CHAPTER I - SETS, RELATIONS, INTEGERS

AND METHODS OF PROOF(A REVIEW)

THIS LECTURE NOTES IS FOR THE COURSE MATH 232 USE ONLY. YOU ARE
NOT ALLOWED TO DISTRIBUTE THIS NOTES IN ANY MEANS.

PREPARED B Y

C RISTOVER N. V IDAL
Davao del Norte State College
New Visayas, Panabo City

WARNING: THIS LECTURE NOTES CONTAIN ERRORS. IF YOU FIND ERRORS,

KINDLY ENCIRCLE THEM AND LET ME KNOW. FOR CLARIFICATION, PLEASE
SEE THE MAIN REFERENCE: FUNDAMENTALS OF ABSTRACT ALGEBRA BY
D.S. MALIK, J.N. MORDESON, M.K. SEN, AND ABSTRACT ALGEBRA AN
INTRODUCTION BY T.W. HUNGERFORD.
1 Review on Logic and Proofs
(Reference: Abstract Algebra an Introduction BY T.W.
Hungerford
1.1 Logic
This concisely reviews Logic and Proofs, so examples are sparse. However, the methods of
writing proofs will be used in the proceeding sections and will serve as examples.

Definition 1.1. A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.

Example 1.2.

• π is a real number.

• Every triangle is isosceles.

• 103 bald eagles were born in the United States last year.

Non-examples:

Example 1.3.

• What time is it?

• Wow!

1.2 Compound Statements

Definition 1.4. Compound statements are formed from other statements using the connectives
“and-∧” and “or-∨”.

Fact 1.5. The compound statement’s truth will depend on its components’ truth. If P and Q are
statements, then “P and Q ” is a true statement when both P and Q are true, and false
otherwise.

Notation 1.6.

• “P and Q ” will be denoted as “P ∧ Q ”, and

• “P or Q ” will be denoted as “P ∨ Q ”.

Example 1.7. π is a real number and 9 < 10 is a true statement. Why?

Non-example:

Example 1.8. π is a real number and 7 − 5 = 18 is a false statement. Why?

Fact 1.9. if P and Q are statements, then “P or Q ” is a true statement when at least one
of P or Q is true and false when both P and Q are false.

Example 1.10. 7 > 5 or 3 + 8 = 11 and 7 > 5 or 3 + 8 = 23 are true statements. Why?

Non-example:

Example 1.11. 4 < 2 or 5 + 3 = 12 is false. Why?

1
1.2.1 Negation
Definition 1.12. The negation of a statement P is the statement “it is not the case that P ”,
which we can conveniently abbreviate as “not-P ”.

Notation 1.13. “not-P ” will be denoted as “¬P ′′ .

Example 1.14. The negation of “7 is a positive integer” is “it is not the case that 7 is a positive
integer”, which can be rewritten in a lesser awkward form “7 is not a positive integer”.

Fact 1.15. The negation of P is true exactly when P is false, and the negation of P is false
exactly when P is true.

Fact 1.16. The negation of the statement “P and Q ” is the statement “not-P or not-Q ”. In
symbols,
¬(P ∧ Q ) ≡ ¬P ∨ ¬Q.
The symbol “≡” means “is equivalent to” or “is the same with”.

Example 1.17. The negation of “2 is even and 3 is odd” is the statement “2 is odd or 3 is even.”

Fact 1.18. The negation of the statement “P or Q ” is the statement “not-P and not-Q ”. In
symbols,
¬(P ∨ Q ) ≡ ¬P ∧ ¬Q.
p
Example 1.19. The
p negation of “199 is prime or 3 is a rational number is the statement “199
is not prime and 3 is not a rational number”.

1.2.2 Quantifiers
Definition 1.20. The universal quantifier states that a property is true for all the items under
discussion.
Some grammatical variations of the universal quantifier:

• For all real numbers c, c2 > −1.

• Every integer is a real number.

• All integers are rational numbers.

• For each real number a, the number a2 + 1 is positive.

Definition 1.21. The existential quantifier asserts that there exists at least one object with
specific properties.

Example 1.22. For example,

• There exist positive rational numbers.

• There exists a number x such that x2 − 5 x + 6 = 0.

• There is an even prime number.

Notation 1.23.

• “for all” will be denoted as “∀”, and

• “there exists” will be denoted as “∃”.

2
Example 1.24.

• “For all real numbers c, c2 > −1” in symbols “∀ c ∈ R, c2 > −1”.

• “All integers are rational numbers” in symbols “∀ x ∈ Z, x ∈ Q.”

• “There exists a number x such that x2 − 5 x + 6 = 0” in symbols “∃ x ∈ R, x2 − 5 x + 6 = 0”.

• “There exists a positive rational numbers” in symbols “∃ x, ( x > 0) ∧ ( x ∈ Q)”.

Fact 1.25. The negation of a statement with a universal quantifier is a statement with an
existential quantifier, i.e.(informally),
¬∀ ≡ ∃.

Example 1.26. The negation of the statement “All real numbers are rational” is the statement
“There exists a real number which is irrational”. In symbols,

¬(∀ x ∈ R, x ∈ Q) ≡ ∃ x ∈ R, x ∉ Q.

Fact 1.27. The negation of a statement with a universal quantifier is a statement with an
existential quantifier, i.e., (informally),
¬∃ ≡ ∀.

Example 1.28. The negation of the statement “There exists a positive integer” is the statement
“every integer is none-positive.” In symbols,

¬(∃ x ∈ Z, x > 0) ≡ ∀ x ∈ Z, x ≤ 0.

1.2.3 Conditional and Biconditional Statements

Definition 1.29. Conditional statements are of the form “If P , then Q ′′ , which is written sym-
bolically as P =⇒ Q .

Example 1.30.

• If c and d are integers, then cd is an integer. In symbols,

( c ∈ Z) ∧ ( d ∈ Z) =⇒ cd ∈ Z.

Which can be shorten to (using “commas”)

c, d ∈ Z =⇒ cd ∈ Z.

•
a ̸= 0 =⇒ a2 > 0.

