete stronger and more durable than
plain concrete.

Reinforced concrete is used in a wide variety of construction applications, includ-

ing buildings, bridges, and dams. It is a versatile and reliable material that can be
1.13 Introduction to Steel 30

used to create a wide range of structures.

1.12.1 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

1. Reinforced concrete is a versatile building material and can be used for casting
members of any shape.

2. It has good resistance to fire, temperature and weathering actions.

3. RCC construction is easy and fast.

4. The component materials used for preparing RCC are easily available.

5. Monolithic construction is possible with the use of RCC. This increases the stability
and rigidity of the structure.

6. RCC is tough and durable.

7. Maintenance of RCC construction is very cheap.

8. With proper cover, RCC can be made free from rusting and corrosion.

1.13 Introduction to Steel

Steel is a versatile and durable material that is widely used in construction. It is

known for its high strength, stiffness, ductility, weldability, and recyclability. It is an
alloy of iron and carbon, with small amounts of other elements added to improve
its properties. Steel is used in a wide range of construction applications, including
structural members, reinforcement, roofing and cladding, doors and windows, bridges
and other transportation infrastructure, and industrial and commercial buildings.

1.13.1 Types of steel used in construction

There are many different types of steel used in construction, each with its own unique
properties and characteristics. Some of the most common types of steel used in con-
struction include:
 31 Basics of Civil Engineering

1. Carbon steel: This is the most common type of steel used in construction. It is
relatively inexpensive and easy to fabricate. Carbon steel is typically used for
structural members, such as beams, columns, and trusses.

2. Alloy steel: Alloy steel is made by adding other elements to carbon steel, such
as chromium, manganese, or nickel. This improves the strength, hardness, or
corrosion resistance of the steel. Alloy steel is typically used for more demanding
applications, such as bridges, cranes, and pressure vessels.

3. Stainless steel: Stainless steel is a type of alloy steel that contains a high percentage
of chromium. This gives the steel excellent corrosion resistance. Stainless steel
is typically used for architectural applications, such as cladding, railings, and
signage.

1.13.2 Properties of steel used in construction

Some of the key properties of steel that make it ideal for construction include:

1. Strength: Steel is one of the strongest materials available, making it ideal for
load-bearing applications.

2. Stiffness: Steel is also very stiff, which means that it does not deflect easily under
load. This is important for applications where maintaining a precise shape is
critical, such as bridges and aircraft.

3. Ductility: Steel is ductile, which means that it can deform significantly before
failure. This is important for applications where the structure needs to be able to
absorb energy without collapsing, such as earthquake-resistant buildings.

4. Weldability: Steel is easily welded, which makes it ideal for creating complex
structures.

5. Recyclability: Steel is 100% recyclable, making it a sustainable building material.

1.13.3 Applications of steel in construction

Steel is used in a wide range of construction applications, including:

1.14 Prefabricated Construction 32

1. Structural members: Steel beams, columns, and trusses are used to support the
weight of buildings and other structures.

2. Reinforcement: Steel reinforcing bars are used to reinforce concrete structures.

This improves the strength and ductility of the concrete.

3. Roofing and cladding: Steel roofing and cladding panels are used to protect
buildings and other structures from the elements.

4. Doors and windows: Steel doors and windows are used in buildings of all types.

5. Bridges and other transportation infrastructure: Steel is widely used to construct

bridges, roads, and other transportation infrastructure.

6. Industrial and commercial buildings: Steel is used to construct a wide range of

industrial and commercial buildings, such as factories, warehouses, and shopping
malls.

1.14 Prefabricated Construction

Prefabricated construction, also known as modular construction, is a type of construc-
tion where the components of a structure are manufactured in a factory or other con-
trolled environment and then transported to the construction site for assembly. Pre-
fabricated construction techniques can be used to build a wide variety of structures,
including houses, apartments, office buildings, schools, and hospitals.
Prefabrication construction method involves assembling components of a structure
in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-
assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. This can save
time and money, and improve quality and safety.

1.14.1 Prefabricated Construction Techniques

There are many different prefabrication techniques, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. Some of the most common methods include:

1. Panelized construction: This method involves assembling walls, floors, and roofs
in panels in a factory. The panels are then transported to the construction site and
 33 Basics of Civil Engineering

Figure 1.12: Pre fabricated construction techniques

installed. Panelized construction is a good choice for projects where the weather
is a factor, as it can be done indoors.

2. Modular construction: This method involves assembling entire modules in a

factory. The modules are then transported to the construction site and stacked
together. Modular construction is a good choice for projects where speed is
important, as the modules can be installed quickly.

3. Steel framing: This method involves using steel beams and columns to construct
the frame of a building. The frame is then sheathed with panels or other materials.
Steel framing is a good choice for projects where strength and durability are
important.

4. Concrete construction: This method involves pouring concrete into forms to create
the walls, floors, and roof of a building. Concrete construction is a good choice for
projects where durability and fire resistance are important.

1.14.2 Advantages of PFC

Prefabricated construction can offer a number of advantages over traditional construc-

tion methods, including:

1. Faster construction: Prefabricated components can be manufactured and assem-

bled quickly, which can shorten the overall construction time.

2. Reduced labor costs: Prefabrication can reduce the need for skilled labor on the
construction site, which can save money.
1.14 Prefabricated Construction 34

3. Improved quality: Prefabricated components are typically made in a controlled

environment, which can improve quality control.

4. Less waste: Prefabrication can help to reduce waste on the construction site.

5. Sustainability: Prefabrication can help to reduce the environmental impact of

construction.

1.14.3 Disadvantages of PFC

1. Higher upfront costs: The upfront costs of prefabrication can be higher than
traditional construction methods.

2. Limited customization: Prefabricated components are typically made in standard

sizes, which can limit the ability to customize a building.

3. Transportation costs: The transportation costs of prefabricated components can be

high, especially for long distances. Overall, prefabricated construction can be a
good choice for a variety of projects. The specific advantages and disadvantages
of prefabrication will vary depending on the project’s specific requirements.