Elements of Aeronautics Notes 3rd sem

Module-5
Aircraft Hydraulic System:-
Hydraulic systems in aircraft are critical for controlling various mechanical systems and ensuring
smooth operation during flight. The hydraulic system uses pressurized fluid to transmit force and
perform mechanical work. Below are the key points about hydraulic systems in aircraft:

Purpose of Hydraulic Systems

 Hydraulic systems provide the force needed to operate many of the aircraft's key
components, such as flight control surfaces, landing gear, brakes, and cargo doors.
 They convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy and transmit it to perform work
(e.g., lifting, pushing, rotating).

Components of Aircraft Hydraulic System

 1. Hydraulic Fluid:
o Special fluid used to transfer power; usually a synthetic or mineral-based fluid.
o Must have low compressibility, high lubricating ability, and resistance to
temperature changes.
2. Reservoir:
o Holds hydraulic fluid to ensure a constant supply and pressure.
o Contains filters to remove contaminants from the fluid.
3. Pump:
o Converts mechanical energy (often from the engine) into hydraulic energy.
o Common types include gear pumps, vane pumps, and piston pumps.
4. Actuators:
o Convert hydraulic energy into mechanical motion (linear or rotary).
o Linear actuators are commonly used for controlling flight surfaces and landing
gear.
o Rotary actuators are used for controlling other aircraft components like the wing
flaps.
5. Control Valves:
o Regulate the flow of hydraulic fluid to the actuators.
o Directional valves control the direction of fluid flow; pressure relief valves
prevent over-pressurization.
6. Hydraulic Lines:
o Pipes or hoses that carry pressurized hydraulic fluid between components.
o Made of steel or durable materials that can withstand high pressure and
temperature.
7. Filters:
o Prevent contamination of the hydraulic fluid by removing debris and particles that
could damage the system.

Primary Functions of Hydraulic Systems in Aircraft

1. Flight Control Surfaces:

o Operate ailerons, elevators, rudder, flaps, and spoilers to control the aircraft's
attitude, speed, and direction.
o Hydraulic actuators provide the force needed to move these surfaces.
2. Landing Gear:
o Extend and retract the landing gear.
o Hydraulic systems control the landing gear’s extension, retraction, and braking
functions.
3. Brakes:
o Hydraulic systems apply force to the aircraft's braking system to slow or stop the
aircraft during landing and taxiing.
4. Cargo Doors and Other Doors:
o Open and close the aircraft’s cargo doors, passenger doors, and hatches.
 5. Wing Flaps and Slats:
o Adjust the position of wing flaps to change the aircraft's aerodynamic properties
for takeoff and landing.
6. Steering:
o Hydraulic systems are often used for nosewheel steering on the ground to guide
the aircraft during taxiing.

6. Advantages of Hydraulic Systems in Aircraft

 High Power-to-Weight Ratio: Hydraulic systems can deliver a lot of power with
relatively low weight, making them suitable for aircraft.
 Precise Control: Hydraulic actuators offer precise and smooth control, especially for
flight controls and landing gear.
 Reliability: Hydraulic systems are relatively simple, have fewer moving parts, and can be
highly reliable when maintained properly.
 Efficient Transmission of Power: Hydraulic systems efficiently transmit power over
long distances (e.g., from the cockpit to the tail for flight control).

7. Common Types of Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids

 Mineral Oil: Older systems, less fire-resistant.

 Synthetic Fluids: Modern aircraft use fire-resistant hydraulic fluids, such as
Phosphate Esters (e.g., Skydrol), due to higher safety and performance characteristics.
 Fire-Resistant Fluids: Modern aircraft use fire-resistant hydraulic fluids to minimize
fire risk in the event of a leak.

Pneumatic System

Pneumatic systems in aircraft use compressed air to operate various components and systems.
These systems are crucial for tasks that require a reliable and simple source of power, such as
engine starting, cabin pressurization, and air conditioning. Below are the key points about
pneumatic systems in aircraft.

1. Purpose of Pneumatic Systems

  Pneumatic systems use compressed air to perform mechanical work, such as powering
tools, actuators, and various other components.
 They are often used for air conditioning, pressurization, engine starting, anti-icing
systems, and braking systems in aircraft.