Fact 1.31. “P =⇒ Q ” is a true statement when both P and Q are true and false when P is true
and Q is false.

Fact 1.32. The conditional statement “P =⇒ Q ” is equivalent to its contrapositive “notP =⇒

not Q .” In symbols,
P =⇒ Q ≡ ¬Q =⇒ ¬P.
The above facts can be easily proven using “truth-table”. Do it!

Definition 1.33. The converse of the statement “P =⇒ Q ” is the statement “Q =⇒ P ”.

3
Fact 1.34. The converse of a true statement is not necessarily true.

Example 1.35. “If the integer k is odd, then the integer k + 1 is even” is true, as its converse “If
the integer k + 1 is even, then the integer k is odd.
This facts can be expressed in a shorter form: " k is odd if and only if k + 1 is even."

Definition 1.36. “P if and only if Q ” is called a biconditional statement.

Notation 1.37. “P if and only if Q ” will be denoted as

P ⇐⇒ Q.

By definition,
P ⇐⇒ Q ≡ (P =⇒ Q ) ∧ (Q =⇒ P ).

Fact 1.38. “P if and only if Q ” is true exactly when both P =⇒ Q and Q =⇒ P are true.

1.3 Theorem and Proof

New vocabulary entries: (This vocabs can also be found in your Euclidean Geometry)

• undefined terms - Objects which are the starting point of a discussion and are left as
undefined.

• axioms - Statements about the undefined terms that are assumed to be true.

• theorems - true statements about objects constructed from defining new terms (from the
undefined terms and axioms).

• proof - a complete justification of the statement’s truth.

1.3.1 Methods of Poof

DIRECT METHOD or MODUS PONENS: If R is a true statement and “R =⇒ S ” is a true
conditional statement, then S is a true statement. To Prove the statement “P =⇒ Q ” by the direct
method, you find a series of statements P1 , P2 , . . ., P n and then verify that each implications

P =⇒ P1 , P1 =⇒ P2 , P2 =⇒ P3 , . . . , P n−1 =⇒ P n , and P n =⇒ Q is true.

CONTRAPOSITIVE METHOD: Recall that P =⇒ Q ≡ ¬Q =⇒ ¬P . If you find P =⇒ Q hard

to prove, then you might try proving its contrapositive ¬Q =⇒ ¬P , using successive modus po-
nens.

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION: (In my experience) The best way to get this is to see for your-
self that
¬(P =⇒ Q ) ≡ P ∧ (¬Q ).
Assume that ¬(P =⇒ Q ) is true and hope that you will derive contradicting statements, say
S ∧ ¬S . If this happens, it must be the case that ¬(P =⇒ Q ) is false and that P =⇒ Q is true.
Of course, you will assume that P ∧ (¬Q ) is true, equivalent to ¬(P =⇒ Q ).

Example 1.39. We want to prove the statement “If m2 is even, then m is even" using proof by
contradiction.

4
Solution:. We let

P to be the statement “ m2 is even”,and

Q to be the statement “ m is even”.
Thus, P ∧ ¬Q is the statement “ m2 is even, and m is odd”. We assume that P ∧ ¬Q is true.

With ¬Q to be true, it must be the case that k ∈ Z exists, where m = 2 k + 1. Then,

m2 = (2 k + 1)2 = (2 k)2 + 2(2 k)(1) + (1)2 = 2(2 k2 + 2 k) + 1

which is odd. However, we also assume that m2 is even. That is, m2 is simultaneously both odd
and even, a contradiction. In this case, the statement S ∧ (¬S ) is “ m2 is even, and m2 is odd”.
Thus, it must be the case that P ∧ ¬Q ≡ ¬(P =⇒ Q ) is false and that ¬¬(P =⇒ Q ) ≡ P =⇒ Q is
true.

PROOF BY COUNTEREXAMPLE: A counterexample is sufficient to disprove a statement.

Example 1.40. If c is an integer, then c2 − c + 11 is prime. This is false. To show this,

demonstrate a specific real number c that will make the statement false. Take c = 12, since
122 − 12 + 11 = 143 = 13 · 11, the statement is false.

1.3.2 Proofs of Multiconditional Statements

Fact 1.41. Proving the biconditional statement P ⇐⇒ Q requires to prove both P =⇒ Q and
Q =⇒ P .

Definition 1.42. A statement of the form “the following conditions are equivalent: P,Q, R, S, T ”
is called a multiconditional statement. It means that any one of the statements P,Q, R, S , or
T implies every other one. It is a shorthand for a list of biconditional statements; P ⇐⇒ Q ,
P ⇐⇒ R , etc.

Fact 1.43. To prove this multiconditional statement you need only prove P =⇒ Q , Q =⇒ R ,
R =⇒ S , S =⇒ T , and T =⇒ P .

2 Sets, Relations, and Integers

(Reference: Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra by D.S.
Malik, J.N. Mordeson, M.K. Sen)
Notation 2.1.

• Sets will always be denoted by capital letters,

• N - the set of positive integers, {1, 2, 3, . . .},

• Z - the set of integers, {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .},

• Z # - the set of non-negative integers,

• E - the set of even integers,

• Q - the set of rational numbers,

• Q+ - the set of positive rational numbers,

5
 • Q∗ - the set of nonzero rational numbers,

• R - the set of real numbers,

• R+ - the set of positive real numbers,

• R∗ - the set of non-zero real numbers,

• C - the set of complex numbers, and

• C∗ - the set of non-zero complex numbers.

2.0.1 Sets
Definition 2.2. (intuitive approach) A set is some given collection of objects.

• A set S with only a finite number of elements is called a finite set; otherwise, S is called
an infinite set.

Notation 2.3. Given a set S

• |S | denote the number of elements of S .

• x ∈ S and x ∉ S mean x is a member of the set S and x is not a member of the set S ,
respectively.

Example 2.4. Let S = {1, 2, 3}, then 1 ∈ S and 4 ∉ S . S is finite with |S | = 3.

Definition 2.5. A set A is said to be a subset of a set S if every element of A is an element of S .

