U-5 SPM

Q1 write a Note on Project Scheduling and Procurement Management**

**1. Project Scheduling**

Project scheduling is the process of planning and organizing tasks, timelines, and resources to
complete a project efficiently. It ensures that all activities are performed in a logical sequence
within the specified timeframe.

- **Key Elements of Project Scheduling**:

1. **Task Identification**: Break the project into smaller tasks or activities.

2. **Dependency Mapping**: Identify relationships between tasks (e.g., which tasks must be
completed before others start).

3. **Timeline Creation**: Allocate timeframes to each task based on complexity and resource
availability.

4. **Resource Allocation**: Assign people, tools, and materials to tasks.

5. **Milestones**: Set significant checkpoints to track progress.

6. **Critical Path Analysis**: Identify the sequence of tasks that determines the project’s minimum
completion time.

- **Tools Used**:

- Gantt charts, critical path method (CPM), and project management software like Microsoft Project,
Primavera, or Trello.

- **Importance**:

- Ensures timely completion of tasks.

- Helps in identifying and addressing potential delays.

- Enhances coordination and resource utilization.

*2. Procurement Management**

Procurement management involves acquiring goods, services, or resources needed for a project from
external suppliers. It ensures the required materials are available at the right time, cost, and quality.

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- **Key Processes in Procurement Management**:

1. **Planning Procurement**: Identify what needs to be purchased and prepare procurement

strategies.

2. **Selecting Vendors**: Evaluate suppliers based on criteria like cost, quality, and reliability.

3. **Contracting**: Create and sign agreements defining the scope, timelines, and payment terms.

4. **Monitoring and Controlling**: Track deliveries and ensure compliance with contractual terms.

5. **Closing Procurement**: Complete payments and evaluate vendor performance.

- **Importance**:

- Helps in cost management by securing competitive bids.

- Reduces risks associated with unreliable suppliers.

- Ensures the project has all necessary inputs to stay on schedule.

---

### **Relationship Between Scheduling and Procurement**

Project scheduling and procurement management are interconnected. Delays in procurement can
disrupt the project schedule, while poor scheduling can result in procurement inefficiencies. A well-
coordinated approach ensures smooth project execution, on-time delivery, and cost optimization.

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Q2### **Relationship Between People and Effort in Project Scheduling and

Procurement Management**

The relationship between people and effort is crucial in both project scheduling and procurement
management. Effort refers to the total work required, while people are the resources assigned to
complete that work.

---

#### **In Project Scheduling**

- The duration of a task depends on the effort and the number of people assigned.

- Adding more people can reduce task duration, but too many people may cause coordination
challenges.

- Skilled individuals complete tasks with less effort compared to unskilled ones.

- Tasks on the critical path require careful allocation of people to avoid delays.

---

#### **In Procurement Management**

- Procurement tasks, such as vendor selection and contract negotiations, require effort from the
procurement team.

- Complex procurement processes need skilled people to reduce effort and ensure quality outcomes.

- Delays in procurement can disrupt the project schedule and increase overall effort.

### **Conclusion**

Balancing people and effort ensures tasks are completed on time and resources are used efficiently.
Proper planning and collaboration between teams are key to maintaining this balance.

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Q2 optional answer

### **Relationship Between People and Effort in Project Scheduling and Procurement
Management**

The relationship between people (resources) and effort (work required) plays a key role in both
**project scheduling** and **procurement management**. The way people are assigned to tasks
directly impacts the effort required to complete the project and procure necessary resources
efficiently.

#### **In Project Scheduling**

- **Effort** is the total amount of work needed to complete a task or project, measured in person-
hours or person-days.

- **People** are the individuals or teams assigned to perform the work.

**Key Relationships**:

1. **Effort and Duration**:

- The effort remains constant, but the duration depends on the number of people assigned. For
example:

- 40 hours of effort with 1 person = 5 days (8-hour workday).

- 40 hours of effort with 2 people = 2.5 days.

2. **Optimal Team Size**:

- Adding more people reduces the duration but has diminishing returns due to increased
communication and coordination overhead (e.g., Brook’s Law).

3. **Skill Levels**:

- Highly skilled individuals may complete tasks with less effort compared to less experienced team
members.

4. **Critical Path**:

- Tasks on the critical path demand careful planning of people and effort to avoid delays in the
overall schedule.

