UNIT-2 RESEARCH APTITUDE

Research
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and the use of existing knowledge in a new
and creative way to generate new concepts.

Research Characteristics
The research should be systematic.
The research should be objective.
The research should be logical.
The research should be reductive.
The research should be replicable.
The research should have generalized outcomes.

Types of Research
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is research used to “describe” a situation, subject, behavior, or phenomenon. It is
used to answer questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research
question or problem.

Explanatory Research
Explanatory research is an approach used to discover details about why something occurs. It can serve
as a starting point for more in-depth studies. Learning about this type of research can help you
understand how to determine the root cause of a certain situation and fill gaps in the missing information.

Experimental Research
Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a
hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured,
calculated and compared. Most importantly, experimental research is completed in a controlled
environment.

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a methodological approach that investigates research questions that have not
previously been studied in depth.

Feasibility study
A feasibility study asks whether something can be done, should we proceed with it, and if so, how. A
pilot study asks the same question but has a specific design feature: in a pilot study a future study, or
part of a future study, is conducted on a smaller scale.

Fundamental Research (First Level)

Basic research, also called pure research or fundamental research, has the scientific research aims to
improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena.

Applied Research (Second Level)

Applied research is a type of examination looking to find practical solutions for existing problems. These
can include challenges in the workplace, education, and society. This research type uses empirical
methodologies, such as experiments, to collect further data in an area of study.

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Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is defined as a methodology wherein research is conducted by observing and
analyzing already present information on a given topic. Conceptual research doesn't involve conducting
any practical experiments. It is related to abstract concepts or ideas.

Empirical research
Empirical research is research that is based on the observation and measurement of phenomena, as
directly experienced by the researcher. The data thus gathered may be compared against a theory or
hypothesis, but the results are still based on real-life experience.

Positivism argues for a true and objective reality that can be studied by applying the methods and
principles of natural sciences and scientific inquiry. It believes that knowledge is discovered and verified
through direct observations or measurements of phenomena.

Post-positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed due to the criticism of

positivism. Like positivists, post-positivists also believe in the existence of a single reality, however,
they acknowledge that reality can never be fully known and efforts to understand reality are limited
owing to human beings' sensory and intellectual limitations.

Hypothetico-Deductive Research
Hypothetico-deductive method, also called H-D method or H-D, procedure for the construction of a
scientific theory that will account for results obtained through direct

Empirico-Inductive Research
In an empirico-inductive paradigm, the researcher collects empirical data (empirico) from specific cases
to generalize (inductive) its research finding. Empirical research uses quantitative and qualitative data-
gathering methods, which may include surveys, experiments, and observation methods.

Quantitative vs Qualitative Data

Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable. Qualitative data is interpretation-based,
descriptive, and related to language. Quantitative data tells us how many, how much, or how often in
calculations. Qualitative data can help us to understand why, how, or what happened behind certain
behaviors.

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Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a form of social action that stresses the way people interpret, and. make sense of
their experiences to understand the social reality of individuals. It makes use of interviews, diaries,
journals, classroom observations, and immersions; and is open-ended. Hence it is majorly used in
Social Science research.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

o Unique case orientation -- assumes that each case is special and unique.
o Inductive analysis -- immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important
patterns, themes, and inter-relationships; begins by exploring, then confirming findings, guided by
analytical principles rather than rules.
o Context sensitive -- places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context.
o Voice, perspective, and reflexivity -- the qualitative methodologist owns and is reflective about her
or his voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness.

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find
patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider
populations.

Mixed method Research

A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and "mixing" both quantitative
and qualitative research and methods in a single study to understand a research problem.

Types of Qualitative Research

 Ethnography
Ethnography is studying and recording human cultures, often through participant observation.
Ethnography involves observing people in their natural environment to understand their experiences,
perspectives, and everyday practices. This can provide in-depth insight into a particular context, group,
or culture.

Pre-informed Consent in Ethnography

Researchers are supposed to proceed with an informed consent however the principle of informed
consent is theoretical, as pre-information will likely affect the research findings. Hence, a rigid application
of ethical principles is not possible.

The highest flexibility

Ethnography is the most flexible research in all types of qualitative research because it allows
personalized and contextualized references and higher flexibility in terms of process and methods.