2. Components of Pneumatic Systems

1. Compressor:
o The main source of compressed air, often derived from the engine's bleed air
system.
o The engine compressor delivers high-pressure air for various systems.
2. Bleed Air:
o Air taken from the engine or auxiliary power unit (APU), typically from the
compressor stage of the engine.
o This air is compressed, conditioned, and used for powering the pneumatic
systems.
3. Pressure Regulator:
o Regulates and maintains the correct air pressure in the system.
o Ensures that air pressure remains within safe and efficient operating limits.
4. Distribution Manifold:
o Distributes the compressed air to various systems throughout the aircraft.
o Can control the direction and flow of air to different components.
5. Valves:
o Shutoff valves control the flow of compressed air.
o Check valves prevent reverse flow of air.
o Relief valves protect the system from overpressure.
6. Air Lines and Hoses:
o Tubes or flexible hoses that carry compressed air to the various components.
o Must be resistant to high pressures and extreme temperatures.
7. Actuators:
o Pneumatic actuators convert compressed air into mechanical movement, typically
for controlling flight control surfaces or other components.
8. Filters:
o Filters remove contaminants from the air before it enters the system, ensuring the
system remains clean and operates efficiently.

3. Functions of Pneumatic Systems in Aircraft

1. Engine Starting:
o Bleed air from the engine or APU is used to start the engines.
o The starter motor is powered by compressed air to initiate engine rotation until it
can self-sustain.
 2. Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurization:
o Pneumatic systems provide the air required for the air conditioning system and
cabin pressurization.
o Bleed air is used to supply air to these systems, which are then cooled and
distributed throughout the cabin.
3. Anti-Icing Systems:
o Pneumatically-powered anti-icing systems use air to de-ice or prevent ice
buildup on critical parts of the aircraft such as the wings, tail, and engine inlets.
o Air is directed to leading edges of wings and tail surfaces to prevent or remove
ice accumulation.
4. Pressurized Door Seals and Cargo Doors:
o Cargo doors and access doors are operated using pneumatic pressure.
o Pneumatic systems also create seals on doors and hatches to maintain
pressurization.
5. Flight Control Systems:
o Pneumatic actuators are used to operate various flight control surfaces such as
flaps, slats, and landing gear.
o These systems provide smooth and precise control movements.
6. Braking Systems:
o Some aircraft use pneumatically-powered brakes that rely on air pressure to
actuate the brake system for slowing or stopping the aircraft.
7. Pressure Relief:
o Pneumatic systems are also involved in relieving excess cabin pressure during
flight to maintain safety and comfort.
8. Hydraulic System Assistance:
o Pneumatic systems can provide backup or assist in some hydraulic systems,
ensuring redundancy and reliability.

4. Types of Pneumatic Systems

1. Bleed Air System:

o Bleed air is taken from the engine's compressor and is used to supply pneumatic
power to various systems on the aircraft.
o APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) can also be used to supply bleed air when engines
are not running, such as during ground operations.
2. Self-Contained Pneumatic System:
o APUs or compressed air tanks provide a standalone source of compressed air for
certain aircraft systems.
o Typically used for auxiliary systems or in smaller aircraft.

5. Pneumatic System Pressure

  Aircraft pneumatic systems generally operate at high pressures ranging from 30 psi to
300 psi, depending on the application.
 The regulated pressure ensures that the system components operate within safe limits
and provides sufficient power for the tasks at hand.

6. Advantages of Pneumatic Systems in Aircraft

1. Lightweight:
o Pneumatic systems are relatively lightweight compared to hydraulic systems,
making them ideal for applications where weight is a critical factor.
2. Reliability:
o Pneumatic systems are often more reliable and simpler to maintain than other
systems like hydraulic systems.
3. Simplicity:
o Pneumatic systems use compressed air, which is available from the engines or
APU, reducing the need for complex components.
4. Safety:
o Pneumatic systems are generally safe because air is non-flammable and non-
toxic, reducing fire hazards compared to flammable hydraulic fluids.

7. Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems

1. Limited Power:
o Pneumatic systems provide less power compared to hydraulic systems, making
them unsuitable for high-force applications like heavy lifting or controlling large
flight surfaces.
2. Compression Loss:
o Air is compressible, which means pneumatic systems can experience pressure
loss over long distances or with excessive usage.
3. Temperature Sensitivity:
o Temperature extremes can affect the performance of pneumatic systems. Very
low temperatures can cause air lines to freeze, while very high temperatures can
increase pressure unpredictably.
4. Moisture Issues:
o Condensation in pneumatic systems can lead to moisture buildup, which may
cause blockages, corrosion, or icing issues.

