4.

1 Load frequency control of 2 – area system:

In the single – area case we could thus represent the frequency
deviations by the single variable ∆f. In the present case assume each
area individual strong, and having them interconnected them with a
weak tie line therefore leads us to the assumption that the frequency
deviations in the two areas can be represented by two variables ∆f 1 and
∆f2 respectivley.
An extended power system can be divided into a number of load
frequency control areas inter connected by means of tie lines. Consider a
two area case connected by a single tie line as illustrated in figure 4.1

Control Tie line Control

area area
1 2

Figure4.1. Two interconnected control areas

Assumed that each control can be represented by an equivalent turbine,

generator and governor system. Symbols used with suffix 1 refer to area
1 and those with suffix 2 refer to area 2.
The load frequency mechanism has
(i) To maintain the frequency at the scheduled value and that there is
no steady state error in frequency.
(ii) To regulate the tie-line power as per inter area arrangement.
In an isolated control area, the difference between (∆P G - ∆P D) is
accounted as change in stored energy in real power demand of the
loads.
Since a tie line transports power in (or) out of an area, must be
accounted for in the incremental power balance equation of each
area.
4.2 Mathematical modeling of load frequency control of 2- area system:
Power transmitted from the area 1 is given by
| V1 | | V2 |
Ptie, 1 = sin(δ1 0 - δ2 0 )……….(4.1)
X 12
Where δ12 , δ22 → power angles of equivalent machines of the two areas.
For incremental changes in δ1 and δ2, the incremental tie line power can
be expressed as
∆Ptie,1 (pu) = T12 (∆δ1 - ∆δ2 ) ………….(4.2)

Control Tie line Control

area area
1 X12 2
V1 V2
δ10 δ20
Ptie, 1 Ptie, 2

Figure 4.2.
| V1 | | V2 |
where T12 = cos(δ10 - δ2 0 ) = Synchronizing coefficient
Pr1 X 12
Pr1 → rated capacity of area 1
The incremental change in angel can be expressed as
dδ
= W = speed = 2πf
dt
∴δ= ∫ 2πf ; ∆δ ∫
= 2π ∆f
change in angle can be expressed as the integral of change in frequency

∫
∴ ∆Ptie, 1 = T12 ( 2πf 1 - ∫ 2πf 2 ) dt
= 2π [ ∫ ∆f1dt − ∆f 2 dt ] T12 ……….(4.3)
f 1 , f2 → are incremental frequency changes of area 1 & 2 respcetively.
Similarly, Power transmitted from the area 2 is given by
| V2 || V1 |
Ptie, 2 = sin(δ2 0 - δ1 0) ……….(4.4)
X 21
For incremental changes in δ2 and δ1, the incremental tie line power can
be expressed as
∆Ptie, 2 (pu) = T 21 (∆δ2 - ∆δ1 ) ………(4.5)
Change in angle can be expressed as the integral of change in frequency
of area 2 is given by
∆Ptie, 2 ∫
= 2πT21 [ ∆f 2 dt − ∆f 1 dt ] ……….(4.6)
 | V2 || V1 |
Where T21 = cos(δ20 - δ1 0 )
Pr2 X 21
 Pr 
=  1 T12
 Pr2 
= a12 T12 ………..(4.7)
In general load model → the incremental power balance equation of area
1 can be written as
2H 1 d
∆P G1 - ∆P D1 = (∆f1 ) + B1 ∆f1 + ∆P tie, 1 ………(4.8)
f 10 dt
Note: All quantities other than frequency are in per unit.
Taking the laplace transform of equation (4.8)
2H 1
∆P G1(s) - ∆P D1 (S) = S ∆F 1 (S) + B 1∆F 1 (S) + ∆Ptie,1 (S)
f 10
2HI
⇒ ∆P G1 (S) - ∆P D1 (S) - ∆Ptie, 1 (S) = S ∆F 1(S) + B 1 ∆F 1(S)
f 10
 2H 
= ∆F 1(S)  1 S + B1 
0
 f 1 
 2H 1 
= B1 . ∆F 1(S)  S +1
0
 B1f 1 
k p1
⇒ ∆F 1(S) = [∆P G1(S) - ∆P D1(S) - ∆Ptie, 1 (S)] * …….(4.9)
1 + STP1
1
where kp1 = (where B is also written as D)
B1
2H 1
Tp1 =
B1f 0
Isolated control area case, the only change is the appearance of the
signal ∆P tie, 1(S) as shown in figure 4.3.