Autoethnography
Autoethnography is a form of qualitative research that uses self-reflection and writing to explore
personal experiences. It involves connecting personal experiences to broader cultural, political, and
social meanings and understandings.

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 Historical Research
Historical research is a process of collecting and interpreting data about past events or ideas to find how
they affected the present events and ideas. It studies possible reasons behind certain events to explain
their influence on the events that followed.

Archival Research
Archival research is research involving primary sources held in archives, a Special Collections library, or
other repository. Archival sources can be manuscripts, documents, records (including electronic
records), objects, sound and audiovisual materials, or other materials.

Primary and Secondary Resources in Historical Research

A primary source is something written or created by a person who saw a historical event. Letters,
diaries, oral testimonies, photographs, and artifacts are primary sources.

Secondary sources are written after a historical event by people who did not see the event. Books,
paintings, and actuaries that are based on primary sources are examples of secondary sources.

 Content Analysis
Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or
concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content analysis, researchers can
quantify and analyze the presence, meanings, and relationships of certain words, themes, or concepts.

Coding in Content Analysis

To analyze the text using content analysis, the text must be coded, or broken down, into manageable
code categories for analysis (i.e. "codes"). Once the text is coded into code categories, the codes can
then be further categorized into "code categories" to summarize data even further.

Coding Schedule
A coding schedule is a system for categorizing and labeling data in a research study. It involves
creating a coding scheme, which is a set of codes that researchers use to identify and classify data.

 Case Study
A case study is a qualitative research method that involves a detailed examination of a specific
subject. It can be used to study a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. In the case
study method, the researcher collects detailed information from a limited number of participants.
Findings based on case study research can be used to develop research hypotheses/questions for
subsequent studies.

Characteristics of Case Study

o It is particularistic.
o It is descriptive.
o It is inductive.

 Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a systematic methodology for qualitative research that involves constructing theories
and hypotheses through data collection and analysis. It's an inductive research method that doesn't
involve preconceived hypotheses about the outcome. Instead, the data collected guides the analysis and
theory creation.

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 Action Research
Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue or
to improve (ameliorate) a given situation.
In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the
same time.

It was first coined as a term in 1944 by MIT professor Kurt Lewin.

It's a cyclical process that aims to identify problems and create a plan of action. It has four steps such
as plan, act, observe, and reflect.

Variables
Variables are things you measure, manipulate, and control in statistics and research.

Dependent Variable DV and Independent Variable IV

A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by the manipulation of an Independent Variable. The
research observes the changes in Dependent Variable.

Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the researcher did not
originally consider when designing the experiment. These unwanted variables can unintentionally
change a study's results or how a researcher interprets those results. Hence, they are a threat to the
validity of the research.

Types of Extraneous Variables

Confounds refer to variables that should have been held constant within a specific study but were
accidentally allowed to vary.
Artifacts, on the other hand, refer to variables that should have been systematically varied, either within
or across studies, but that were accidentally held constant.

Control Variable
Control or controlling variables are characteristics that are constant and do not change during a study.
Extraneous Variables are controlled and made constant so that they do not affect the Experiment's
result.

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Qualitative Variable
Qualitative, or categorical, variables are non-manipulative values or groupings. Researchers can
further categorize qualitative variables into three types:

Types of Qualitative Variables

Nominal variables: Categories with no inherent order (e.g., gender, religion).
(Dichotomous: A type of Nominal variable with only two categories, such as male or female)
Ordinal (Sequential) variables: Categories with a specific order but no precise differences between
ranks (e.g., socioeconomic status).

Quantitative variables
Quantitative variables are any data sets that involve numbers.

Researchers can further categorize quantitative variables into two types:

Discrete variables are variables that can take on distinct, countable values.
Continuous variables are variables that can take on any value within a range, and the number of
possible values within that range is infinite
Interval Variables: These have meaningful differences between values but lack a true zero point. An
example is the temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Ratio Variables: These have all the properties of interval variables but have a meaningful zero point.
For example, height, weight, etc.

Scale
A scale refers to the measurement system used to quantify or categorize variables. It represents how
data is collected and interpreted.
Nominal scale: Used to categorize arbitrary data without any quantitative value or order (e.g.,
gender, nationality).
Ordinal scale: Used to rank data in order, but the intervals between the ranks are not equal (e.g.,
satisfaction levels).
Interval scale: Has ordered categories with meaningful distances between points, but no true zero
point (e.g., temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit).
Ratio scale: Includes all the properties of the interval scale, but with a meaningful zero (e.g., weight,
height, age).