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#### **In Procurement Management**

- **Effort** refers to the work required for procurement activities, such as sourcing, vendor
evaluation, contract negotiation, and delivery management.

- **People** are the procurement team members responsible for these tasks.

**Key Relationships**:

1. **Effort Allocation**:

- Complex procurement processes (e.g., vendor selection for custom software) require more effort
and skilled people.

- Routine procurement tasks (e.g., ordering standard items) need less effort and fewer people.

2. **Collaboration Impact**:

- Effective communication between procurement and project scheduling teams reduces duplication
of effort and prevents delays in resource availability.

3. **Timeliness**:

- Delays in procurement efforts can lead to idle time for project teams, increasing overall effort and
cost.

#### **Integrated Impact**

- In both scheduling and procurement, the balance of people and effort ensures:

1. **Efficient Resource Utilization**: Assigning the right number of people avoids overloading or
underutilization.

2. **Cost Control**: Minimizing unnecessary effort saves time and reduces costs.

3. **Timely Delivery**: Proper alignment ensures procurement timelines support project

schedules.

### **Conclusion**

The relationship between people and effort is about finding the right balance to achieve project
goals effectively. Too few people increase effort and timelines, while too many people may lead to
inefficiencies. Proper planning, skill assessment, and collaboration between scheduling and
procurement ensure smooth project execution

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Q3 write a note on Staffing Level Estimation, Effect of schedule Change on Cost,

Project Schedule, Schedule Control,in Project Scheduling and Procurement Management

Ans ### **Note on Staffing Level Estimation, Schedule Change Effects, and Schedule Control in
Project Scheduling and Procurement Management**

#### **1. Staffing Level Estimation**

Staffing level estimation involves determining the number and type of personnel needed to complete
a project efficiently. It ensures the right resources are available at the right time.

- **Factors Considered**:

- Project size and complexity.

- Skill requirements for each task.

- Task dependencies and critical path.

- Effort estimation (person-hours or person-days).

- **Challenges**:

- Overstaffing can increase costs without improving efficiency.

- Understaffing leads to delays and overburdened team members.

- **Tools Used**:

- Resource allocation charts and workload analysis tools.

**2. Effect of Schedule Change on Cost**

Changes in the project schedule can significantly impact costs:

- **Compression (Shortening Schedule)**:

- Requires additional resources or overtime.

- May increase cost due to rushed procurement or errors.

- **Extension (Lengthening Schedule)**:

- Increases operational costs like salaries and equipment rentals.

- May delay benefits or revenue realization.

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- **Replanning Costs**:

- Adjustments to procurement timelines and resource availability increase administrative expenses

#### **3. Project Schedule**

The project schedule outlines the timeline for tasks, milestones, and deliverables:

- **Key Components**:

- Tasks and activities.

- Dependencies between tasks.

- Start and end dates.

- Resource assignments.

- **Importance**:

- Provides a roadmap for project execution.

- Helps track progress and identify delays.

- **Common Scheduling Techniques**:

- Gantt charts, Critical Path Method (CPM), and Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT).

#### **4. Schedule Control**

Schedule control is the process of monitoring and managing the project schedule to ensure timely
completion.

- **Steps in Schedule Control**:

1. **Tracking Progress**: Compare actual performance with the planned schedule.

2. **Identifying Variances**: Detect deviations from the baseline schedule.

3. **Analyzing Causes**: Determine reasons for delays or changes.

4. **Implementing Corrections**: Adjust timelines, resources, or dependencies.

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- **Tools for Schedule Control**:

- Baseline comparisons.

- Earned Value Management (EVM).

- Project management software.

- **Benefits**:

- Maintains alignment with project goals.

- Reduces the risk of delays and cost overruns.

### **Conclusion**

Effective staffing level estimation, schedule management, and schedule control are essential for
successful project execution. Changes to the schedule must be carefully managed to minimize cost
impacts, while staffing levels should balance efficiency and budget constraints. Proper tools and
monitoring ensure that schedules remain realistic and achievable.

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Q4 ### **Note on Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)**

**Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)** is a hierarchical decomposition of a project into smaller,

more manageable components. It breaks down the entire project scope into work packages, which
can then be assigned to team members, scheduled, and tracked more easily.

