‭ ame: _______________‬

N
‭Date: ________________‬
‭Lab (M/T): ___________‬

‭Exoplanets Lab‬
‭_____________________________________________________________________________‬

‭Part 1: The Radial Velocity Method‬

‭ cience objective:‬‭find the period of the orbital‬‭motion.‬
S
‭Computational objective:‬‭Beginners‬‭: data visualization,‬‭plotting;‬‭Intermediate‬‭: data analysis:‬
‭goodness of fit;‬‭Advanced‬‭: fitting and exploring the‬‭parameter space to find the best-fit‬
‭parameters.‬

I‭ n this section of the lab, you will use python to create plots of radial velocity versus time for a‬
‭known exoplanet system, and find its orbital period. The data set you will be using is‬
‭‘51_Peg.csv’. The goal of this lab is to familiarize yourself with the coding language Python -‬
‭which is widely used in Astronomy for handling data, making calculations, plotting, running‬
‭simulations, etc.‬

‭ here are 3 versions of this part of the lab, depending on your comfort level with the coding‬
T
‭language Python, and your familiarity with numerical techniques (like fitting functions). Pick‬
‭whichever version you feel the most comfortable with. In all cases, you will open a python‬
‭notebook using Google Colab (a Google Documents/Sheets/Slides version of coding notebooks).‬
‭If you are a strong programmer but primarily use a different language, you can take this‬
‭opportunity to learn some Python. If you have plenty of experience with numerical techniques,‬
‭you can work through the most challenging version of the activity.‬

I‭ f you create a new notebook or use Jupyter Notebooks instead, please indicate at the beginning‬
‭of your code which version you are doing.‬