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Variables vs. Scales
A variable is the characteristic or property that you're measuring.
A scale is a system or framework used to measure or categorize the variable.

Experimental Research
Experimental research is a scientific study that involves testing a hypothesis through experimentation. It
involves manipulating one or more independent variables and using them on one or more dependent
variables.
Some characteristics of experimental research include: Control, Manipulation, Observation, Control

Control (placebo) vs Experimental Group

A control group is a group in the experiment where a variable is not being tested. Control groups serve
as important benchmarks to compare the results of the experimental group. An experimental group is
the group that receives the variable being tested in an experiment. An experimental can be with or
without a Control Group

Pre and Post Tests

A pretest is a test given to participants before they have undergone some type of treatment as part of a
research study. A posttest is a test given to participants after they have received treatment as part of a
research study.

Experimental Effects

 Experimenter (Bias) effect

The experimenter effect is the tendency of the experimenter/researcher to influence. The participants or
interpret the data/findings to arrive at the result they seek to obtain. This is typically done
subconsciously, though it may also be done consciously.

 The Halo Effect

The halo effect is a cognitive bias that occurs when a positive impression of someone influences how we
think and feel about their character. For example, if someone is initially perceived as nice, we may
evaluate them as also being smart.

 The Hawthorne (Reactive) Effect

The Hawthorne Effect is a phenomenon where people change their behavior due to the knowledge that
they are being observed. Such conscious behavior is identified as Subjective Reactivity. The
Hawthorne Effect can affect many behaviors, including dietary habits and hygiene practices.

 The placebo effect

The placebo effect is when a person's physical or mental health seems to improve after taking a
placebo. A placebo is a treatment that looks real but is designed to have no therapeutic benefit.

 Evaluation apprehension Effect

Evaluation apprehension is a human tendency to try to look better or fear of being evaluated.

 Compensatory rivalry
Compensatory rivalry is a threat to internal validity that occurs when participants in a control group
increase their efforts to improve because they know they are not receiving the experimental treatment.
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 Blind and Double-blind Study

In a blind study, either the participants or the experimenter are unaware of which study group they are in.
In a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the experimenters know which group each participant
was assigned to.
Ex Post Facto Research/Causal-comparative research
A method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable.
For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences self-esteem levels in adults.
The difference between this and experimental research is that the independent variable has to be
selected or explored rather than manipulated.

Correlational Research
A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the relationship between two (or more) variables.
A correlation coefficient of +1 reveals a perfect positive correlation whereas a correlation coefficient of
-1 indicates a perfect negative correlation between two variables. A coefficient of 0 reveals that there is
no relationship between the variables under study.

Steps in a Research Process

There are following steps in research. Depending on the challenges you encounter in the process, you
may need to rearrange these steps.

1. Research Question (Identify/Establish / Define / the problem)

A research question is a question that a research project seeks to answer. It is often the first step in a
research project and helps define the path for the research process.

2. Review the literature

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It involves researching, reading,
analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing scholarly literature.

3. Formulate a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the expected relationship between two or more variables.

4. Choose a research setting/method/design

A research design is the framework for a study and guides the collection and analysis of data.

5. Collect / Process data

Data collection is the process of gathering and evaluating information from multiple sources to answer
research questions.

6. Analyze data / Interpreting Data or Hypothesis Testing

Data analysis is a process that involves interpreting collected data to discover useful information.
Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that uses data to determine if there is enough evidence to
draw conclusions about a population.

7. Share the results/ findings or Report the research outcome / Generalized Outcome /
Theoretical Saturation
The conclusion is the final part of a research paper that brings everything together in a logical manner.
Theoretical saturation is a concept in qualitative research that indicates when researchers have
enough data to understand a phenomenon.

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Report writing in research involves summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting data to reach conclusions
and recommendations. The purpose of report writing is to communicate research findings to various
stakeholders.

Interview
In social science, interviews are a method of data collection that involves two or more people exchanging
information through a series of questions and answers. The questions are designed by a researcher to
elicit information from interview participants on a specific topic or set of topics.