#### * *Key Features of WBS**

1. **Hierarchical Structure**:

- The WBS starts with the overall project at the top, which is broken down into major deliverables
or phases. These are further subdivided into smaller work packages.

2. **Work Packages**:

- The smallest unit in the WBS, typically assigned to a team or individual. These are specific tasks
that are easily manageable and measurable.

3. **Clear Scope Definition**:

- The WBS ensures that all parts of the project are covered and that nothing is overlooked.

4. **Focus on Deliverables**:

- Each level of the WBS should focus on deliverables or outputs, rather than on tasks or activities.

**Benefits of WBS**

1. **Improved Project Planning**:

- Helps break the project into smaller, achievable tasks, making it easier to assign resources,
estimate time, and track progress.

2. **Better Resource Allocation**:

- Clear breakdowns allow for more accurate staffing and resource assignments.

3. **Enhanced Communication**:

- Provides a clear visual representation of the project, helping team members understand their
responsibilities and how they contribute to the project.

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4. **Risk Management**:

- Helps identify potential risks at an early stage by clarifying all project components and their
interdependencies

**Creating a WBS**

1. **Define the Major Deliverables**:

- Start with the main project goals or outputs.

2. **Break Down Deliverables**:

- Subdivide each deliverable into smaller components or phases.

3. **Further Decompose Components**:

- Continue breaking down tasks until you reach manageable work packages that can be assigned to
a team.

4. **Assign Responsibilities**:

- Assign each work package to a specific person or team responsible for its completion.

**Types of WBS**

1. **Deliverable-Based WBS**:

- Focuses on project outputs or deliverables. Common in product development and construction.

2. **Phase-Based WBS**:

- Organizes the project into phases (e.g., initiation, planning, execution, closing). Useful in projects
with distinct stages.

### **Conclusion**

A Work Breakdown Structure is a vital tool in project management that provides a clear, organized
way of dividing the project into manageable pieces. By creating a WBS, a project manager can better
allocate resources, manage risks, and ensure the timely delivery of the project.

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 U-5 SPM

Q5 ### **Note on Critical Path Method (CPM)**

The **Critical Path Method (CPM)** is a project management technique used to determine the
longest sequence of dependent tasks and the minimum time required to complete a project. It
helps in identifying the critical path, which is the set of tasks that directly affect the project
completion time. If any task on the critical path is delayed, the entire project will be delayed.

#### **Key Concepts of CPM**

1. **Critical Path**:

- The longest path through the project network, from start to finish, which determines the
minimum project duration.

2. **Activities**:

- Tasks or events that need to be completed in a project.

3. **Duration**:

- The total time required to complete each activity.

4. **Slack/Float**:

- The amount of time a task can be delayed without affecting the overall project timeline. Tasks on
the critical path have zero slack.

5. **Earliest Start (ES)**:

- The earliest time an activity can start based on its dependencies.

6. **Latest Start (LS)**:

- The latest time an activity can start without delaying the project.

7. **Earliest Finish (EF)**:

- The earliest time an activity can be completed.

8. **Latest Finish (LF)**:

- The latest time an activity can be completed without affecting the project schedule.

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**Steps in CPM**

1. **List Activities**:

- Identify and list all activities or tasks required to complete the project.

2. **Determine Dependencies**:

- Determine the dependencies between activities (i.e., which tasks must be completed before
others can start).

3. **Estimate Duration**:

- Estimate the duration for each activity.

4. **Draw the Network Diagram**:

- Create a network diagram showing the relationships between activities.

5. **Identify the Critical Path**:

- Calculate the earliest and latest start and finish times to identify the critical path. The critical path
will have zero slack.

6. **Monitor Progress**:

- Use the CPM to track the project's progress and adjust the schedule as needed.

