AP CALCULUS

Dr. Trung Dung Vuong

VNU-HCM High School for the Gifted

Preface

This book has been compiled by me for teaching the AP Calculus program at PTNK-
Hub. Most of the content in this book is taken from materials [1–4]. These materials
are excellent references and self-study tools for students, with most exercises having
suggested solutions for self-practice. They not only help students prepare well for the AP
exam but also enable learners to delve deeper into calculus (especially books [1] and [4]).
However, these reference books are quite extensive, often containing information
beyond what is necessary for the AP exam. Therefore, I have filtered out the unnecessary
content and made the information concise to ensure that learners can not only prepare
well for the AP exam but also better understand the fundamental concepts of calculus
such as continuity, derivatives, integrals, etc., facilitating their continued mathematical
journey in the future.
This is only a reference material for internal circulation, and all referenced content is
clearly cited. Given that this is the first compilation, some errors may be present. I hope
to receive feedback from students to improve future editions.

i
Contents

Preface i

1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is calculus? [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The courses [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Topic outline for the AB and BC calculus exams [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Content Area 1: Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Content Area 2: Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Content Area 3: Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem . . . . 8
1.3.4 Content Area 4: Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Preliminaries 9
2.1 Functions and their graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Four ways to represent a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Piecewise Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.3 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 New Functions from Old Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Transformations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2 Combinations of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.3 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.4 Parametrically defined functions (BC only) . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Bibliography 31

ii
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 What is calculus? [1]

Early in the seventeenth century, the German mathematician Johannes Kepler analyzed
a vast number of astronomical observations made by Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
and concluded that the planets must move around the sun in elliptical orbits. He didn’t
know why. Fifty years later, the English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton
answered that question.
Why do the planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun? Why do hurricane
winds spiral counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere? How can one predict the
effects of interest rate changes on economies and stock markets? When will radioactive
material be sufficiently decayed to enable safe handling? How do warm ocean currents
in the equatorial Pacific affect the climate of eastern North America? How long will
the concentration of a drug in the bloodstream remain at effective levels? How do radio
waves propagate through space? Why does an epidemic spread faster and faster and then
slow down? How can I be sure the bridge I designed won’t be destroyed in a windstorm?
These and many other questions of interest and importance in our world relate directly
to our ability to analyze motion and how quantities change with respect to time or each
other. Algebra and geometry are useful tools for describing relationships between static
quantities, but they do not involve concepts appropriate for describing how a quantity
changes. For this we need new mathematical operations that go beyond the algebraic
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and the taking of powers
and roots. We require operations that measure the way related quantities change.
Calculus provides the tools for describing motion quantitatively. It introduces two new
operations called differentiation and integration, which, like addition and subtraction,

1
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

are opposites of one another; what differentiation does, integration undoes.

For example, consider the motion of a falling rock. The height (in metres) of the rock
t seconds after it is dropped from a height of h0 m is a function h(t) given by

h(t) = h0 − 4.9t2 .

The graph of y = h(t) is shown in the figure below:

The process of differentiation enables us to find a new function, which we denote h0 (t)
and call the derivative of h with respect to t, which represents the rate of change of the
height of the rock, that is, its velocity in metres/second:

h0 (t) = −9.8t.

Conversely, if we know the velocity of the falling rock as a function of time, integration
enables us to find the height function h(t).
Calculus was invented independently and in somewhat different ways by two seventeenth-
century mathematicians: Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Newton’s motiva-
tion was a desire to analyze the motion of moving objects. Using his calculus, he was
able to formulate his laws of motion and gravitation and conclude from them that the
planets must move around the sun in elliptical orbits.
Many of the most fundamental and important “laws of nature” are conveniently
expressed as equations involving rates of change of quantities. Such equations are called
differential equations, and techniques for their study and solution are at the heart of
calculus. In the falling rock example, the appropriate law is Newton’s Second Law of
Motion:

force = mass × acceleration.