Focus Group (Discussions)

A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve people who share similar
characteristics or common interests. A facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set of
topics. The facilitator creates an environment that encourages participants to share their perceptions and
points of view.

Survey Method
The survey method is a research method that involves gathering data from a group of people by asking
them questions. The goal is to gain insights into a topic of interest, such as consumer preferences or
political opinions.

Types of Surveys
Online surveys, Paper surveys, Telephone surveys, One-to-one interviews, and Electronic surveys.
Surveys conducted through the Internet have had huge growth after the 1990s

Questionnaire in Survey
A questionnaire is a research tool that consists of a series of questions used to gather information from
respondents.

Open-ended vs Closed-ended Surveys

Open-ended questions allow respondents to express their opinions in their own words which also allows
unusual responses to be derived, while closed-ended questions offer predefined choices or scales to
select from such questions are easier than Open-ended ones.

Observations
Observation is a data collection method that involves watching and documenting people and phenomena
(without any manipulation of variables). It's a qualitative method.
Quantitative observation
Quantitative observation is a method of gathering and analyzing data. It uses numerical data and
statistical calculations to measure research and draw conclusions. It usually involves variables with a
numerical value.

Use of Observations
Observational methods are used when it's important to avoid errors that can occur in interview methods
or the interview cannot be taken as the subject is very young.

Benefits of Observations
Observation does not demand the active participation of subjects. Observations are known for
directness. Artificiality can be minimized in observational studies.
Recording devices can be used in observational studies for accuracy.

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Longitudinal vs Cross-sectional Studies
Longitudinal studies involve observing a single group multiple times over some time.
Cross-sectional studies involve observing multiple groups at a single point in time.
For instance, a cross-sectional study on the prevalence of cancer among women of different
ages may give a generalized opinion that the illness often occurs in middle-aged subjects.
Conversely, the longitudinal study may observe how cancer affects women when they eat certain
foods or perform specific activities during their lifetime.

Types of Longitudinal Research

Cohort Study
A cohort study is a type of study in which a well-defined group of people with a common characteristic
is followed over time to find how many reach a certain health outcome of interest at the end. (Disease,
condition, event, death, or a change in health status or behavior).

Prospective Studies
In a prospective study, researchers watch for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during
the study period and relate this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s).

Trend Study
A trend study is a research method that examines a general population's characteristics over time. It
involves comparing sample surveys that describe the same population at different points in time.

Population and Sample

A population is the entire group that you want to conclude about. A sample is the specific group that
you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the population.

Population parameter vs. sample statistic

In statistics, a parameter is a number that describes the characteristics of a population, while a
statistic is a number that describes the characteristics of a sample.

Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that summarizes, organizes, and presents data. It involves
analyzing and describing a dataset's main characteristics.

The measure of Central Tendency and Variability

Central tendency and variation are two measures used in statistics to summarize data.
Measure of central tendency shows where the center of the data set is located, whereas measure of
variation shows the dispersion/deviation among data values or how far apart data points lie from each
other. The sum of the deviation taken from the mean is always zero.

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Types of Central Tendency
The three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.
Mean (µ,𝑿̅ ) - It's the sum of all values in a dataset divided by the total number of values.
Mode - This is the most frequently occurring value in a dataset.
Median - This is the middle value in dataset that is arranged in ascending order.

Types of Variabilities (Measure of Dispersion)

Mean, Deviation, Standard Deviation σ, Variance, Interquartile Range, Range

The law of large numbers

The law of large numbers (LLN) is a mathematical theory of probability that states that as a sample size
increases, the mean of the sample will more closely resemble the mean of the population.

The mean of means

The mean of means is the mean of all the means of several samples. It's a single value that can help
summarize a lot of data. It follows the law of large numbers.

Coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation (CV) is a statistical measure that expresses the ratio of the standard deviation
(σ) to the mean (μ) of a data set.

𝑪𝑽 = 𝝈 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎/µ

Correlation coefficient
The correlation coefficient ρ(X, Y) measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between
two variables (X and Y) by dividing their covariance Cov(X, Y) by the product of their standard deviations
(σx . σΥ)

𝝆(𝑿, 𝒀) = 𝑪𝒐𝒗(𝑿, 𝒀)/𝝈𝑿. 𝝈𝒀

Frequency Distribution
It's the number of times each possible value of a variable occurs in a dataset.