8. Maintenance and Troubleshooting

1. Leak Detection:
 o Regular inspections are essential to identify leaks in the pneumatic system,
especially in the air lines and valves.
o Use of pressure gauges and visual inspections can help detect issues early.
2. Air Quality:
o Ensuring the air is free from contaminants like moisture and dirt is critical for
the proper functioning of the system.
o Filters and moisture traps are often used to maintain air quality.
3. Pressure Monitoring:
o Routine checks of air pressure levels are necessary to ensure that they remain
within operational limits.

9. Safety Considerations

 Pressure Relief Valves: Prevent the system from operating at dangerous pressures that
could damage components.
 Moisture Management: Use of drain valves and dryers to remove moisture from
compressed air and prevent icing or corrosion.
 Backup Systems: Redundancy, such as backup compressors or APUs, ensures that the
pneumatic system remains operational if the primary source fails.
Oxygen System:-

Aircraft oxygen systems are critical for ensuring the safety and health of passengers and crew,
particularly during high-altitude flights. These systems provide supplemental oxygen in the event
of cabin depressurization or for situations where oxygen levels may drop below what is safe for
human respiration.

Types of Aircraft Oxygen Systems

1. Continuous Flow Systems

o Commonly used in commercial passenger aircraft for passengers.
o Oxygen flows continuously to the user, typically through a mask.
o Systems are simple and reliable, but not the most efficient.
2. Diluter Demand Systems
o Found in cockpits for pilots and flight crews.
o Supplies oxygen on demand when the user inhales.
o Mixes ambient air with oxygen depending on altitude for efficient use.
3. Pressure Demand Systems
o Typically used in military or high-performance aircraft.
o Provides oxygen at higher-than-ambient pressure.
o Necessary for extremely high altitudes where pure oxygen alone is insufficient.
4. Chemical Oxygen Generators
o Used in emergency systems, like passenger oxygen masks.
 o Activated by pulling the mask, which ignites a chemical reaction to produce
oxygen.
o Compact and maintenance-free but single-use.

Components of an Aircraft Oxygen System

1. Oxygen Sources
o Gaseous Oxygen: Stored in high-pressure cylinders.
o Liquid Oxygen: Efficient for large quantities but complex to handle.
o Chemical Generators: Provide oxygen through chemical reactions.
2. Distribution System
o Includes valves, tubing, and regulators to manage oxygen flow to individual users.
3. Masks and Cannulas
o Passenger Masks: Drop-down masks that provide oxygen in emergencies.
o Crew Masks: Secure masks with microphones for communication.
4. Monitoring and Control Systems
o Pressure gauges, flow indicators, and alarms ensure proper operation.

Aircraft Fuel System:-

Aircraft oxygen systems are critical for ensuring the safety and health of passengers and crew,
particularly during high-altitude flights. These systems provide supplemental oxygen in the event
of cabin depressurization or for situations where oxygen levels may drop below what is safe for
human respiration.
Types of Aircraft Fuel Systems

1. Gravity-Fed Fuel System

o Used in smaller aircraft with high-wing configurations.
o Relies on gravity to flow fuel from tanks to the engine.
o Simple, lightweight, and reliable but limited to specific aircraft designs.
2. Pump-Fed Fuel System
o Common in larger aircraft.
o Uses fuel pumps to deliver fuel to the engines under pressure.
o Ensures consistent fuel flow in all flight attitudes.
3. Fuel Injection Systems
o Found in modern and high-performance aircraft.
o Delivers precise amounts of fuel directly to the engine's cylinders or intake manifold.
o Improves efficiency, reduces icing risks, and enhances power control.

Components of an Aircraft Fuel System

1. Fuel Tanks
o Store fuel, typically located in the wings, fuselage, or auxiliary tanks.
o Types: rigid metal tanks or flexible bladder tanks.
o Equipped with vents to manage pressure changes and prevent vacuum formation.
2. Fuel Pumps
o Boost Pumps: Located inside or near fuel tanks, ensure fuel is delivered to the engine
under pressure.
o Engine-Driven Pumps: Primary source of pressurized fuel for the engine.
3. Fuel Lines
o Transfer fuel from tanks to engines, made from materials resistant to corrosion and high
pressure.
4. Fuel Valves
o Control the flow of fuel, allowing pilots to select tanks or shut off fuel supply in
emergencies.
5. Fuel Filters
o Remove impurities and contaminants to ensure clean fuel reaches the engine.
6. Fuel Quantity Indicators
o Provide real-time readings of remaining fuel.
o Use float sensors or capacitance-based systems for accuracy.
7. Fuel Vent System
o Maintains proper pressure inside tanks and prevents overpressure during fueling or
altitude changes.
8. Crossfeed and Transfer Systems
o Allow fuel to move between tanks to balance aircraft weight and ensure supply to all
engines.
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM AND NAVIGATION SYSTEM IN AN AIRCRAFT
:-

Flight Control System

The flight control system enables a pilot to maneuver and stabilize the aircraft during flight. It is
divided into primary and secondary control systems:

1. Primary Flight Controls

 Ailerons: Control roll around the longitudinal axis. Located on the trailing edge of the wings.
 Elevators: Control pitch around the lateral axis. Attached to the horizontal stabilizer.
 Rudder: Controls yaw around the vertical axis. Positioned on the vertical stabilizer (tail fin).