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 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The acceleration, −9.8 m/s2 , is the rate of change (the derivative) of the velocity,
which is in turn the rate of change (the derivative) of the height function.
Much of mathematics is related indirectly to the study of motion. We regard lines, or
curves, as geometric objects, but the ancient Greeks thought of them as paths traced
out by moving points. Nevertheless, the study of curves also involves geometric concepts
such as tangency and area. The process of differentiation is closely tied to the geometric
problem of finding tangent lines; similarly, integration is related to the geometric problem
of finding areas of regions with curved boundaries.
Both differentiation and integration are defined in terms of a new mathematical
operation called a limit. The concept of the limit of a function will be developed in
Chapter 2. That will be the real beginning of our study of calculus. In the chapter called
“Preliminaries” we will review some of the background from algebra and geometry needed
for the development of calculus.

1.2 The courses [2]

Calculus AB and BC are both full-year courses in the calculus of functions of a single
variable. Both courses emphasize:

(1) student understanding of concepts and applications of calculus over manipulation

and memorization;

(2) developing the student’s ability to express functions, concepts, problems, and
conclusions analytically, graphically, numerically, and verbally, and to understand
how these are related; and

(3) using a graphing calculator as a tool for mathematical investigations and for
problem-solving.

Both courses are intended for those students who have already studied college-preparatory
mathematics: algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytic geometry, and elementary func-
tions (linear, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, inverse trigono-
metric, and piecewise).

3
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.3 Topic outline for the AB and BC calculus

exams [2]
The AP Calculus course topics can be arranged into four content areas: 1. Limits, 2.
Derivatives, 3. Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem, and 4. Series. The AB exam
tests content areas 1, 2 , and 3. The BC exam tests all four content areas. There are
BC-only topics in content areas 2 and 3 , as well. Roughly 40 percent of the points
available for the BC exam are BC -only topics.

1.3.1 Content Area 1: Limits

Limits are used in many calculus concepts to go from the discrete to the continuous
case. Students must understand the idea of limits so that a deeper understanding of
definitions and theorems can be achieved. Students must be presented with different
representations of functions when calculating limits. Working with tables, graphs, and
algebraically defined functions with and without the calculator are essential skills that
students need to master.

I. Understanding the behavior of a function

A. Limit-writing and interpreting

• Limit definition-existence versus nonexistence
• Writing limits using correct symbolic notation
• One-sided limits
• Limits at infinity
• Infinite limits
• Nonexisting limits
B. Estimating limits
• Graphical and numerical representations of functions may be used to
estimate limits
C. Calculating limits
• Use theorems of limits to calculate limits of sums, differences, products,
quotients, and compositions of functions
• Use algebraic manipulation, trigonometric substitution, and Squeeze The-
orem

4
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

• L’Hospital’s Rule may be used to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms

0
0
and ∞
∞

D. Function behavior
• Limits can be used to explain asymptotic (vertical and horizontal) behavior
of functions
• Relative rates of growth of functions can be compared using limits
II. Continuity of functions
A. Intervals of continuity and points of discontinuity
• Definition of continuity
• Some functions are continuous at all points in their domain
• Polynomials
• Rational functions
• Power functions
• Exponential functions
• Logarithmic functions
• Trigonometric functions
• Types of discontinuities
• Removable
• Jump
• Vertical asymptotes
B. Continuity allows the application of important calculus theorems
• Intermediate Value Theorem
• Extreme Value Theorem
• Mean Value Theorem

1.3.2 Content Area 2: Derivatives

The derivative describes the rate of change. The concept of the limit helps us develop
the derivative as an instantaneous rate of change. Many applications rely on the use of
the derivative to help determine where a function attains a maximum or a minimum
value. Again, students must be presented with different representations of functions and
use different definitions of the derivative when calculating and estimating derivatives.

5
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Working with tables, graphs, and algebraically defined functions with and without the
calculator are essential skills that students need to master.

I. The derivative as the limit of a difference quotient

A. Identifying the derivative

• Difference quotients give the average rate of change on an interval; common
forms include f (a+h)−f
h
(a)
and f (x)−f
x−a
(a)

• Instantaneous rate of change at a point is the limit of the difference

quotient, provided it exists; f 0 (a) = lim f (a+h)−f
h
(a)
or f 0 (a) = lim f (x)−f
x−a
(a)
h→0 x→a