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Normal Distribution

In a normal distribution, data are symmetrically distributed. The measures of central tendency (mean,
mode, and median) are the same in a normal distribution. It is also a bell curve and is based on infinite
values.

Quartiles in Normal Distribution

Quartiles are three values that split sorted data into four parts, each with an equal number of
observations.
First quartile (Q1, Lower Quartile)
Second quartile (Q2, Median)
Third quartile: (Q3, Upper Quartile)

Non-normal (Asymmetric) Distribution

Non-normal distributions may lack symmetry, may have extreme values, or may have a flatter or steeper
“dome” than a typical bell.

Skewness
A distribution is asymmetrical when its left and right sides are not mirror images.

Right Skew (+ve skewness) Zero Skew Left Skew (-ve skewness)
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Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of the tailedness of a distribution.

Normal distributions have a kurtosis of 3, so any distribution with a kurtosis of approximately 3 is

mesokurtic.

Parametric vs. Non-parametric Tests

Parametric tests assume that data comes from a population that follows a normal distribution with a
fixed set of parameters. These tests are more powerful.
Nonparametric tests are also called distribution-free tests because they do not require a distribution to
meet certain assumptions.

Parametric Tests
T-test
A t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups and to test the
significance of the correlation or regression coefficient.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) or F-test

A statistical test that permits assessment of the possible significance of difference across means of
multiple groups. It uses numerator and denominator degrees of freedom.

Z-test
A z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether two population means are different when the
variances are known and the sample size is large.

Pearson correlation
The Pearson correlation measures the strength of the linear relationship between two variables.

Non-parametric Tests
o Chi-square
o Wilcoxon rank-sum test (Mann-Whitney U test)
o Kendall's coefficient of concordance
o Spearman's rank correlation coefficient

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Sampling
In statistics, sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals from a statistical population
to estimate the characteristics of the whole population. Statisticians try to collect samples that are
representative of the population. It is of two types.

Probability sampling

In probability sampling, a researcher randomly selects a small group of people from a larger population.
This sampling method is mostly used in Quantitative Research.

Types of Probability Sampling:

(Simple) random sampling

Simple random sampling gathers a random selection from the entire population. This is the most
common way to select a random sample.

Systematic (random) sampling

Systematic sampling draws a random sample from the target population by selecting units at regular
intervals starting from a random point.

Stratified (random) sampling

Stratified sampling collects a random selection of a sample from within certain strata, or subgroups
within the population based on a common characteristic, such as income, gender, race, or religion.

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is the process of dividing the target population into existing groups, called clusters. It
usually involves existing groups that are similar to each other in some way (e.g., classes in a school).

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Non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is a method of selecting units from a population using a subjective (i.e. non-
random) method. It is a fast, easy, and inexpensive way of obtaining data used in Qualitative
Research.

Types of non-probability sampling:

Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is primarily determined by convenience to the researcher. These are sometimes
called "accidental/haphazard samples," because participants can be selected because they happen to
be nearby.

Quota/Dimensional Sampling
The researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities.

Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is used when the population you want to research is hard to reach. Research about
socially marginalized groups such as drug addicts or homeless people often uses snowball sampling.

Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgment sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise
to select a sample.

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Sampling with or without replacement (QN)
Sampling with replacement – selected subjects are put back into the population before another subject
is sampled. The subject can be selected more than once.
Sampling without replacement – Selected subjects will not be in the "pool" for selection. All selected
subjects are unique. This is the default assumption for statistical sampling.

Sampling Error
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that
represents the entire population of data. These are of different types.

Population-Specific Error
A population-specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't understand who to survey.

Sample Frame Error

A sample frame error occurs when a sample is selected from the wrong population data.

Selection Error
Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those participants who are
interested in the survey respond to the questions.

(Unit/Item) Non-response Error

A non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from the surveys because
researchers were unable to contact potential respondents.

Focal/Focus Sampling
When using focal (animal) sampling, individuals are observed for a period of time each, recording their
behaviors in intervals of pre-established duration.

Context of Discovery and Justification

Context of discovery involves non-rational, intuitive processes while context of justification is based
on logical processes.
In research steps till hypothesis generation come under the context of discovery while the steps after
that fall under the context of Justification.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an idea, assumption, or tentative statement that is proposed to be tested to see if it
might be true. It is a prediction that can be tested by research and experiments.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

It should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong.
It should be specific and precise.
It should specify variables between which the relationship is to be established.