2. Secondary Flight Controls

 Flaps: Increase lift during takeoff and landing by extending from the wing's trailing edge.
 Slats: Extend from the wing's leading edge to increase lift at slower speeds.
 Spoilers: Reduce lift and increase drag, aiding in descent and deceleration.
 Trim Systems: Adjust aerodynamic balance, reducing the need for constant pilot input.
Types of Flight Control Systems

1. Mechanical: Direct linkages (cables and pulleys) between the pilot's controls and control
surfaces. Found in older or small aircraft.
2. Hydraulic: Uses hydraulic power to assist in moving control surfaces, common in larger aircraft.
3. Fly-by-Wire (FBW): Electronic signals transmit pilot commands to actuators. Advanced FBW
includes computer assistance for stability and efficiency.

Navigation System

The aircraft navigation system ensures accurate positioning and guidance, enabling safe flight
paths from takeoff to landing. Modern systems integrate multiple technologies for reliability.

Key Components:

1. Inertial Navigation System (INS)

o Uses gyroscopes and accelerometers to track the aircraft's position without external
signals.
2. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
o Provides real-time positioning using satellites (e.g., GPS). Widely used in commercial and
private aviation.
3. VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range)
o Ground-based system for enroute navigation using radio signals.
4. Instrument Landing System (ILS)
o Precision guidance for landing, providing vertical (glide slope) and horizontal (localizer)
cues.
5. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
o Locates signals from ground-based NDBs (Non-Directional Beacons).
 6. Flight Management System (FMS)
o Integrates navigation, performance data, and route planning. Operated via a Control
Display Unit (CDU).
7. Weather Radar and Terrain Awareness
o Provides pilots with real-time weather updates and terrain alerts to enhance situational
awareness.

Power Generation System of an Aircraft

The power generation systems of an aircraft are critical for providing electrical, hydraulic, and
pneumatic power to various onboard systems. Modern aircraft use multiple methods to ensure
reliable power generation and distribution.

Main Power Sources in Aircraft

1. Engines as Power Generators

Aircraft engines (jet or propeller) are the primary sources of mechanical energy, which is
converted into various forms of power for the aircraft systems.
2. Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
o A small turbine engine typically located in the tail section.
o Provides electrical and pneumatic power when the main engines are not
operational (e.g., during ground operations).
o Used to start the main engines and supply air conditioning systems.
3. External Power
o Ground power units (GPUs) supply electricity to the aircraft while it is parked at
the gate or during maintenance.

Electrical Power Generation

1. Integrated Drive Generator (IDG)

o Converts mechanical energy from the engine into electrical energy.
o Provides constant frequency (typically 400 Hz AC power) despite varying engine
speeds.
o Most commercial aircraft use IDGs for their primary electrical systems.
2. Generators
o AC Generators: Supply alternating current (AC) power to the aircraft's main
systems.
o DC Generators: Provide direct current (DC) power for backup and smaller
systems.
3. Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU)
 o Convert AC power to DC power for systems requiring DC.
4. Batteries
o Serve as backup power sources in case of generator failure.
o Typically, lithium-ion or nickel-cadmium batteries are used.
o Used for emergency systems, APU start, and ground operations.

Hydraulic Power Generation

1. Hydraulic Pumps
o Powered by the main engines or electric motors.
o Provide pressurized hydraulic fluid to operate flight controls, landing gear,
brakes, and thrust reversers.
2. Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
o A small turbine deployed in emergencies (e.g., engine failure) to generate
hydraulic or electrical power.

Pneumatic Power Generation

1. Bleed Air System

o Extracts compressed air from the engines for use in:
 Air conditioning and pressurization.
 Engine starting.
 De-icing and anti-icing systems.
o Bleed air systems are being phased out in some modern aircraft, such as the
Boeing 787, which use electrical systems instead (More Electric Aircraft
concept).

Note- Remaining topics notes you will get soon.

All The Best

Prepaired by Satmanyu S