• The derivative of 0
the function f is given by f (x) = lim f (x+h)−f (x)
h
h→0
• Various notations dy
for the derivative of a function y = f (x) include dx , f 0 (x),
and y 0
• The derivative can be given using any of the representations in the rule
of four: graphically, numerically, analytically, and verbally
B. Estimating the derivative
• Tables and graphs allow the estimation of the derivative at a point
C. Calculating the derivative
• Apply the rules for differentiating families of functions: Polynomial, ratio-
nal, power, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, and inverse trigono-
metric
• Differentiation rules can be used to find the derivatives of sums, differences,
products, and quotients of functions
• Chain Rule
– Composite functions can be differentiated with the Chain Rule
– Implicit differentiation
– The derivative of an inverse function
• BC only. Parametric, vector, and polar functions can be differentiated
using the methods described above
D. Higher-order derivatives
• Differentiating the first derivative produces the second derivative, differ-
entiating the second derivative produces the third derivative, and so on,
provided these derivatives exist

6
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

2
• Notations for higher-order derivatives: second derivatives dx d y 00
2 , f (x), and
3
d y dn y
y 00 ; third derivatives dx 000 000
3 , f (x), and y ; higher than third derivatives dxn

or f (n) (x), where n is the number of the derivative

II. Using the derivative of a function to determine the behavior of the function

A. Analyzing the properties of a function

B. Connecting differentiability and continuity

III. Interpreting and applying the derivative

A. The meaning of a derivative

• Instantaneous rate of change with respect to the independent variable
• The units for the derivative of a function are the units of the function
over the units for the independent variable
B. Using the slope of the tangent line
• The slope of the line tangent to a graph at a point is the derivative at
that point
• The tangent line provides a local linear approximation of function values
near the point of tangency
C. Solving problems
• Related rates: Find the rate of change of one quantity by knowing the
rate(s) of change of related quantities
• Optimization: Finding the maximum or minimum value of a function on
an interval
• Rectilinear motion: Using the derivative to determine velocity, speed, and
acceleration for particles moving along a line
• BC only. Planar motion: Using the derivative to determine velocity,
speed, and acceleration for particles moving along a curve defined by
parametric or vector functions
D. Differential equations
• Verify a function is a solution to a given differential equation using
derivatives
• Estimate solutions to differential equations

7
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

– Slope fields allow the visualization of a solution curve to a differential

equation; students may be asked to draw a solution curve through a
given point on a slope field
– BC only. Euler’s method provides a numerical method to approximate
points on the solution curve for a differential equation

IV. The Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

• If a function is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and is differentiable

on the open interval (a, b), then MVT guarantees the existence of a point in
the open interval (a, b) where the instantaneous rate of change is equal to the
average rate of change on the interval [a, b]

1.3.3 Content Area 3: Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem

To be updated.

1.3.4 Content Area 4: Series

To be updated.

8
Chapter 2

Preliminaries

This preliminary chapter reviews the most important things you should know before
learning AP Calculus. The fundamental objects that we deal with in calculus are functions.
This chapter prepares the way for calculus by discussing the basic ideas concerning
functions, their graphs, and ways of transforming and combining them. We stress that a
function can be represented in different ways: by an equation, in a table, by a graph, or
in words. We look at the main types of functions that occur in calculus and describe the
process of using these functions as mathematical models of real-world phenomena.

2.1 Functions and their graphs

2.1.1 Four ways to represent a function

Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on another. Consider the following four
situations.

A. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule that connects
r and A is given by the equation A = πr2 . With each positive number r there is
associated one value of A, and we say that A is a function of r.

B. The human population of the world P depends on the time t. The table gives
estimates of the world population P (t) at time t, for certain years.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

For instance,
P (1950) ≈ 2, 560, 000, 000

But for each value of the time t there is a corresponding value of P , and we say
that P is a function of t.

C. The cost C of mailing an envelope depends on its weight w. Although there is no

simple formula that connects w and C, the post office has a rule for determining C
when w is known.

D. The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured by a seismograph during an

earthquake is a function of the elapsed time t. Figure 1 shows a graph generated
by seismic activity during the Northridge earthquake that shook Los Angeles in
1994. For a given value of t, the graph provides a corresponding value of a.

10
 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Definition 2.1. A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly
one element, called f (x), in a set E.

We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E are sets of real numbers.

• The set D is called the domain of the function.

• The number f (x) is the value of f at x and is read “f of x.”

• The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout the
domain.

• A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function f is

called an independent variable.

• A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is called a dependent

variable.