In this case, we write A ⊆ S and say that A is contained in S . If A ⊆ S , but A ̸= S , then we write
A ⊂ S and say that A is properly contained in S or that A is a proper subset of S .

Example 2.6. {1, 2, 3} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4} and {1, 2} ⊂ {1, 2, 3}.

Definition 2.7. Let A and B be sets. If every member of A is a member of B and every member
of B is a member of A , then we say that A and B are the same or equal. In this case, we write
A = B.

Theorem 2.8. Let A and B be sets. Then A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .

Definition 2.9. The null set or empty set is the set with no elements. This set is usually denoted
by ∅.
There are two ways to describe sets:

i. by listing all members of a set inside the pair {}, or

ii. by writing a membership condition of the form

A = { x| x ∈ S, P ( x)}

or
A = { x ∈ S | P ( x )}
meaning that A is the set of all elements x of S such that x satisfies the property P .

Example 2.10. N = { x| x ∈ Z, x > 0}, i.e., the set of all positive integers, that is, N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}.

6
2.0.2 Operations on Sets
Definition 2.11. The union of two sets A and B, written A ∪ B, is defined to be the set

A ∪ B = { x|( x ∈ A ) ∨ ( x ∈ B)}.

Definition 2.12. The intersection of two sets A and B, written A ∩ B, is defined to be the set

A ∩ B = { x|( x ∈ A ) ∧ ( x ∈ B)}.

Theorem 2.13. Let A and B be sets. Then the following statements hold:

i. A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.

ii. A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B.

Example 2.14. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Then

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and A ∩ B = {3, 4}.

If C = {5, 6}, then

A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, while A ∩ C = ∅.
For a finite number of sets: Suppose that A 1 , A 2 , . . ., A n are n sets.

• The union of A 1 , A 2 , . . ., A n is denoted by

∪ni=1 or A 1 ∪ A 2 ∪ · · · ∪ A n = { x|∃ i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n where x ∈ A i }.

• The intersection of A 1 , A 2 , . . ., A n is denoted by

∩ni=1 or A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ · · · ∩ A n = { x| x ∈ A i , ∀ i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.

For arbitrary indexing set I : We say that a set I is an index set for a collection of sets A if
for any α ∈ I , there exists a set A α ∈ A and A = { A α |α ∈ I }.

• The union of the sets A α , α ∈ I , is denoted by ∪α∈ I A α is defined to be the set

{ x|∃α ∈ I, where x ∈ A α }.

• The intersection of the sets A α , α ∈ I , is denoted by ∩α∈ I A α is defined to be the set

{ x| x ∈ A α , ∀α ∈ I }.

Definition 2.15. Given two sets A and B, the relative complement of B in A , denoted by the set
difference A \ B, is the set
A \ B = { x|( x ∈ A ) ∧ ( x ∉ B)}.

Example 2.16. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Then A \ B = {1, 2}.

Definition 2.17. Let A and B be non-empty sets and x ∈ A , y ∈ B.

i The ordered pair ( x, y) is defined to be the set {{ x}, { x, y}}.

ii The Cartesian cross product (Cartesian product) of A and B, written A × B, is defined to

be the set
A × B = {( x, y)| x ∈ A, x ∈ B}.

7
Example 2.18. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4}. Then

A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4)}.

Definition 2.19. For any set X , the power set of X , written P ( X ), is defined to be the set
{ A | A ⊆ X }.

Example 2.20. Let X = {1, 2, 3}. Then

P ( X ) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.

Thus, P ( X ) has |P ( X )| = 23 elements.

2.1 Worked-Out Exercises

Exercise 2.21. Prove for sets A and B that A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B.
There are several approaches to proving statements, but in my experience, the best way is to
use the “forward-backward technique”:

• forward - means we look at the assumptions and derived series of implications or modus
ponens to arrive at the desired conclusion. Sometimes, you will prove statements unques-
tioningly (i.e., “mindlessly”) and be surprised that you reached the desired conclusion.

• backward - means we look at the desired conclusion and guess how to conclude. Yes!
proving is a lot of “guess work” and “experimenting”.

• forward-backward - means that if the above starting points somehow lead you to nothing,
try making a bridge between them.

Proving is sometimes hard, but it is okay. We all learn from our discomforts. The very first
step is to start using the forward-backward technique. You need definitions, equivalent state-
ments, and results or theorems to move forward or backward.

Vocab: Scratch - This means a very informal way of proving, usually using symbols. This is
only to organize your thoughts and see if your approach or plan of attack will work on proving
a given statement. However, you are expected to write beautiful formal proofs.

Solution:.
Again, we are asked to “Prove for sets A and B that A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B”.
Recall that P ⇐⇒ Q ≡ (P =⇒ Q ) ∧ (Q =⇒ P ). Thus,

( A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ A ∪ B = B) ≡ ( A ⊆ B =⇒ A ∪ B = B) ∧ ( A ∪ B = B =⇒ A ⊆ B)

To prove LHS, we prove RHS; this is valid since the statements are equivalent. We recall
that a compound statement P ∧ Q is true if P and Q are both true. Thus, we must show that (1.)
A ⊆ B =⇒ A ∪ B = B and (2.) A ∪ B = B =⇒ A ⊆ B is true.

Part (1.): A ⊆ B =⇒ A ∪ B = B.
Assume that A ⊆ B is true. We want to prove that A ∪ B = B from the assumption.
forward:

( A ⊆ B) =⇒ ( x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) , by definition of being a “subset”. (1)

8
 backward: what we want to show

( A ∪ B = B) ⇐⇒ ( A ∪ B ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ A ∪ B).

That is, to prove LHS, we need to prove RHS by showing the statements A ∪ B ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.

the bridge:

x ∈ A ∪ B =⇒ ( x ∈ A ) ∨ ( x ∈ B) , by definition of union of sets. (2)

Recall that P ∨ Q true means that either P or Q is true. Thus, we need to consider the possible
cases, called proof by cases.
Case 1: x ∈ A , x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B, from (3). Hence, x ∈ B, by modus ponens.
Case 2: x ∈ B, x ∈ B =⇒ x ∈ B; thus, x ∈ B is called repeat or identity (this is valid).
In all two cases, x ∈ B. Implying that A ∪ B ⊆ B. Now, from Theorem (2.13), B ⊆ A ∪ B.

conclusion: Hence, A ∪ B = B as desired.

