Electric and Electronic Measurements

Lecture-7: Electromechanical Instruments (Part-2)

Dr. Omar A. Hafez

Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering & Islamic Architecture
Umm Al-Qura University
[email protected]

1
 AC - Ammeter and Voltmeter

• When an alternating current (sinusoidal ) with a very low frequency

(0.1 Hz or lower) is passed through a PMMC instrument, the pointer
tends to follow the instantaneous level of the AC.
- As the current grows positively, the pointer deflection increases to a
maximum at the peak of the ac.
- Then as the instantaneous current level falls, the pointer deflection
decreases towards zero.
- When the ac goes negative, the pointer is deflected (off-scale) to the left of
zero.

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 AC - Ammeter and Voltmeter

• With the normal 60 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping

mechanisms and the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer
from following the changing instantaneous levels of the signal.
- The instruments pointer settles at the average value of the current
flowing through the moving coil which is zero.

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Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Voltmeter

• When the input is positive, diodes D1 and D4

conduct, causing current to flow through the
meter from top to bottom ( red solid path).
• When the input goes negative, diodes D3 and
D2 conduct, current flows through the meter
from the positive to the negative terminal ( blue
dashed path).
Ip
Iav Irms
• The ac voltmeter uses a series-connected multiplier
resistor (Rs) to limit the current flow through the
instrument.

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Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Voltmeter

• The meter deflection is proportional to the

average current (Iav), which is 0.637 × peak
current (Ip or Im).

• But the actual current (or voltage) to be indicated in ac

measurement is normally the Irms = 0.707 × Ip (Im) .
(note Irms = 1.11 × Iav & Ip (Im) = 1.414 × Irms ). Ip
Iav Irms

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Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Voltmeter
Rs

D2

Rm

D4 D3

applied peak voltage (V p ) - rectifiers voltage drop 1.414V rms - 2V F

Im = =
totat circuit resistance Rs + R m

VF is the rectifier voltage drops for D1 or D2….

Peak current Im = Iav/0.637 = IFSD/0.637 6
Example: A PMMC instrument with average FSD = 100 µA and Rm = 1 kΩ
is to be employed as an ac voltmeter with FSD = 200 V (rms). Silicon diodes
with VF = 0.7 V are used in the bridge rectifier circuit of shown above.
Calculate:
(a) The multiplier resistance value required.

(b) The pointer indications the rms input voltage is (i) 100 V and (ii) 50 V.
Solution
At FSD, the average current flowing through
the PMMC instrument is 100µA.

I av
Im = = 157 µ A
0.637

V p = 1.414V rms = 1.414 ´ 200 = 282.8 V olt peak

7
 V p - 2V F
V p - 2V F Rs = - Rm
Im = Im
(a) Rs + R m (282.8 - 1.4)V
= - 1k W = 1791.36 k W
(157 ´10-3 )mA
(b)
i)-for the rms input voltage is 100V.
V p \ - 2V F 1.414 ´100 - 1.4
Im =
\
= = 78.11 µ A
Rs + Rm (1791.36 + 1)k W

I av \ = 0.607 ´ I m \ = 49.76 µ A @ 50 µ A = 0.5FSD

ii)- Similarly, for the rms input voltage is 50V.
𝑉𝑝 ′′ −2𝑉𝐹 ..0.0×12 3..0
𝐼 𝑚′′ = = =
𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚 (.56..789.) <=
I av \ \ @ 25µ A = 0.25 FSD
>>
Iav′′ =0.607 ×𝐼 𝑚

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 Ohmmeter
Series Ohmmeter

• Basic Circuit and Scale

• The simplest circuit consists of a voltage
source (Eb) connected in series with a pair
of terminals (A & B), a standard resistance
(R1), and a low-current PMMC
instrument.
• The resistance to be measured (Rx) is
connected across terminal A and B.

• The meter current I m = E b (R x + R1 + R m )

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 Ohmmeter
Series Ohmmeter
• When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx= 0) meter full-scale deflection occurs.
IFSD = Eb / (R1 + Rm) .

• At half-scale deflection Rx = R1 + Rm

• At zero deflection the terminals are

open-circuited (Rx = ∞).

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Example: The series ohmmeter shown in the Figure is made up of a 1.5
V battery, a 100 µA meter, and a resistance R1 which makes (R1 + Rm)
=15kΩ.
a) Determine the instrument indication when Rx = 0.
b) Determine how the resistance scale should be marked at 0.75 FSD,
0.5 FSD and 0.25 FSD.