Example 2.1.1. Find the domain and range of the following function.
√ 4
1. f (x) = x2 − 2. 2. g(x) = x+2 3. h(x) = .
x−1

An old maxim states that “a picture is worth a thousand words.” This is certainly
true in mathematics; the behaviour of a function is best described by drawing its graph.

Definition 2.2. If f is a function with domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered
pairs
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior or “life history” of
a function. Since the y-coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is y = f (x), we can
read the value of f (x) from the graph as being the height of the graph above the point x.
The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x-axis and its range on
the y-axis.

Example 2.1.2. The graph of a function f is shown in the following figure.

(a) Find the values of f (1) and f (5).

(b) What are the domain and range of f ?

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane. But the question arises: Which
curves in the xy-plane are graphs of functions? This is answered by the following
test.

The Vertical Line Test A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and
only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

More specifically, not every curve you can draw is the graph of a function. A function f
can have only one value f (x) for each x in its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the
graph of a function at more than one point. If a is in the domain of function f , then the
vertical line x = a will intersect the graph of f at the single point (a, f (a)). The circle
x2 + y 2 = 1, in the fegure below, cannot be the graph of a function since some vertical
lines intersect it twice. It is, however, the union of the graphs of two functions, namely,
√ √
y= 1 − x2 and y = − 1 − x2 ,

which are, respectively, the upper and lower halves (semicircles) of the given circle.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

2.1.2 Piecewise Defined Functions

The functions in the following four examples are defined by different formulas in different
parts of their domains. Such functions are called piecewise defined functions.

Example 2.1.3. Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f (x) = |x|.

Example 2.1.4. A function f is defined by


1 − x if x 6 −1
f (x) =
x 2 if x > −1.

Evaluate f (−2), f (−1), and f (0) and sketch the graph.

Example 2.1.5. Find a formula for the function f graphed in the following figure.

2.1.3 Even and Odd Functions

Definition 2.3. Suppose that −x belongs to the domain of f whenever x does. We say
that f is an even function if

f (−x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f.

We say that f is an odd function if

f (−x) = −f (x) for every x in the domain of f .

• The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.

• The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Example 2.1.6. Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd.

a) f (x) = x5 + x b) g(x) = 1 − x4 c) h(x) = 2x − x2

2.1.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

The graph shown in the figure below rises from A to B, falls from B to C, and rises again
from C to D. The function f is said to be increasing on the interval [a, b], decreasing
on [b, c], and increasing again on [c, d]. Notice that if x1 and x2 are any two numbers
between a and b with x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). We use this as the defining property
of an increasing function.

Definition 2.4.
A function f is called increasing on an interval I if

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

It is called decreasing on I if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.

2.1.5 Exercises
√ √
Exercise 2.1.1. If f (x) = x + 2 − x and g(u) = u + 2 − u, is it true that f = g ?
x2 −x
Exercise 2.1.2. If f (x) = x−1
and g(x) = x is it true that f = g ?

Exercise 2.1.3. Determine whether the curve is the graph of a function of x. If it is,
state the domain and range of the function.

Exercise 2.1.4. The graph of a function f is given.

(a) State the value of f (1).

(b) Estimate the value of f (−1).

(c) For what values of x is f (x) = 1 ?

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

(d) Estimate the value of x such that f (x) = 0.

(e) State the domain and range of f .

(f ) On what interval is f increasing?

Exercise 2.1.5. The graphs of f and g are given.

(a) State the values of f (−4) and g(3).

(b) For what values of x is f (x) = g(x) ?

(c) Estimate the solution of the equation f (x) = −1.

(d) On what interval is f decreasing?

(e) State the domain and range of f .

(f ) State the domain and range of g.

Exercise 2.1.6. Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd.
√ √
a) y = f (x) = 1 − 2x + 1 + 2x. |x − 1| − |x + 1|
c) f (x) =
|x + 2| − |x − 2|
√ √ 3
b) y = f (x) = 3
2x − 3 − 3
2x + 3. d) y = f (x) = .
x−2

2.2 New Functions from Old Functions

In this section we start with the basic functions we discussed in Section 2.1 and obtain
new functions by shifting, stretching, and reflecting their graphs. We also show how to
combine pairs of functions by the standard arithmetic operations and by composition.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

2.2.1 Transformations of Functions

Theorem 2.1. Vertical and Horizontal Shifts-Translations. Suppose c > 0. To
obtain the graph of

• y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units upward.