**Numerical Example**

Consider a project with the following activities, durations, and dependencies:

| Activity | Duration (Days) | Dependencies |

|----------|-----------------|--------------|

|A |3 | None |

|B |2 |A |

|C |4 |A |

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|D |5 | B, C |

|E |2 |D |

**Step 1: Draw the Network Diagram**

```

A (3) → B (2) → D (5) → E (2)

↘ C (4) ↗

##### **Step 2: Calculate Earliest Start (ES) and Earliest Finish (EF)**

- **For Activity A**:

- ES = 0 (since it starts at the beginning)

- EF = ES + Duration = 0 + 3 = 3

- **For Activity B**:

- ES = EF of A = 3

- EF = 3 + 2 = 5

- **For Activity C**:

- ES = EF of A = 3

- EF = 3 + 4 = 7

- **For Activity D**:

- ES = Max(EF of B, EF of C) = Max(5, 7) = 7

- EF = 7 + 5 = 12

- **For Activity E**:

- ES = EF of D = 12

- EF = 12 + 2 = 14

##### **Step 3: Calculate Latest Start (LS) and Latest Finish (LF)**

- **For Activity E**:

- LF = 14 (since it’s the last task, its finish time equals project finish time)

- LS = LF - Duration = 14 - 2 = 12

- **For Activity D**:

- LF = LS of E = 12

- LS = LF - Duration = 12 - 5 = 7

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- **For Activity C**:

- LF = LS of D = 7

- LS = LF - Duration = 7 - 4 = 3

- **For Activity B**:

- LF = LS of D = 7

- LS = LF - Duration = 7 - 2 = 5

- **For Activity A**:

- LF = Min(LS of B, LS of C) = Min(5, 3) = 3

- LS = LF - Duration = 3 - 3 = 0

**Step 4: Identify the Critical Path**

- The **Critical Path** is the longest path through the network, which determines the project
duration. It is the path with zero slack. In this example:

- The critical path is **A → C → D → E**.

- Total duration = 3 (A) + 4 (C) + 5 (D) + 2 (E) = **14 days**.

**Step 5: Calculate Slack for Non-Critical Activities**

- **Slack** = LS - ES (or LF - EF).

- For Activity B: Slack = LS - ES = 5 - 3 = **2 days**.

- For Activity D: Slack = LS - ES = 7 - 7 = **0 days** (Critical path).

**Conclusion**

The Critical Path Method (CPM) is a valuable tool for project managers to determine the minimum
time required for a project and to identify tasks that cannot be delayed without affecting the overall
project completion date. By calculating durations, start/finish times, and slack, CPM helps in
scheduling, resource allocation, and timely project delivery.

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Q6.Note on Resource Allocation, Procurement Management, and Change Management**

1. Resource Allocation**

**Resource allocation** refers to the process of assigning available resources (people, equipment,
materials, etc.) to tasks in a project. Proper allocation ensures that the right resources are used
efficiently, which is crucial for timely and cost-effective project completion.

- **Key Steps in Resource Allocation**:

1. **Identify Resource Requirements**: Determine the types and quantities of resources needed
for each task.

2. **Assign Resources**: Allocate resources based on task priority, skill requirements, and
availability.

3. **Balance Resources**: Ensure that resources are not over-allocated, which could lead to
burnout or delays.

4. **Monitor and Adjust**: Continuously track resource usage and make adjustments to avoid
shortages or bottlenecks.

- **Tools Used**:

- Gantt charts, resource histograms, and project management software (like Microsoft Project).

- **Importance**:

- Ensures tasks are completed on time.

- Helps in managing costs effectively.

- Prevents resource conflicts and optimizes productivity.

2. Basics of Procurement Management**

**Procurement management** involves the process of acquiring goods, services, or works from
external suppliers to meet project requirements. It ensures that the necessary resources are
available when needed, within budget, and at the required quality.

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- **Key Components**:

1. **Procurement Planning**: Define what to procure, when to procure it, and how to acquire it.

2. **Supplier Selection**: Evaluate potential suppliers based on price, quality, reliability, and
service.

3. **Contracting**: Create agreements specifying the terms, timelines, deliverables, and costs.

4. **Managing Contracts**: Monitor supplier performance, ensure timely deliveries, and manage
any issues that arise.

5. **Closing Procurement**: Finalize payments, evaluate vendor performance, and close out
contracts.

- **Procurement Process**:

- Define needs, identify suppliers, negotiate terms, issue contracts, monitor performance, and close
contracts.

- **Importance**:

- Secures necessary resources on time and within budget.

- Mitigates risks associated with supply chain disruptions.

- Enhances project quality by sourcing high-quality materials and services.

3. Change Management**

**Change management** is the structured approach to managing changes in a project, including

scope, schedule, resources, or processes. It ensures that changes are made systematically and that
the impact on the project is understood and controlled.

- **Key Steps in Change Management**:

1. **Identify the Change**: Recognize the need for change, whether it's due to new requirements,
issues, or external factors.