∆Ptie, 1(S)

∆PG1(S) + − K P1 ∆F(S)
1 + ST1P
−

∆PD(S)
 ∫
Where ∆Ptie, 1 = 2π T 12 [ ∆ f 1dt - ∫ ∆ f2dt]
Using laplace transform
2πT12
∆Ptie, 1 (S) = [∆F1 (S) - ∆F 2 (S)] ………(4.10)
S
The corresponding block diagram is shown in figure 4.4

2π T12 −a12 ∆Ptie, 2(S)

∆Ptie, 1(S)
S

∆F1(S) ∆F2(S)

Fig. 4.4

For the control area 2,

∫
∆Ptie, 2 = 2π T 21 [ ∆ f 2dt - ∫ ∆ f1dt] ……..(4.11)
Using laplace transform
2π T21
∆ Ptie, 2 (S) = [∆F2 (S) - ∆F1 (S) ]
S
2π a 12 T21
= [∆F2 (S) - ∆F 1(S) ] Where T21 = a12 T 12
S
2π a 12 T21
=- [∆F 2 (S) - ∆F1 (S) ] …… (4.12)
S
Which is also indicated by the block diagram of figure 4.4.
A single integrating block by redefining ACE (area control error) as a
linear combination of incremental frequency and tie line power
For control area 1,
ACE1 = ∆P tie, 1 + b1 ∆f 1 ………(4.13)
Where b1 → is called area frequency bias.
Equation (4.13) can be expressed in the laplace transform as
ACE1 (S) = ∆P tie, 1 (S) + b1 ∆F 1 (S) …….(4.14)
Similarly,
For the control area 2, ACE2 is expresses as
ACE2 (S) = ∆P tie, 2 (S) + b2 ∆F 2 (S) ………(4.15)
Combining the basic block diagrams of the two control areas
corresponding to figure 4.5
 ∆Ptie, 1(S) ∆Ptie, 2(S)
2πT12
-a12
S

∆PC1(S) ∆PG1(S) ∆F1(S) ∆F2(S) ∆PG2(S)

+ − −
K I1 1 K P1 K P2 + 1
− (1 + STg 2 )(1 + STt 2 )
S + (1 + STg1 )(1 + STt1 ) 1 + STP1 1 + STP 2
+ − − −

1 ∆PD1 (S) ∆PD2 (S)

b1
R1

Fig. 4.5. Block diagram of two-area load frequency control

4.3 Static response of two-area system: (Uncontrolled case)
Uncontrolled case, the response of the two-area system with fixed speed
changer positions i.e. ∆PC1 = ∆P C2 = 0
Model of two – area system is depicated in figure 4.5 and here for
uncontrolled case ∆PC1 and ∆PC2 may be assumed zero.
Assumed that the loads in each area suddenly increased by the constant
incremental steps ∆P D1 = M 1
And ∆P D2 = M2
Finding the static changes that result in frequency and tie-line power. Let
us call changes ∆f and ∆P12 respectively. Since the incremental increase
in turbine dynamics in this static case is determined by the static loop
again.
1
∆PT1 = - ∆f ……..(4.16)
R1
1
∆PT2 = - ∆f ……..(4.17)
R2
By adding the powers at the summing junctions,
1
- ∆f – M 1 = D1 ∆f + ∆P12(tie) ……..(4.18)
R1
1
- ∆f – M2 = D2∆f - ∆P12(tie) ……..(4.19)
R2
Solve for ∆f and ∆P 12
M1 + M 2
∴ ∆f = - Hz…….(4.20)
β1 + β 2
∆ 1
where AFRC’s of each area β 1 = D1 +
R1
∆ 1
β 2 = D2 +
R2
β1 M 2 − β 2 M 2
∴ P 12(tie) = - ∆P 21(tie) = pu MW
β1 + β 2
Particularly simple, if assume identical area parameters
i.e. D 1 = D2 = D
R 1 = R2 = R
β1 = β2 = β
M1 + M 2
then ∆f = - Hz
2β
M 2 − M1
∆P12 = - ∆P 21 = pu MW ………(4.21)
2
If a step load change occurs only in area 2.
 M2
∆f = - Hz
2β
M2
∆P12 = pu MW ……….(4.22)
2