• y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units downward.

• y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the right.

• y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the left.

Theorem 2.2. Vertical and Horizontal Stretching. Suppose c > 1. To obtain the
graph of

• y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c.

• y = (1/c)f (x), shrink the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c.

• y = f (cx), shrink the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

• y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c.

Theorem 2.3. Reflecting. To obtain the graph of

• y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis;

• y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis.

√ √
Example 2.2.1. Given the graph of y = x, use transformations to graph y = x − 2,
√ √ √ √
y = x − 2, y = − x, y = 2 x, and y = −x as follows:

Example 2.2.2. A function f is defined on the interval [−2, 2] and has the graph shown
in the figure below:

20
 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

(a) Sketch the graph of y = −f (x).

(b) Sketch the graph of y = f (−x).

(c) Sketch the graph of y = |f (x)|.

(d) Sketch the graph of y = f (|x|).

2.2.2 Combinations of functions

Definition 2.5. If f and g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the domains
of both f and g we define functions f + g, f − g, f g, and f /g by the formulas:

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
 
f f (x)
(x) = , where g(x) 6= 0.
g g(x)

Example 2.2.3. The figure below shows the graphs of f (x) = x2 , g(x) = x − 1, and
their sum (f + g)(x) = x2 + x − 1. Observe that the height of the graph of f + g at any
point x is the sum of the heights of the graphs of f and g at that point.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Example 2.2.4. The functions f and g are defined by the formulas

√ √
f (x) = x and g(x) = 1 − x.

State the formulas for the values of 3f, f + g, f − g, f g, f /g, and g/f at x, and specify
the domains of each of these functions as below:

Definition 2.6. Given two functions f and g, the composite function f ◦ g (also
called the composition of f and g ) is defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Example 2.2.5. If f (x) = x + 5 and g(x) = x2 − 3, find the following:

(a) f ◦ g(0) (d) g ◦ f (x) (g) f (f (x))

(b) g(f (0)) (e) f ◦ f (−5)

(c) f (g(x)) (f ) g(g(2)) (h) g ◦ g(x)

√
Example 2.2.6. Given f (x) = x and g(x) = x + 1, calculate the four composite the
domain of each. functions f ◦ g(x), g ◦ f (x), f ◦ f (x), and g ◦ g(x), and specify.
1−x
Example 2.2.7. If G(x) = , calculate G ◦ G(x) and specify its domain.
1+x

2.2.3 Inverse functions

Table 1 gives data from an experiment in which a bacteria culture started with 100
bacteria in a limited nutrient medium; the size of the bacteria population was recorded
at hourly intervals. The number of bacteria N is a function of the time t : N = f (t).
Suppose, however, that the biologist changes her point of view and becomes interested
in the time required for the population to reach various levels. In other words, she is
thinking of t as a function of N . This function is called the inverse function of f , denoted
by f −1 , and read “f inverse.” Thus t = f −1 (N ) is the time required for the population
level to reach N . The values of f −1 can be found by reading Table 1 from right to left or
by consulting Table 2. For instance, f −1 (550) = 6 because f (6) = 550.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Not all functions possess inverses. Let’s compare the functions f and g whose arrow
diagrams are shown in the figure below. Note that f never takes on the same value twice
(any two inputs in A have different outputs), whereas g does take on the same value
twice (both 2 and 3 have the same output, 4). In symbols,

g(2) = g(3)

but
f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )

6 x2 Functions that share this property with f are called one-to-one

whenever x1 =
functions.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Definition 2.7. A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the

same value twice; that is,

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 .

If a horizontal line intersects the graph of f in more than one point, then we see from
the figure below that there are numbers x1 and x2 such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).

This means that f is not one-to-one. Therefore we have the following geometric method
for determining whether a function is one-to-one.

Horizontal Line Test A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects
its graph more than once.

One-to-one functions are important because they are precisely the functions that possess
inverse functions according to the following definition.

Definition 2.8. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then its
inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A and is defined by

f −1 (y) = x ⇔ f (x) = y

for any y in B.

This definition says that if f maps x into y, then f −1 maps y back into x. (If f were
not one-to-one, then f −1 would not be uniquely defined.) The arrow diagram in the
figure below indicates that f −1 reverses the effect of f .