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Types of Hypothesis

Simple Hypothesis - It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent
variable.

Complex Hypothesis - It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or
more independent variables.

Directional Hypothesis - It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular

outcome.
Non-directional Hypothesis - It is used when there is no theory involved.
Conceptual Hypothesis - it is a conceptual hypothesis is a predictive statement that connects two or
more variables based on a theory.
Empirical hypothesis - It is a theory based on past observations or experiments.

Research / Alternate Hypothesis - H1

A research hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the other
variable.

Null Hypothesis H0
It provides a statement that is contrary to the hypothesis. It's a negative statement, and there is no
relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Empirical Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that determines if data supports a hypothesis. It involves
formulating two competing hypotheses, the null hypothesis (HO) and the alternative hypothesis
(Ha/H1).

In the process, the Null hypothesis is tested. If the null hypothesis is found to be true, the alternative
hypothesis is rejected, and vice versa.

P-value (power)

The p-value serves as an alternative to rejection points to provide the smallest level of significance (α)
at which the null hypothesis would be rejected. The smaller p-value means stronger evidence in
favor of the alternative hypothesis.
For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% chance of the Null Hypothesis to be
significant.

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One-tailed vs Two-tailed Tests
In statistics, a one-tailed test determines if there is statistical significance in one direction. A two-tailed
test determines if there is statistical significance between two groups in either direction.

Example - Imagine you are a teacher, and you want to test whether a new teaching method has had a
significant impact on your students' exam performance. Then the Null Hypothesis would be The new
teaching method does not affect exam scores.
Then one-tailed test determines whether the new teaching method has a significant effect on exam
scores positively while two-tailed tests determine whether it has a significant effect positively or
negatively.

Empirical Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that determines if data supports a hypothesis. It involves
formulating two competing hypotheses, the null hypothesis (HO) and the alternative hypothesis
(Ha/H1).
In the process, the Null hypothesis is tested. If the null hypothesis is found to be true, the alternative
hypothesis is rejected, and vice versa.

Hypothesis Testing Error

There are two types of hypothesis testing errors.

Type I (alpha) error, also known as a false positive, occurs when a true null hypothesis is rejected. A
Type II (beta) error, also known as a false negative, occurs when a false null hypothesis is not
rejected.

Validity and Reliability

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how well a
method, technique, or test measures something.
Reliability is about the consistency of a measure and the extent to which a measure yields the same
scores across different times.
Validity is about the accuracy of a measure and the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness
of the specific inferences made from the measures.
If a test is valid, it is also reliable but it might not happen vice versa.

Types of Validity

 Construct validity - if a measure represents the construct it is supposed to measure.

 Face/Measurement Validity - it is related to the measuring instrument.
 Conclusion validity - It is the degree to which the conclusion we reach is believable or not.
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 Ecological validity is the ability to generalize the findings of a study to real- world settings.
 Concurrent validity - it compares a new test to an already established test
 Predictive validity refers to the ability of a test or other measurement to predict/forecast a future
criterion measure.
 Convergent validity - It is related to how multiple studies with different methods on a given
topic lead to similar conclusions.
 Internal validity - It is about whether the causal relationship (causality) being tested is trustworthy
or not.
 External validity - It is about whether the results of a study can be generalized beyond the
specific research context.

Threats to Internal Validity (Artifacts)

 History-specific events during the study itself that might influence the outcomes.
 Maturation - The biological or psychological changes with time.
 Testing - The pre-test affects the results of the post-test.
 Demand Characteristics - It is subjects' reactions to experimental conditions.
 Regression towards mean - Extreme scores tend to be closer to the average on a second
Measurement.
 Selection of subjects - the biases which may result in the selection of comparison groups.
 Experimental mortality - the loss of subjects.
 Instrumentation - There is a change in how the dependent variable is measured during the study.
 Attrition (Mortality) - psychosocial effect on the participant when participants drop out of a study
leading to a change like the sample.

Tests of Reliability
 Test-retest - The same test, over a period of time, is repeated.
 Interrater - The same test is conducted by different people.
 Parallel forms - Different versions of a test with equivalent levels.
 Internal consistency - The individual items of a test.
 Split-half-Delivering a questionnaire in two parts, to a sample group
 Alternate form - Two different questionnaires at the same time.