Again, from my experience, I prefer writing this in symbols - not verbose, which means fewer
distractions, and you should get used to it. Also, writing fewer words will save us time (we want
to cover all of the topics in the syllabus in one semester, of course!).

Scratch:
Part (1.): A ⊆ B =⇒ A ∪ B = B. Assume A ⊆ B, want

A ∪ B = B ⇐⇒ ( A ∪ B ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ A ∪ B).

( A ⊆ B) =⇒ ( x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) , by definition of being a “subset”. (3)

x ∈ A ∪ B =⇒ ( x ∈ A ) ∨ ( x ∈ B) , by definition of union of sets. (4)
A ∪ B ⊆ B Subproof-Cases: Start
Case 1 ( x ∈ A ) :
( x ∈ A ) ∧ ( x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) =⇒ x ∈ B, by (3) and modus ponens (5)
=⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ B (6)
Case 2 ( x ∈ B) :
x ∈ B =⇒ x ∈ B, this is valid, and it is called “repeat” (7)
=⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ B (8)

x ∈ A ∪ B =⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ B. (9)
A ∪ B ⊆ B Subproof-Cases: End

B ⊆ A ∪ B Subproof: Start
B ⊆ A ∪ B from Theorem (2.13). (10)
B ⊆ A ∪ B Subproof: End
(9) ∧ (10) =⇒ A ∪ B = B. (11)

Continue on the board

9
 ′ ′
Exercise 2.22. For a subset A of a set S , let A denote the subset S \ A . A is called the
′ ′ ′
complement of A in S . Let A and B be subsets of S . Prove that ( A ∩ B) = A ∪ B , the DeMorgan’s
law.

Solution:. Recall that two sets A and B are equal, i.e. A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .
Use this facts to prove the statement. Continue on the board

Exercise 2.23. Let A , B, and C be sets. Prove that

A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ).

Solution:. Use the same approach as in the preceding exercises. Continue on the board

2.2 Exercises
1. Prove for sets A and B that A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A .

2. Let A = { x, y, z} and B = { y, w}. Determine each of the following sets: A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A \ B,

B \ A , A × B, and P ( A ).

3. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the set

A ∆B = ( A ∪ B) \ ( A ∩ B).

i. If A = {a, b, c} and B = { b, c, d, e}, find A ∆B.

ii. Show that A ∆B = ( A \ B) ∪ (B \ A ).

4. Let A and B be finite subsets of a set S . Show that

i. if A ∩ B = ∅, then | A ∪ B| = | A | + |B|,
ii. | A \ B| = | A | − | A ∩ B|,
iii. | A ∪ B| = | A | + |B| − | A ∩ B|.

5. For subsets A and B of a set S , prove DeMorgan’s law:

′ ′ ′
( A ∪ B) = A ∩ B .

2.3 Integers
Theorem 2.24. Principle of Mathematical Induction Let S ⊆ Z# . Let n 0 ∈ S . Suppose S
satisfies either of the following conditions.

i. For all n ≥ n 0 , n ∈ Z# , if n ∈ S , then n + 1 ∈ S .

ii. For all m < n, n ∈ Z# , if m ∈ S , then n ∈ S . Then

{ n ∈ Z# | n ≥ n 0 } ⊆ S.

Proving statements about subsets of Z# using the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Example 2.25. Claim:

n( n + 1)
1+2+···+ n = , n ≥ 1.
2

10
Proof. Let S ( n) be the statement
n( n + 1)
1+2+···+ n = , n ≥ 1,
2
and
S = { n ∈ Z# |S ( n) is true }.
We want to show that S = { n ∈ Z# | n ≥ 1}.

Step 1: Let n 0 = 1, and we show 1 ∈ S . Now,

1(1 + 1)
S (1) : 1 = ,
2
thus, 1 ∈ S .

Step 2: We assume that for n ≥ 1, S ( n) is true, then we need that S ( n + 1) is also true. With
S ( n) being true we have
¡ ¢
S ( n + 1) : 1 + 2 + · · · + n + ( n + 1) = 1 + 2 + · · · + n + ( n + 1)
n( n + 1)
= + ( n + 1)
2
n2 + 3 n + 2
=
2
( n + 1)[( n + 1) + 1]
= .
2
Thus, n + 1 ∈ S . Therefore, the claim is proved by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Theorem 2.26. (Division Algorithm) Let x, y ∈ Z with y ̸= 0. Then there exist unique integers q
and r such that x = q y + r , 0 ≤ r ≤ | y|.
Remark 2.27. The integer q is called the quotient of x and y on diving x by y, and the integer
r is called the remainder of x and y on dividing x by y.
Corollary 2.28. For any two integers x and y with y > 0, there exist unique integers q and r
such that x = q y + r , where 0 ≤ r < y.
Definition 2.29. Let x, y ∈ Z with x ̸= 0. Then x is said to divide y, or x is a divisor (or a
factsor) of y, written x| y, provided q ∈ Z such that y = qx exists. When x does not divide y, we
sometimes write x ̸ | y.
Fact 2.30. Let x, y, z be integers with x ̸= 0. Suppose x| y and x| z. Then for all integers s and t,
x|( s y + tz).
This can be proven directly.

Proof. Let s and t ∈ Z .

x| y =⇒ ∃ q 1 ∈ Z, y = q 1 x (12)
x| z =⇒ ∃ q 2 ∈ Z, z = q 2 x (13)

(12) ∧ (13) =⇒ s y + tz = s( q 1 x) + t( q 2 x) = x( sq 1 + tq 2 ) (14)

sq 1 + tq 2 ∈ Z =⇒ x|( s y + tz). (15)

11
Definition 2.31. Let x, y ∈ Z. A nonzero integer c is a common divisor of x and y if c| x and
c| y.
Definition 2.32. A nonzero integer d is called a greatest common divisor (gcd) of the integers
x and y if
i. d | x and d | y,

ii. for all c ∈ Z if c| x and c| y, then c| d .