2. **Evaluate Impact**: Assess how the change will affect the project in terms of cost, schedule,
scope, and resources.

3. **Get Approval**: Obtain formal approval from stakeholders before proceeding with the change.

4. **Implement Change**: Plan and implement the change in a controlled manner, ensuring
minimal disruption.

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5. **Monitor and Review**: Track the effects of the change and ensure that it aligns with the
project goals.

- **Tools for Change Management**:

- Change request forms, impact analysis, communication plans, and project management software.

- **Importance**:

- Helps to minimize disruptions by managing changes effectively.

- Ensures alignment of the project with evolving stakeholder needs.

- Provides transparency and accountability in the decision-making process.

Conclusion**

Effective **resource allocation**, **procurement management**, and **change management**

are critical components of project success. Proper allocation ensures that resources are used
efficiently, procurement management secures necessary resources on time, and change
management controls the impact of changes, keeping the project on track. Together, they contribute
to delivering projects on time, within scope, and within budget.

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Q .Additional what are the various methods of project implementation explain

### **Methods of Project Implementation**

Project implementation is the phase where the actual work of the project is carried out. It involves
executing the project plan, managing resources, and ensuring that the project is completed on
time, within budget, and according to the desired quality standards. Different methods of project
implementation are used depending on the nature of the project, its goals, resources, and risks
involved. Below are the common methods of project implementation:

1. Waterfall Method**
The **Waterfall Method** is a traditional, linear approach to project implementation. It is
characterized by a sequential flow where each phase is completed before moving on to the next.

- **Process**:

- **Planning** → **Design** → **Implementation** → **Testing** → **Deployment** →

**Maintenance**

- **Advantages**:

- Clear structure and straightforward process.

- Easy to manage due to its predictable nature.

- Works well for projects with well-defined requirements.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Inflexible to changes once the project is underway.

- Can be slow if problems arise at later stages, as changes can be costly and time-consuming.

- **Best for**: Projects with clear and stable requirements (e.g., construction, manufacturing).

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2. Agile Method**
The **Agile Method** is an iterative approach to project implementation that emphasizes
flexibility, collaboration, and customer feedback. Work is broken into small, manageable chunks
called "sprints."

- **Process**:

- **Sprint Planning** → **Design and Develop** → **Testing** → **Sprint Review** → **Next

Sprint**

- **Advantages**:

- High flexibility and adaptability to changing requirements.

- Encourages continuous feedback and improvement.

- Faster delivery of working solutions through incremental progress.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Requires close communication between teams and stakeholders.

- Can be difficult to manage if the scope is not clearly defined.

- **Best for**: Projects with evolving or unclear requirements (e.g., software development, product
design).

3. Scrum Method**
A specific type of **Agile Method**, **Scrum** is a framework for managing complex projects by
dividing them into manageable tasks, called "sprints," that typically last 1-4 weeks.

- **Process**:

- **Sprint Planning** → **Sprint Execution** → **Daily Scrum Meetings** → **Sprint Review**

→ **Sprint Retrospective**

- **Advantages**:

- Focuses on team collaboration and rapid delivery of deliverables.

- Flexibility and adaptability to changes and feedback.

- Transparency through regular meetings and progress checks.

- **Disadvantages**:

- May be difficult to scale for larger projects or teams.

- Requires committed, skilled team members.

- **Best for**: Software development, product development, and any complex, fast-paced projects
requiring iterative progress.

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4. Lean Project Management**

**Lean Project Management** focuses on reducing waste, improving efficiency, and maximizing
value for the customer. It aims to streamline processes and deliver outcomes quickly by focusing
on what adds value.

- **Process**:

- **Identify Value** → **Map the Value Stream** → **Create Flow** → **Establish Pull** →
**Seek Perfection**

- **Advantages**:

- Optimizes efficiency and minimizes waste.

- Continuous focus on improving processes.

- Helps in delivering high-quality products quickly.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Requires a culture of continuous improvement, which may be difficult to establish in some

organizations.

- Focus on reducing waste might sometimes neglect the complexity of larger projects.

- **Best for**: Projects requiring high efficiency and cost reduction (e.g., manufacturing, process