Measurement Error
In scientific research, measurement error is the difference between an observed value and the true
value of something. It's also called observation error or experimental error.

There are two main types of measurement error:

Random error (Chance or Accidental Error) is a chance difference between the observed and true
values of something (e.g., a researcher misreading a weighing scale records an incorrect measurement).
Systematic error is a consistent or proportional difference between the observed and true values of
something (e.g., a miscalibrated scale consistently registers weights as higher than they actually are).

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Research Work Sections
A dissertation typically comprises several sections, each serving a distinct purpose.
1. Prefatory Section
 Title Page/Cover Page includes the title of the dissertation, the author's name, the institution,
department, date of submission, and other relevant information as per institutional guidelines.
 Abstract: a concise summary of the dissertation, including the research question, methods,
results, and conclusions. Usually, it is about 150-300 words.
 Acknowledgments: a section where the author expresses gratitude to those who contributed to
the research and writing process.
 Table of Contents: A detailed list of the chapters, sections, and sub-sections of the dissertation,
along with their page numbers.
 List of Figures and Tables: has been included in the dissertation, with corresponding page
numbers.
 Abbreviations and Glossary: A list of abbreviations used in the dissertation and a glossary of key
terms to help readers understand the specialized terminology.

2. Main Section

 Introduction: Introduces the research topic, states the research problem or question, outlines
the objectives, significance, and scope of the study, and provides an overview of the structure of
the dissertation.
 Literature Review: A comprehensive review of existing research related to the topic. It identifies
gaps in the literature and sets the context for the research.
 Research Methodology: Describes the research design/framework, methods of data collection
and analysis, and the rationale for choosing these methods.
 Results: Presents the findings of the research. This section includes data in the form of text,
tables, and figures, without interpretation.
 Discussion: Interprets the results, explaining their implications, how they fit within the existing
body of research, and their significance.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the main findings, discusses the broader implications and suggests
directions for future research.

3. Terminal Chapters
 References/Bibliography: A list of all the sources cited in the dissertation, formatted according to
a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
 Appendices: Additional material that supports the research but is not essential to the main text.
This might include raw data, detailed calculations, questionnaires, or other supplementary
information.
 Index (optional): An alphabetical list of topics, names, and places mentioned in the dissertation,
along with the pages on which they appear.

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Research Abbreviations
A-priori is a Latin phrase that means "what comes first". This is an approach to accepting
knowledge because people have agreed upon it. For example, "It's freezing outside; you must be cold"
is an example of a priori reasoning.

cf. is short for the Latin word confer which means "compare". It is primarily used in footnotes or
endnotes to direct readers to works that the author recommends referencing in comparison

Subtext is the underlying meaning of a text that is not explicitly stated. A message beneath a
message is often referred to as subtext.

Et al. is an abbreviation of the Latin term "et alia," which means "and others." It's used in source
citations to save space when there are too many authors to name them all.

Fn. A footnote is a reference to a source of information in the bottom of the page.

Ibid. It is used as shorthand to acknowledge that a specific source has already been cited in full.

Ante In academic writing, "ante" is a citation signal that indicates the cited source occurs earlier in
the same work.

Vide/ Vid An instruction in books tells the reader to "refer to" a particular source for more
information.

Passim is a Latin term meaning "here and there" or "throughout." It is used in citations to indicate that
a reference appears multiple times throughout a source, rather than at a specific page or section.

Id. is short for the Latin term idem, which means "the same" It's commonly used in citations to refer
back to a previously cited work without repeating the full reference.

Post is a prefix derived from the Latin meaning "after." In research, it can refer to a period or condition
that occurs after a particular event or treatment.

viz., meaning "namely" or "that is to say." Used to clarify or specify, often introducing a list or
elaboration. It provides a more explicit example or explanation of what was just mentioned.