Theorem 2.33. Let x, y ∈ Z with either x ̸= 0 or y ̸= 0. Then x and y have a positive greatest
common divisor d . Moreover, there exist elements s, t ∈ Z such that d = sx + t y.

Finding gcd’s: The general method is given in the reference text. However, it is pretty tedious
and technical. Hence, we only demonstrate it in the following example and leave the reading to
the student.
Example 2.34. Consider the integers 45 and 126. Now
126 = 2 · 45 + 36
45 = 1 · 36 + 9
36 = 4 · 9 + 0.
Thus, 9 = gcd (45, 126). Also,
9 = 45 − 1 · 36
= 45 − 1 · (126 − 2 · 45)
= 3 · 45 + (−1) · 126.
Here s = 3 and t = −1.
Definition 2.35.
i. An integer p > 1 is called prime if the only divisors of p are ±1 and ± p.

ii. Two integers x and y are called relatively prime if gcd ( x, y) = 1.

Theorem 2.36. Let x and y be nonzero integers. Then x and y are relatively prime if and only
if there exists s, t ∈ Z such that 1 = sx + t y.
Theorem 2.37. Let x, y, z ∈ Z with x ̸= 0. If x| yz and x, y are relatively prime, then x| z.
Corollary 2.38. Let x, y, z ∈ Z with p a prime. If p| x y, then either p| x or p| y.
Corollary 2.39. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , p ∈ Z with p a prime. If
p| x1 x2 · · · xn ,
then p| x i for some i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Theorem 2.40. (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) Any integer n > 1 has a unique fact-
sorization (up to order)
e
n = p 1e 1 p 2e 2 · · · p s s ,
where p 1 , p 2 , . . . , p s are distinct primes and e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e s are positive integers.
Corollary 2.41. Any integer n < −1 has a unique factsorization (up to order)
e
n = (−1) p 1e 1 p 2e 2 · · · p s s ,
where p 1 , p 2 , . . . , p s are distinct primes and e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e s are positive integers.
Theorem 2.42. (Euclid) There are an infinite number of primes.

12
2.3.1 Worked-Out Exercises
Exercise 2.43. By the principle of mathematical induction, prove that

32n+1 + (−1)n 2 ≡ 0 (mod 5)

for all positive integers n.

Remark 2.44. For integers a and b, a ≡ b (mod 5) means 5 divides a − b.
Solution:. Let S ( n) be the statement

S ( n) : 32n+1 + (−1)n 2 ≡ 0 (mod 5), n ≥ 1.

Further, let S = { n ∈ N|S ( n) is true.}

Step 1: Let n 0 = 1 and show that 1 ∈ S , i.e., S (1) is true. Then

S (1) : 33 + (−1)2 = 27 − 2 = 25 ≡ 0 (mod 5) =⇒ 1 ∈ S.

Step 2: Assume that for n ∈ N with n ≥ 1, S ( n) is true. We want to show that S ( n + 1) is true.
Now,

S ( n + 1) : 32(n+1)+1 + (−1)n+1 2 = 32n+1 · 32 − (−1)n 2

= 9(32n+1 − (−1)n 2) − (−1)n 18 − (−1)n 2
= 9(32n+1 − (−1)n 2) − (−1)n 20.

With S ( n) true, we have that 9(32n+1 − (−1)n 2) ≡ 0 (mod 5). Also, 20 ≡ 0 (mod 5). Hence,
S ( n + 1) is true and that n + 1 ∈ S . Therefore, the claim is proved.
Exercise 2.45. Let a and b be integers such that gcd (a, 4) = 2 and gcd ( b, 4) = 2. Prove that
gcd (a + b, 4) = 4.
Solution:.

gcd (a, 4) = 2 =⇒ 2|a

∧ 4 ̸ |a, otherwise 2 is not the greatest common divisor of a and 4,
a contradiction. (16)
=⇒ a = 2 x, x ∈ Z ∧ gcd (2, x) = 1. (17)

gcd (2, x) = 1, why? The gcd (2, x) is from the divisors of 2 and x. However, 2 is prime and only
has two divisors, namely 1 and itself, 2. If gcd (2, x) = 2, then a = 2 · 2 k = 4 k, k ∈ Z, contradicting
the statement that 4 ̸ |a.
With the same line of argument, b = 2 y, y ∈ Z such that gcd (2, y) = 1. Thus, x and y are both
odd integers.

x, y odd integers =⇒ x + yiseven

=⇒ x + y = 2 n, n ∈ Z
=⇒ a + b = 2( x + y) = 4 n

Hence, gcd (a + b, 4) = gcd (4 n, 4) = 4.

Exercise 2.46. Find integers x and y such that 512 x + 320 y = 64.

13
Solution:.

512 = 320 · 1 + 192

320 = 192 · 1 + 128
192 = 128 · 1 + 64
128 = 64 · 2 + 0.

Thus,

64 = 192 − 128
= 192 − (320 − 192)
= 192 · 2 + 320 · (−1)
= (512 − 320) · 2 + 320 · (−1)
= 512 · 2 + 320 · (−3).

Hence, x = 2 and y = −3.

2.3.2 Exercises
1. Determine gcd (90, 252). Find integers s and t such that

gcd (90, 252) = s · 90 + t · 252.

2. Find integers s and t such that 657 s + 963 t = 9.

3. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that

n( n + 1)(2 n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = , n = 1, 2, . . . .
6

4. Let a, b and c be three integers such that a ̸= 0. Prove the following:

i. If a| b, then a| bc for all c ∈ Z.

ii. If b ̸= 0, a| b and b| c, then a| c.
iii. If a| b and a| c, then a|( bx + c y) for all x, y ∈ Z.