Solution
Eb 1.5V
a) I m = = = 100µ A ( FSD )
R x + R1 + R m 0 + 15k W
3 ´100µ A E
b ) At 0.75 FSD : I m = = 75µ A & R x + R1 + R m = b
4 I
E
R x = b - ( R1 + R m )
I
1.5V
= - 15k W = 5k W 11
75µ A
 100µ A 1.5V
At 0.5 FSD : I m = = 50µ A & Rx = - 15k W = 15k W
2 50µ A

100µ A 1.5V
At 0.25 FSD : I m = = 25µ A & Rx = - 15k = 45k W
4 25µ A

The ohmmeter scale is now marked

as shown in the figure. It is clear that
the ohmmeter scale is nonlinear.

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Comments: disadvantages of simple series ohmmeter
o The simple ohmmeter described in last example will operate satisfactorily
as long as the battery voltage remains exactly at 1.5V. When the battery
voltage falls, the instrument scale is no longer correct.
o Although R1 were adjusted to give FSD when terminals A and B are short-
circuited, the scale would still be in error because now mid-scale would
represent a resistance equal to the new value of R1 + Rm.

13
 Ohmmeter with Zero Adjust
Falling battery voltage can be taken care by an
adjustable resistor (R2) connected in parallel with
the meter.

• With terminals A and B short-circuited, the total

circuit resistance is R1 + (R2 // Rm).
• Since R1 is always very much larger than R2 // Rm, the
total circuit resistance can be assumed to equal R1

Eb Eb
Ib = if R 2 \\R m << R1 then Ib »
R x + R1 + R 2 \\R m R x + R1

I b ( R 2 \\R m )
Also , the meter voltage is V m = I b ( R 2 \\R m ) which give meter current as I m =
Rm
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 Ohmmeter with Zero Adjust
• When Rx equal to R1 the circuit resistance
is doubled and the circuit current is halved.
This cause both I2 and Im to be reduced to
half of their previous level. Thus the mid-
scale measured resistance is again equal to
R1.

• Each time the ohmmeter is used, terminals A and

B are first short circuited, and R2 is adjusted for
zero-ohm indication on the scale.

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• The series ohmmeter can be converted to a multi-range ohmmeter by employing
several values of standard resistance R1 and a rotatory switch

• The major inconvenience of such a circuit is that a large adjustment of the zero
control (R2) would have to be made every time the resistance range (R1) is changed.
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Example: An ohmmeter as shown in the figure with Eb = 1.5V, R1 = 15kΩ,
Rm = R2 = 50Ω and IFSD = 50µA. Calculate,
(a) Rx at 0.5FSD.
(b) When Eb = 1.3V what is the value of R2 to get full-scale current.
(c) When Eb = 1.3V what is the value of Rx at half-scale current.

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Solution

Since (Rm // R2) = 25 W << R1 then at half scale Rx = R1 = 15kW independent

of Eb

(a) V m = I m R m = 25µ A ´ 50W = 1.25mV

V m 1.25mV
I2 = = = 25µ A
R2 50W
I b = I 2 + I m = 25µ A + 25µ A = 50 µ A
E 1.5V
R x + R1 » = = 30k W
Ib 50 µ A
æE ö
Rx = ç ÷ - R1 = 30k W - 15k W = 15k W
è Ib ø

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 Eb 1.3V
(b) Ib = = = 86.67 µ A
R x + R1 0 + 15k W
I 2 = I b - I m ( FSD ) = 86.67 µ A - 50 µ A = 36.67 µ A
V m = I m ( FSD ) R m = 50µ A ´ 50W = 2.5mV
Vm 2.5mV
R2 = = = 68.18W
I 2 36.67 µ A

(c) V m = I m R m = 25µ A ´ 50W = 1.25mV

Vm 1.25mV Since (Rm // R2) = 28.85 W
I2 = = = 18.33µ A
R2 68.18W << R1 then at half scale
I b = I 2 + I m = 18.33µ A + 25µ A = 43.33µ A Rx = R1 = 15kW
E 1.3V independent of Eb
R x + R1 » = = 30k W
Ib 43.33µ A
R x = 30k W - R 1 = 30k W - 15k W
R x = 15k W
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 Shunt Ohmmeter

– Basic Circuit and Scale

• The simplest circuit consists of a voltage source
(E) connected with an adjusted Resistor (RAdj)
and a low-current PMMC instrument.

• The resistance to be measured (Rx) is connected

across terminal A and B.

− When Rx = 0, short circuit between A and B, there will be no current flow in the coil
branch and the scale point at zero on the left hand side.
− When Rx = ∞ , open circuit between A and B. Then adjust RAdj to get FSD. The meter
will point infinity at the right of the scale.

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 Shunt Ohmmeter
E
I m = I FSD =
R Adj + R m
− For any Rx we have, 𝐼𝑏×𝑅𝑥
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑚

𝐸
𝐼𝑏 =
𝑅 ∗ 𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑗 + 𝑚
𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑥

ER x
Im =
R Adj R m + R x ( R Adj + R m )
• Scale of shunt ohmmeter is opposite to the scale
of series ohmmeter when connecting with Rx .
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Dr. Omar A. Hafez

[email protected] 22