Journal Article Reference

American Psychological Association (APA)

Is an organization that focuses on the knowledge in the field of psychology. In addition, the APA is widely
known for developing the APA style-a set of rules and guidelines commonly used in the social
sciences, including psychology, sociology, education, and business.
Author(s). (Publication Year). Article Title. Journal Name, Volume (Issue), Page Range.
DOI (Digital Object Identifier) or URL
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Smith, J. A., & Johnson, M. B. (2019). Exploring the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress
reduction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 25(3), 123-145. doi:10.1234/jap.2019.56789

Modern Language Association (MLA)

Is an organization that focuses on the study of languages and literature. The MLA is known for
developing the MLA style-a set of rules and guidelines used in the fields of literature, language, and
the humanities.
Author(s). "Title of the Article." Title of the Journal, vol. X, no. X, Year, pp. XX-XX. DOI or
URL
Smith, John. "The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity." Environmental Studies Journal,
vol. 15, no. 2, 2020, pp. 123-145. doi:10.1234/esj.2020.56789
Author Name is written as Last Name, First Name

Research Papers Components

APA/MLA
o Title Page
o Abstract
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results (text, tables, and figures)
o Discussion
o References
o Appendices

Research Ethics
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition.

Research Ethics - Principles

 Honesty with data
 Debriefing the research purpose
 Justice/Beneficence/Respect for participants
 Seeking informed consent of respondents.
 Maintaining confidentiality (Fidelity)

Ethical Issue
 Hiding the research purpose from respondents. (Voluntary deception)
 Coercive/Lack of informed consent
 Physical/psychological harm by personal information (Violating confidentiality)
 Excessive inducements / Offering incentives
 Plagiarism
 Making recommendations beyond the scope of data collected
 Changing data to meet a desired outcome

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Research Steps which are vulnerable to Research Ethics
 Data Collection (and its tools selection)
 Data Analysis
 Data Interpretation
 Report Writing

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting work or ideas from another source as your own, with or without consent of the
original author, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgment.

UGC Regulation 2018 for Plagiarism

The research work carried out by the student, faculty, researcher, and staff shall be based on original
ideas, which shall include abstract, summary, hypothesis, observations, results, conclusions, and
recommendations only and shall not have any similarities. It shall exclude common knowledge or
coincidental terms, up to fourteen (14) consecutive words.

Penalties
Penalties in the cases of plagiarism shall be imposed on students pursuing studies at the level of
Masters and Research programs and on researchers. It is imposed either during thesis submission or
when the degree has already been obtained.

Penalties during the submission of the thesis

i. Level 0: Similarities up to 10%. Minor Similarities, no penalty.

ii. Level 1: Similarities above 10% to 40%. Such a student shall be asked to submit a revised script
within 6 months.
iii. Level 2: Similarities above 40% to 60%. Such a student shall be debarred from submitting a
revised script for one year.
iv. Level 3: Similarities above 60%. Such student registration for that program shall be canceled.

Penalty when the degree has already been obtained

I. Level 0: Similarities up to 10%

a. Minor similarities, no penalty.
II. Level 1: Similarities above 10% to 40%
a. Shall be asked to withdraw the manuscript.
III. Level 2: Similarities above 40% to 60%
a. Shall be asked to withdraw the manuscript.
b. Shall be denied a right to one annual increment.
c. Shall not be allowed to be a supervisor to any new Master's, M.Phil., Ph.D. Student/scholar for
two years.
IV. Level 3: Similarities above 60%
a. Shall be asked to withdraw the manuscript.
b. Shall be denied a right to two successive annual increments.
c. Shall not be allowed

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Peer-Review (Systematic Review)
Peer review is the independent assessment of your research paper by experts in your field. The purpose
of peer review is to evaluate the paper's quality and suitability for publication. As well as peer review
acting as a form of quality control for academic journals, it is a very useful source of feedback for you.

Types of Peer-Review
Types of Peer-reviews are as follows:
Single-blind: The authors don't know the reviewers, but the reviewers know the authors.
Double-blind: Neither the authors nor the reviewers know each other's identities.
Collaborative: Reviewers collaborate with each other, the authors, or journal editors to improve the
manuscript.
Published: Comments and/or the names of reviewers are published when the final article or preprint is
published.
Transparent: Readers can access and read the exchange between authors and reviewers.

Indices to access Research Quality

H-index
Measures a researcher's performance based on their publications and citations. For example, if 91
articles have each received at least 91 citations, the researcher's h-index is 91.

Citation index
Measures the number of times an article has been quoted. A citation index is a structured list of all the
citations in a collection of documents.

Impact factor
Measures a journal's research influence by calculating the average number of citations per paper over
the previous two years.

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