5. Let a, b, and c be positive integers. Prove that gcd (ab, ac) = a · gcd ( b, c).

2.4 Relations
Definition 2.47. A binary relation or simply a relation R from a set A into set B is a subset of
A × B.
Notation 2.48. Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. If ( x, y) ∈ R , we write xR y or
R ( x) = y.
Remark 2.49. If xR y, then we say that x is related to y or y is in relation with x with respect
to R or simply x related to y. if A = B, then we speak of a binary relation on A .
Example 2.50. Consider the set Z. Let R be the set of all ordered pairs ( m, n) of integers such
that m < n, i.e.,
R = {( m, n) ∈ Z × Z| m < n}.
Then, R is a binary relation on Z.

14
Definition 2.51. Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. Then the domain of R , denoted
by D (R ), is defined to be the set

{ x|( x ∈ A ) ∧ ∃ y ∈ B, ( x, y) ∈ R }.

The range or image of R , denoted by I (R ), is defined to be the set

{ y|( y ∈ B) ∧ ∃ x ∈ A, ( x, y) ∈ R }.

Example 2.52. Let A = {4, 5, 7, 8, 9} and B = {16, 18, 20, 22}. Define R ⊆ A × B by

R = {(4, 16), (4, 20), (5, 20), (8, 16), (9, 18)}.

Then, R is a relation from A into B. Here, (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a| b, where a ∈ A and
b ∈ B. Note that for the domain of R , we have D (R ) = 4, 5, 8, 9 and for the range of R , we have
I (R ) = {16, 18, 20}.
Example 2.53. Let S = {( x, y)| x, y ∈ R, x2 + y2 = 1, y > 0}. Then, S is a binary relation on R . S is
the set of points in the Euclidean plane constituting the semicircle lying above the x-axis with
center (0, 0) and radius 1.
Definition 2.54. Let R be a binary relation on a set A . Then R is called

i. reflexive if for all x ∈ A , xRx,

ii. symmetric if for all x, y ∈ A , xR y =⇒ yRx,

iii. transitive if for all x, y, z ∈ A , ( xR y) ∧ ( yR z) =⇒ xR z.

Definition 2.55. A binary relation E on a set A is called an equivalence relation on A if E is

reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Example 2.56. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and E = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.
Then E is an equivalent relation on A . Continue on the board.
Example 2.57. Let n be a fixed positive integer in Z. Define the relation ≡n on Z by for all x,
y ∈ Z, x ≡n y if and only if n|( x − y), i.e., x − y = nk for some k ∈ Z. We now show that ≡n is an
equivalence relation on Z. Continue on the board.
Remark 2.58. The equivalence relation, ≡n on Z, as define above is called congruence modulo
n. Another commonly used notation for x ≡n y is x ≡ y (mod n).
Definition 2.59. Let E be an equivalence relation on a set A . For all x ∈ A , let [ x] denote the
set
[ x] = { y ∈ A | yEx}.
The set [ x] is called the equivalence class with respect to E determined by x.
Theorem 2.60. Let E be an equivalence relation on the set A . Then

i. for all x ∈ A , [ x] ̸= ∅,

ii. if y ∈ [ x], then [ x] = [ y], where x, y ∈ A ,

iii. for all x, y ∈ A , either [ x] = [ y] or [ x] ∩ [ y] = ∅,

iv. A = ∪ x∈ A [ x], i.e., A is the union of all equivalence classes with respect to E .

Definition 2.61. Let A be a set and P be a collection of non-empty subsets of A . Then P is

called a partition of A if the following properties are satisfied:

15
 i. for all B, C ∈ P , either B = C or B ∩ C = ∅.

ii. A = ∪B∈P B.

Example 2.62. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let A 1 = {1, }, A 2 = {2, 4, 6}, and A 3 = {3, 5}. Then, P =
{ A 1 , A 2 , A 3 } is a partition of A . Continue on the board.
Example 2.63. Consider Z. Let A be the set of all even integers and B be the set of all odd
integers. Then, { A, B} is a partition of Z. Continue on the board.
Theorem 2.64. Let E be an equivalence relation on the set A . Then

P = {[ x]| x ∈ A }

is a partition of A .
Example 2.65. Consider the equivalence relation ≡n on Z as defined in the previous example.
Let Z n = {[ x]| x ∈ Z}. Then Z n is a partition of Z by Theorem (2.64). Suppose n = 6. Then we
claim that
Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}
and
[ i ] = {0 + i, ±6 + i, ±12 + i, . . .} = {6 q + i | q ∈ Z}, for all i ∈ Z.
Definition 2.66. Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B and S be a relation from B into
a set C . The composition of R and S , denoted by S ◦ R , is the relation from A into C defined by

x(S ◦ R ) y if there exists z ∈ B such that xR z and zS y

for all x ∈ A , y ∈ C .
Definition 2.67. Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. The inverse of R , denoted by
R −1 , is the relation form B into A defined by

xR −1 y if yRx

for all x ∈ B, y ∈ A .

2.4.1 Worked-Out Exercises

Exercise 2.68. In Z10 , which of the following equivalence classes are equal: [2], [−5], [5], [−8],
[12], [15], [−3], [7], [22]? Solution on the board.
Exercise 2.69. Let R be a reflexive and transitive relation on a set S . Prove that R ∩ R −1 is an
equivalence relation. Solution on the board.
Exercise 2.70. Give an example of an equivalence relation on the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} such
that R has exactly four equivalence classes. Solution on the board.
Exercise 2.71. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 1), (4, 5), (5, 4)}.
Show that R is an equivalence relation. Solution on the board.

16
2.4.2 Exercises
1. Let R be a relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} defined by R = {(a, b) ∈ A × A |4|(a − b)}.

i. List the elements of R .

ii. Find the domain of R .
iii. Find the range of R .
iv. Find the elements of R −1 .
v. Find the domain of R −1 .
vi. Find the range of R −1 .

2. Which of the following relations E are equivalence relations on the set of integers Z?

i. xE y if and only if x − y is an even integer.

ii. xE y if and only if x − y is an odd integer.
iii. xE y if and only if | x| = | y|.
iv. xE y if and only if | x − y| ≤ 2.

3. Let x, y ∈ Z be such that x ≡n y, where n ∈ N. Show that for all z ∈ Z,

i. x + z ≡n y + z,
ii. xz ≡n yz.