4.4 Dynamic response of two – area system: (Uncontrolled case)

The dynamic response of the two area, system is based on the following
assumptions.
1) Consider the case of two equal areas.
2) Consider the turbine controller fast relative to the inertia part of the
system.
GH = GT = 1
3) Neglect the system damping
i.e. Assume the load not to vary with frequency D1 = D2 = 0.
Derive the following expression for the tie-line from the block diagram
πf 0 T12 ∆PD (S) − ∆PD (S)
2 1
∆Ptie, 1 (S) = . …….(4.23)
H 
2  f
0 
2 π f 0 0
T
S + S +
 2RH  H
 
The denominator of the right side expression, which governs the dynamic
response of system is of the form
S 2 + 2α + Wn 2
Since α and Wn2 are both positive, therefore, the system is stable and
damped. There are three conditions.
1) If α = Wn , the system is critically damped
2) If α > Wn , the system becomes over damped.
3) If α < Wn , then the system can write
S 1, 2 = - α ± j Wn2 − α 2
= - α ± jWd
Wd = damped angular frequency
2
2πf 0 T 0  f 0 
= −   ……… (4.24)
H  4RH 
Above observations, conclude that the system damping is strongly
dependent on the α-parameter. For low value of D, the value of α is
increased and thus high damping is obtained. Therefore, D parameter fills
an important damping function in itnerconnected systems.
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

∆f0

∆f(t)

∆f2(t) ∆f1(t) With reset control without reset control

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

∆f21,0

∆f21(t)

4.5 Controlled case:

If frequency of two areas is to be controlled, the static frequency drop is
just one half of that of the isolated operation of two systems If there is
change in load in any area, half of it will be shared by the other area. It is
found that if a load changes in an area, the frequency and interchange
errors in that area have the same sign while these opposite signs for the
other area. Thus the relative signs of the frequency and interchange
deviations help to identify the area where the load has changed.
4.6 Tie-line bias control:
The response curves of Dynamic response indicate clearly that some form
of reset integral control must be added to the two-area system. A basic
guiding principle in pool operation must be that each area, in normal
steady state, absorbs its own load. In two-area system we could conceive
of the arrangement that area 1 be responsible for frequency reset and
area 2 take care of the tie-line power. Thus arrange for the following area
control errors.
∆
ACE1 = ∆f 1 …………(4.25)
∆
ACE2 = ∆P 21 …………(4.26)
Actually in the early days of pool operation one area was designated to
reset the system frequency and the others would be responsible for
zeroing their own net interchanges. The control strategy is termed tie-line
bias control and is based upon the principle that all operating pool
members must contribute their share to frequency control in addition to
taking care of their own net interchange.
In tie-line bias control of two-area system, the control error for each area
consists of a linear combination of frequency and tie-line error.
∆
ACE1 = ∆P12 + B 1 ∆f1 …………….(4.27)
 (Where ‘B’ is also written as ‘D’)
∆
ACE2 = ∆P 21 + B2 ∆f 2
The special changer commands will thus be of the form
∆PC , 1 = - KI1 ∫ (∆P12 + B1 ∆f1 ) dt
∆PC , 2 = - KI2 ∫ (∆P21 + B 2 ∆f 2 ) dt ……..(4.28)
The constants KI1 and K I2 are integrator gains, and the constants B 1 and
B 2 are the frequency bias parameters. The minus sign must be included
since each area should increase its generation if either frequency error
(or) its tie-line power increment is negative.
In multiarea systems, the area control error ACEi is
m
ACEi = ∑ ∆Pij + B i ∆f i …………(4.29)
j=1

ith → control area.