improvement projects).

5. Critical Path Method (CPM)**

The **Critical Path Method (CPM)** is a project management technique that identifies the longest
sequence of dependent tasks and calculates the shortest possible time to complete the project.

- **Process**:

- **Define Activities** → **Establish Task Dependencies** → **Calculate Task Durations** →

**Identify Critical Path** → **Monitor and Control Progress**

- **Advantages**:

- Provides a clear understanding of the project timeline.

- Helps in identifying critical tasks that directly impact project completion.

- Allows for better time management and resource allocation.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Can be complex to implement in projects with many interdependent tasks.

- Doesn't handle uncertainty or change very well.

- **Best for**: Large-scale, complex projects with clear timelines (e.g., construction projects, large
infrastructure development).

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6. PRINCE2 (PRojects IN Controlled Environments)**

**PRINCE2** is a structured project management method that focuses on the process-driven
approach to project implementation. It involves predefined stages and clear roles for project teams.

- **Process**:

- **Starting up a Project** → **Initiating a Project** → **Directing a Project** → **Controlling a

Stage** → **Closing a Project**

- **Advantages**:

- Provides a structured, controlled framework with defined roles.

- Emphasizes business justification, ensuring projects align with organizational goals.

- Scalable for projects of any size and complexity.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Can be too rigid for some projects that need flexibility.

- Requires significant documentation and can be bureaucratic.

- **Best for**: Large, complex projects in organizations that require strong governance and control
(e.g., government projects, IT projects).

7. Kanban Method**
**Kanban** is a visual workflow management method used to improve the flow of work, typically
through boards that show task progress. It is commonly used in software development but can apply
to various industries.

- **Process**:

- **Visualize Workflow** → **Limit Work in Progress (WIP)** → **Manage Flow** → **Make

Process Policies Explicit** → **Improve Collaboratively**

- **Advantages**:

- Provides high transparency into project progress.

- Flexible and can adapt to changing priorities and resources.

- Helps in managing and reducing bottlenecks.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Requires a mature team for effective implementation.

- Not suitable for projects with fixed start and end dates.

- **Best for**: Projects that require continuous delivery, with evolving requirements (e.g., software
development, marketing campaigns).

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### **Conclusion**

The choice of project implementation method depends on the project's nature, complexity, and
goals.

**Waterfall** is ideal for projects with clear requirements, while

**Agile**, **Scrum**, and **Kanban** offer flexibility and iterative progress.

**Lean** focuses on efficiency, while

**CPM** provides a structured approach for time-sensitive projects.

**PRINCE2** is ideal for large-scale projects requiring governance. Selecting the right method
ensures that the project is delivered efficiently, within scope, and on time.

Ans in short

### **Methods of Project Implementation (Short Overview)**

---

#### **1. Waterfall Method**

- A linear approach where each phase follows the previous one.

- Best for projects with clear, fixed requirements.

- Simple but inflexible to changes once started.

---

#### **2. Agile Method**

- An iterative approach that focuses on flexibility and customer feedback.

- Projects are broken into small tasks called "sprints."

- Best for evolving or unclear requirements.

---

#### **3. Scrum Method**

- A type of Agile, uses short, time-boxed sprints.

- Encourages daily meetings and regular reviews.

- Focuses on collaboration and fast delivery.

---

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#### **4. Lean Project Management**

- Focuses on reducing waste and maximizing value.

- Aims to optimize processes and deliver quickly.

- Works well in manufacturing and efficiency-focused projects.

---

#### **5. Critical Path Method (CPM)**

- Identifies the longest sequence of dependent tasks.

- Helps in calculating the minimum project duration.

- Best for projects with complex task dependencies.

---

#### **6. PRINCE2 (PRojects IN Controlled Environments)**

- A structured, process-driven project management method.

- Focuses on clear roles, stages, and governance.

- Suitable for large, complex projects needing control.

---

#### **7. Kanban Method**

- Uses visual boards to manage workflows and tasks.

- Focuses on continuous delivery and reducing bottlenecks.

- Best for projects requiring flexibility and ongoing tasks.

---

Each method has its strengths depending on project needs—Waterfall is rigid, Agile is flexible, and
others like CPM and PRINCE2 offer structure and control.

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