2.5 Functions
Definition 2.72. Let A and B be non-empty sets. A relation f from A into B is called a function
or mapping from A into B if

i. D ( f ) = A and
′ ′ ′ ′
ii. for all ( x, y), ( x , y ) ∈ f , x = x implies y = y . When ii. is satisfied by a relation f , we say
that f is well-defined or single-valued.

Notation 2.73. We use the notation f : A → B to denote a function f from a set A into a set B.
( x, y) ∈ f , we usually write f ( x) = y and say that y is the image of x under f and x is a pre-image
of y under f .
Example 2.74. Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by

f = {( n, 2 n + 3)| n ∈ Z}.

Then, f is a function. Show on the board.

Example 2.75. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}. Let f be the subset of A × B defined by

f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, b)}.

Then, f is a function. Show on the board.

Example 2.76. Let f be the subset of Q × Z defined by
p
f = {( )| p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0}.
q
Then, f is not a function. Show on the board.

17
Definition 2.77. Let f : A → B and g : A → B be two functions. f and g are equal denoted f = g
if and only if f ( x) = g( x), for all x ∈ A .
Example 2.78. Let f : Z → Z# and g : Z → Z# be defined by f = {( n, n2 )| n ∈ Z} and g = {( n, | n|2 | n ∈
Z)}. Now for all n ∈ Z,
f ( n) = n2 = | n|2 = g( n).
Hence, f = g.
Definition 2.79. Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then
′ ′ ′
i. f is called one-one if for all x, x ∈ A , f ( x) = f ( x ) implies x = x .

ii. f is called onto B or f maps A onto B if I ( f ) = B.

Definition 2.80. Let A be a non-empty set. The function i A : A → A defined by i A ( x) = x for all
x ∈ A is a one-one function of A onto A . i A is called the identity map on A .
Example 2.81. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f ( n) = n2 , for all n ∈ N. Show
that f is a function, not one-one, and it is not onto Z, but onto {0, 1, 4, 9, . . .}.
Example 2.82. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined for all n ∈ Z, f ( n) = 2 n. Show
that f is a function, not one-one, not onto Z, but onto E .
Definition 2.83. Let A , B, and C be non-empty sets and f : A → B and g : B → C . The compo-
sition ◦ of f and g, written g ◦ f , is the relation from A into C defined as follows:

g ◦ f = {( x, z)| x ∈ A, z ∈ C, there exist y ∈ B such that f ( x) = y and g( y) = z}.

Notation 2.84. Let f : A → B and g : B → C and ( x, z) ∈ g ◦ f , i.e., ( g ◦ f )( x) = z. Then, by

definition of composition of functions, there exists y ∈ B such that f ( x) = y and g( y) = z. Now,

z = g( y) = g( f ( x)).

Hence, ( g ◦ f )( x) = g( f ( x)).
Theorem 2.85. Suppose f : A → B and g : B → C . Then

i. g ◦ f : A → C , i.e., g ◦ f is a function from A into C .

ii. If f and g are one-one, then g ◦ f is one-one.

iii. If f is onto B and g is onto C , then g ◦ f is onto C .

Example 2.86. Consider the function f : Z → Z and g : Z → Z, where f ( n) = n2 and g( n) = 2 n,

for all n ∈ Z. Then g ◦ f : Z → E and ( g ◦ f )( n) = g( f ( n)) = 2 n2 .
Theorem 2.87. (Composition of Functions is Associative) Let f : A → B, g : B → C , and h : C →
D . Then
h ◦ ( g ◦ f ) = ( h ◦ g) ◦ f
.
Theorem 2.88. Let A be a finite set. If f : A → A is one-one, then f is onto A .
Definition 2.89. Let A and B be sets and f : A → B.

i. f is called left invertible if there exists g : B → A such that

g ◦ f = i A.

18
 ii. f is called right invertible if there exists h : B → A such that

f ◦ h = iB.

A function f : A → B is called invertible if f is both left and right invertible.

Example 2.90. Let f : Z → Z and g : Z → Z be as defined below.

f ( n) = 3 n,

and (
n
3 if n is a multiple of 3,
g ( n) =
0 if n is not a multiple of 3,
for all n ∈ Z. Show that g is not a right inverse of f and that g is a left inverse of f .
Theorem 2.91. Let A and B be sets and f : A → B. Then, the following assertions hold.

i. f is one-one if and only if f is left invertible.

ii. f is onto B if and only if f is right invertible.

iii. f is one-one and onto B if and only if f is invertible.

′ ′
Definition 2.92. Let f : A → B and A be a non-empty subset of A . The restriction of f to A ,
written f | A ′ , is defined to be
′ ′ ′ ′
f | A ′ = {( x , f ( x ))| x ∈ A }.
′ ′
Definition 2.93. Let f : A → B and A be a set containing A . A function g : A → B is called an
extension of f to A if g| A ′ = f .
Example 2.94. Consider the function f : E → Z and g : Z → Z, where f (2 n) = 2 n + 1 and g( n) =
n + 1, for all n ∈ Z. Show that g is an extension of f to Z and f is the restriction of g to E. Also,
let the function h : Z → Z be defined by for all m ∈ Z, h( m) = m + 1 if m ∈ E and h( m) = m if m ∉ E
is an extension of f to Z. However, h ̸= g. Thus, a function may have more than one extension.
Notation 2.95. Suppose I = {1, 2, . . . , n} is a finite set. Then the Cartesian product Π i∈| A α , is
denoted by A 1 × A 2 × · · · × A n . A typical member of A 1 × A 2 × · · · × A n is denoted by ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
x i ∈ A i , for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n. The elements of A 1 × A 2 × · · · × A n are called ordered n-tuples. For
two elements ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), ( y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ A 1 × A 2 × · · · × A n ,

( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = ( y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )

if and only if x i = yi , for all i .

2.5.1 Worked-Out Exercises

Exercise 2.96. Determine which of the following mappings f : R → R are one-one and which
are onto R:

i. f ( x) = x + 4,

ii. f ( x) = x2 ,

for all x ∈ R.
Exercise 2.97.