4.7 Optimal two-area load frequency control:
Optimum linear regulator (OLR) design is based entirely upon the
availability of a dynamic system model in so called state-variable form.
∆PD
∆Pg ∆PV
GH GT
u ∆PT − KP ∆f
1 1
∑ ∑ 1 + STP
1 + STH 1 + STT

1
R

Fig. 4.6. Optimum control of ALFC loop

For this system, have the transform equations:
1 1
∆Pv (S) = [u(S) - ∆f(S) ]
1 + STH R
1
∆PT (S) = ∆PV (S) ………..(4.30)
1 + STT
kp
∆f(S) = [∆PT (S) - ∆P D(S) ]
1 + STp
if expressed in the time domain,
d 1
∆PV + T H (∆PV ) = u - ∆f
dt R
d
∆PT + T T (∆PT ) = ∆Pv ……….. (4.31)
dt
d
∆f + Tp (∆f) = k p ∆P T – kP ∆P D
dt
We introduce the three state variables x1 , x2 and x3 forming the state vector
 x 1   ∆Pv 
X =  x 2  = ∆PT  ……….(4.32)
 x 3   ∆f 
Also define the disturbance force
∆
P = ∆P D
Equation (4.31) can upon rearrangement, put in the form
 1 1 
 •  − 0 −   1   
 x1   TH RTH   x  T   0 
1
 •   1 1     H  
x
  2 =  − 0   x 2  +  0  u +  0  P …….(4.33)
 •   TT TT  x   0   kp 
x
 3  k p 1   3
  − T 
   0 −     p
 Tp Tp 
Using matrix and vector symbols it can be put in compact form
•
X = AX + Bu + p
The single area system had only one control force and also one
disturbance force. The two-area system had two controls and disturbance
forces. Define control force and disturbance force vectors.
  u1   P1  ∆  ∆PD1 
u =  , P =   =  
u 2  P2  ∆PD 2 

Bu P X X
u +
B ∑ ∫ (........) dt
+
AX X
A
K Optimum feedback X
controller

Fig. 4.7. Block diagram of linear state model. Dashed feedback portion represents
the “optimum” controller

4.8 Performance Index (I):

The optimum linear regulator (OLR) design is based upon an integral – squared
– error index of the form
∞

∫ (q 1 x 1
2
I= + ......... + q n x 2n + r1 u 12 + .......... + rm u 2m ) dt………(4.34)
0
Where q’s and r’s are positive penalty factors.
Inour single – area system the I index would be
∞

∫ (q1 (∆Pv )
2
I= + q 2 (∆PT ) 2 + q 3 (∆f ) 2 + ru 2 ]dt ……..(4.35)
0
The squaring a frequency error will contribute to I independent of its sign.
If ∆f is doubled its contribution to I will quadruple.
The integral causes ∆f to add to I during its entire duration. The penalty
factors q i distribute the penalty weight among the state – variable errors.
The penalty factors r i distribute the penalties among the m control forces.
It is important that none of the r’s be set equal to zero. If all the q’s and
r’s constitute the diagonal elements of the two penality matrices
∆ q 1 0 ∆ r
1 0
Q =  q 2;;  and R =  r2;;  ………..(4.36)
. q
0 n  0 . rm 
I index equation (4.34) can be written in the compact form
∞

∫ (X
T
I= QX + u T Ru )dt ……….(4.37)
0