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

Note that

√
For example, the inverse function of f (x) = x3 is f −1 (x) = 3
x because if y = x3 , then

√
3
f −1 (y) = f −1 x3 = x3 = x.

CAUTION Do not mistake the -1 in f −1 for an exponent. Thus

1
f −1 (x) does not mean .
f (x)

The reciprocal 1/f (x) could, however, be written as [f (x)]−1 .

Proposition 2.1. Let f be a function and f −1 be its inverse function. Then we have:

a) f −1 (x) = y ⇔ f (y) = x;

b) f −1 (f (x)) = x for every x in A;

c) f (f −1 (x)) = x for every x in B.

Example 2.2.8. Find the inverse function of f (x) = x3 + 2.

The principle of interchanging x and y to find the inverse function also gives us the
method for obtaining the graph of f −1 from the graph of f . Since f (a) = b if and only if
f −1 (b) = a, the point (a, b) is on the graph of f if and only if the point (b, a) is on the
graph of f −1 . But we get the point (b, a) from (a, b) by reflecting about the line y = x.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

2.2.4 Parametrically defined functions (BC only)

If the x - and y-coordinates of a point on a graph are given as functions f and g of a
third variable, say t, then
x = f (t), y = g(t)

are called parametric equations and t is called the parameter. When t represents
time, as it often does, then we can view the curve as that followed by a moving particle
as the time varies.

Example 2.2.9. From the parametric equations

x = 4 sin t, y = 5 cos t (0 5 t 5 2π)

we can find the Cartesian equation of the curve by eliminating the parameter t as follows:
x y
sin t = , cos t = .
4 5
Since sin2 t + cos2 t = 1, we have
 x 2  y 2 x2 y 2
+ =1 or + =1
4 5 16 25
Example 2.2.10. For the pair of parametric equations
√
x = 1 − t, y= t (t = 0)

we can eliminate t by squaring the second equation and substituting for t in the first; then
we have
y 2 = t and x = 1 − y 2 .

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

2.2.5 Exercises
Exercise 2.2.1. The graph of y = f (x) is given. Match each equation with its graph and
give reasons for your choices.

(a) y = f (x − 4). (d) y = −f (x + 4).

(b) y = f (x) + 3.

(c) y = 13 f (x). (e) y = 2f (x + 6)

Exercise 2.2.2. Let the graph of the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2 be as in the figure
below:

Sketch the graph of

(a) y = −f (x). (c) y = |f (x)|.

(b) y = f (−x). (d) y = f (|x|).

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

(e) y = |f (|x|)|.

Exercise 2.2.3. Find

(a) f + g; (c) f g;
f
(b) f − g; (d)
g

and state their domains. Where:

• f (x) = x3 + 2x2 , g(x) = 3x2 − 1

√ √
• f (x) = 3 − x, g(x) = x2 − 1

Exercise 2.2.4. Use the table to evaluate each expression.

(a) f (g(1)) (d) g(g(1))

(b) g(f (1)) (e) (g ◦ f )(3)

(c) f (f (1) ) (f ) (f ◦ g)(6)

Exercise 2.2.5. Use the given graphs of f and g to evaluate each expression, or explain
why it is undefined.

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 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARIES

(a) f (g(2)) (d) (g ◦ f )(6)

(b) g(f (0)) (e) (g ◦ g)(−2)

(c) (f ◦ g)(0) (f ) (f ◦ f )(4)

√ √
Exercise 2.2.6. If f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x, find each function and its domain.

(a) f ◦ g; (c) f ◦ f

(b) g ◦ f (d) g ◦ g

x
Exercise 2.2.7. Find f ◦ g ◦ h if f (x) = , g(x) = x10 , and h(x) = x + 3.
x+1
Exercise 2.2.8. Given F (x) = cos2 (x + 9), find functions f, g, and h such that F =
f ◦ g ◦ h.

30
Bibliography

[1] C. Essex R. Adams.

Calclulus A Complete Course.
Pearson, 9 edition, 2018.

[2] D. Bock S. Hockett.

AP Calculus.
Barron’s, 10 edition, 2010.

[3] S. Hocket D. Donovan, D. Bock.

AP Calculus Premium with 12 practice tests.
Barron’s, 15 edition, 2019.

[4] J. Stewart.
Calculus: Early Transcendentals.
Brooks/Cole, 7 edition, 2012.

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