19
 i. Let f : Z → Z be a mapping defined by
(
x if x is even,
f ( x) =
2 x + 1 if xis odd

for all x ∈ Z. Find a left inverse of f if one exists.

ii. Let f : Z → Z be the mapping defined by f ( x) = | x| + x, for all x ∈ Z. Find a right inverse of
f if one exists.

Exercise 2.98. Let X and Y be nonempty sets and f : X → Y . If T ⊆ X , then f (T ) denotes the
set { f ( x)| x ∈ T }. f (T ) is called the image of T under f . Prove that f is one-one if and only if

f ( A ∩ B ) = f ( A ) ∩ f (B )

for all nonempty subsets A and B of X .

2.5.2 Exercises
1. Determine which of the following mappings f : R → R are one-one and which are onto R:

i. f ( x) = x + 1,
ii. f ( x) = x3 ,
iii. f ( x) = | x| + x

for all x ∈ R.

2. Consider the function f = {( x, x2 )| x ∈ S } of S = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} into Z. Is f one-one? Is

f onto Z?

3. For each of the mappings f : Z → Z given below, find a right inverse of f whenever one
exists.

i. f ( x) = x − 3,
ii. f ( x) = 2 x,
iii. (
x if x is even,
f ( x) =
x + 1 if x is odd

for all z ∈ Z.

4. Given f : X → Y and A , B ⊆ X , prove that

i. f ( A ∪ B) = f ( A ) ∪ f (B),
ii. f ( A ∩ B) ⊆ f ( A ) ∩ f (B),
iii. f ( A \ B) ⊆ f ( A ) \ f (B) if f is one-one.

20
2.6 Binary Operations
Definition 2.99. Let S be a nonempty set. A binary operation on S is a function from S × S
into S .
Example 2.100. + is a binary operation on Z which assigns 3 to the pair (2, 1).
Notation 2.101. If ∗ is a binary operation on S , we write x ∗ y for ∗( x, y), where x, y ∈ S .
Definition 2.102. Since the image of ∗ is a subset of S , we say S is closed under ∗.
Example 2.103. Z is closed under + since adding two integers results to an integer. On the
other-hand, −-subtraction is not a binary operation of N, since 2, 5 ∈ N, but 2 − 5 = 3 ∉ N and we
say that N is not closed under −.
Definition 2.104. A mathematical system is an ordered ( n + 1)-tuple (S, ∗1 , . . . , ∗2 ), where S is
a nonempty set and ∗ i is a binary operation on S , i = 1, 2, . . . , n. S is called the underlying set of
the system.
Definition 2.105. Let (S, ∗) be a mathematical system. Then

i. ∗ is called associative if for all x, y, z ∈ S , x ∗ ( y ∗ z) = ( x ∗ y) ∗ z.

ii. ∗ is called commutative if for all x, y ∈ S , x ∗ y = y ∗ x.

Example 2.106. Consider the mathematical system (Z, +). Since addition of integers is asso-
ciative and commutative, + is associative and commutative.
Example 2.107. Let A be a nonempty set. Let S be the set of all functions on A , i.e.,

S = { f | f : A → A }.

Since the composition of functions is a function, (S, ◦) is a mathematical system. By a Theorem,

◦ is associative.
Example 2.108. Let M2 (R) be the set of all 2 × 2 matrices over R, i.e.,
n ·a b ¸ o
M2 (R) |a, b, c, d ∈ R .
c d

Let + denote the usual addition of matrices and · denote the usual multiplication of matrices.
Is ( M2 (R), +, ·) a mathematical system? What else can we say from this system?
Example 2.109. Consider the mathematical system (Z, −), where − denotes the binary opera-
tion of subtraction on Z. Is − associative or commutative?
For a finite set S , a convenient way to define a binary operation is to use an operation or
multiplication table.
Example 2.110. Let S = {a, b, c}. Define ∗ on S by the following operation table.

∗ a b c
a c b a
b a a a
c b b b

To determine the element of S assigned to a ∗ b, we look at the intersection of the row labeled by
a and the column headed by b. We see that a ∗ b = b. Note that b ∗ a = a.

21
Definition 2.111. Let (S, ∗) be a mathematical system. An element e ∈ S is called an identity
of (S, ∗) if for all x ∈ S ,
e ∗ x = x = x ∗ e.
Example 2.112. Let S = { e, a, b}. Define ∗ on S by the following multiplication table
∗ e a b
e e a b
a a a a
b b a b
Is e an identity of (S, ∗).
Example 2.113.

i. i A is an identity element of (S, ◦). See the functions example.

· ¸ · ¸
0 0 1 0
ii. is an identity element for the mathematical system ( M2 (R), +) and is an
0 0 0 1
identity element for the mathematical system ( M2 (R), ·).

Theorem 2.114. An identity element (if it exists) of a mathematical system (S, ∗) is unique.

Proof. On the board.

2.6.1 Worked-Out Exercises

Exercise 2.115. Which of the following are associative binary operations?

i. (Z, ∗), where x ∗ y = ( x + y) − ( x · y), for all x, y ∈ Z.

ii. (R, ∗), where x ∗ y = max( x, y), for all x, y ∈ R.

iii. (R, ∗), where x ∗ y = | x + y|, for all x, y ∈ R.

Solution:. On the board.

2.6.2 Exercises
1. Which of the following are associative binary operations?

i. (N, ∗), where x ∗ y = x y , for all x, y ∈ N.

ii. (Z, ∗), where x ∗ y = x + y + 1, for all x, y ∈ Z.
iii. (N, ∗), where x ∗ y = gcd ( x, y), for all x, y ∈ N.
iv. (N, ∗), where x ∗ y = l cm( x, y), for all x, y ∈ N.
v. (R, ∗), where x ∗ y = min( x, y), for all x, y ∈ R.
vi. (R, ∗), where x ∗ y = | x| + | y|, for all x, y ∈ R.

2. In Exercise 1, which of the operations are commutative?

3. In Exercise 2, which mathematical systems have an identity?

22