‭ on’t forget that you’ve done some coding in previous labs. While each project is unique, code‬
D
‭snippets are not. The best code is made of pieces you can copy, and use somewhere else. Start by‬
‭opening up those previous notebooks so you can use them.‬
‭1 - Beginner‬
‭(a) Review your past work‬
1‭ .‬ S ‭ et yourself a 10 minute timer so you don’t spend too long on this part.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Open the previous notebook.‬
‭a.‬ ‭Identify the parts you can copy directly, like loading the packages or importing‬
‭files.‬
‭b.‬ ‭Look for the skills used in each, like making a graph, fitting a function, and doing‬
‭calculations. You may want to take a moment to make yourself a note of which‬
‭section to find which skill.‬
‭(b) Analysis of exoplanet data‬
‭3.‬ ‭Make a‬‭copy‬‭of the‬‭beginner notebook‬‭. It has steps matching this procedure to guide you,‬
‭but no code.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Add the code to load in the applicable packages and data (‘51_Peg.csv’) into your python‬
‭notebook.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Save each of the columns of data as their own named data set.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Make a scatter plot (just points, no connecting line) of radial velocity (y-axis) versus date‬
‭(x-axis). Make sure to include x and y-labels‬‭with‬‭units‬‭, as well as a title. You’ll notice‬
‭that the date is in units of‬ ‭Reduced Julian Days‬‭(JD)‬‭. 2450000 was subtracted from the‬
‭absolute date in order to express the values in more convenient numbers.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Recall from the intro that an exoplanet should induce a sinusoidal variation in the radial‬
‭velocity of the star. In your plot, there should be variation visible, but it should be‬
‭difficult to tell if it is sinusoidal, or what the period is, because the observations were‬
‭essentially random. Recall also that the “theoretical expectation” is a sine function with‬
‭some period and amplitude. A fitting code is usually used in order to find the best‬
‭solution, or the closest match between the data and the theoretical expectation from the‬
‭function, and find the best-fit period. We will do‬‭a simplified version of this type of‬
‭analysis‬‭; To find the period, we will try a few guesses‬‭and check by eye to see if the data‬
‭match the guess. For 51 Peg, we will examine two possible “guesses” for the period of‬
‭the planet: 4.2 days, and 6.7 days. To make it easier to see which guess is better, we want‬
‭to “fold” our data so all points fall within one orbital “phase”. For example, if the date of‬
‭the observation is 7.3, and the period being tested is 4.2, the “phase date” of this‬
‭datapoint is 7.3 - 4.2 = 3.1 days after the beginning of the cycle. Note the 3.05 is less than‬
‭the period being tested. If the observation date is 12.2, folding it once gives 8.0. We need‬
‭to fold it again, giving a phased date of 3.8 days after the beginning of the cycle.‬
‭Mathematically, this is the same as dividing by the proposed period and using the‬
‭remainder, so:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Calculate the phased date by dividing the date of each observation by the period‬
‭guess, and recording the‬‭remainder‬‭. Tip: Python has‬‭a math function for this.‬
‭Replace the division command with ‘%’.‬
 ‭b.‬ M ‭ ake two scatter plots of the radial velocity (y-axis) versus the phased date‬
‭(x-axis) - i.e. two sets of points, one for each phased date column.‬
‭c.‬ ‭Make sure to include x and y-labels‬‭with units‬‭, as‬‭well as a title that specifies‬
‭which data set refers to which period.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Of course only one of these guesses is correct. To tell which it is, look and see which set‬
‭of data gives a nice sinusoidal curve in your plot. Congratulations, this is the‬
‭unmistakable signature of an exoplanet! Based on your data, which is the correct period‬
‭for the planet?‬
‭(c) Check for goodness of fit‬
‭9.‬ ‭Let’s create a sine function‬
‭a.‬ ‭Write a function to calculate a sine function:‬‭𝑦‬‭‬ = ‭‭𝐴 ‬ ‬‭‭𝑠‬ 𝑖𝑛‬(ν‭𝑥‬) ‭, where A is the‬
‭amplitude,‬ν ‭is the frequency, and x is the input‬‭x-value. In your function, A,‬ν‭,‬
‭and x should be variables that you can change.‬
‭b.‬ ‭Test out your function: using A=15,‬ ν‭=3, and x=10,‬‭what value do you calculate‬
‭with your function? Calculate the answer for the same values analytically‬
‭(meaning, on paper, or calculator) and check that the code gives the expected‬
‭answer. If not, you have discovered a bug! Fix it!‬
‭10.‬‭Take a look at your plot of the radial velocity (y-axis) versus the correct phase date‬
‭(x-axis).‬
‭a.‬ ‭What is the amplitude?‬
‭b.‬ ‭What is the period in units of days?‬
‭c.‬ ‭What is the frequency (frequency = 2π/period)?‬
‭11.‬‭Create an array of 1000 data points that start at 0 and end at 35.‬
‭a.‬ ‭Use your sine function to calculate a sine curve using this array, your estimated‬
‭amplitude and frequency.‬
‭12.‬‭Plot your calculated sine curve on the same plot as radial velocity (y-axis) versus the‬
‭correct phase date (x-axis). Make sure to include x and y-labels‬‭with units‬‭, and a title.‬
‭a.‬ ‭Zoom into the x-limits to better see the data points.‬
‭13.‬‭Plot your calculated sine curve on the same plot as radial velocity (y-axis) versus the‬
‭julian date (x-axis). Make sure to include x and y-labels‬‭with units‬‭, and a title. Does the‬
‭model fit the data?‬
‭a.‬ ‭Zoom into the x-limits to better see the data points.‬
‭14.‬‭Use your sine curve model to estimate the following:‬
‭a.‬ ‭What is the expected radial velocity at a reduced Julian Date of 8?‬
‭b.‬ ‭What is the expected radial velocity at a reduced Julian Date of 20?‬
‭(d) Calculate the mass‬
‭15.‬‭Use equations 2 and 5 from the introduction to calculate the mass of the planet.‬
‭16.‬‭Check to make sure your answer is sensible (e.g. the planet should be big - maybe even‬
‭bigger than Jupiter, but not the size of a star.)‬
‭2 - Intermediate:‬
‭ his is a similar activity to the Beginner, except with less instructions, and an added step of‬
T
‭calculating the goodness of fit between the data and a sine function.‬
‭(a) Review your past work‬
1‭ .‬ S ‭ et yourself a 10 minute timer so you don’t spend too long on this part.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Open the previous notebook.‬
‭a.‬ ‭Identify the parts you can copy directly, like loading the packages or importing‬
‭files.‬
‭b.‬ ‭Look for the skills used in each, like making a graph, fitting a function, and doing‬
‭calculations. You may want to take a moment to make yourself a note of which‬
‭section to find which skill.‬
‭(b) Analysis of exoplanet data‬
‭3.‬ ‭Make a‬‭copy‬‭of the‬‭Intermediate python notebook‬‭and download the dataset‬
‭‘51_Peg.csv’.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Make a scatter plot (just points, no connecting line) of radial velocity (y-axis) versus date‬
‭(x-axis). Make sure to include the errors on the y-values, x and y-labels‬‭with units‬‭, as‬
‭well as a title.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Recall from the figures in the pre-lab that an exoplanet should induce a sinusoidal‬
‭variation in the radial velocity of the tar. In your plot, there should be variation visible,‬
‭but it should be difficult to tell if it is sinusoidal, or what the period is. To find the period,‬
‭astronomers fit the data points with a function, or the “theoretical expectation”, in this‬
‭case, a sine function with some period and amplitude. A fitting code is usually used in‬
‭order to find the best solution, or the closest match between the data and the theoretical‬
‭expectation from the function, and find the best-fit period. We will do a‬‭simplified version‬
‭of this type of analysis‬‭; To find the period, we will‬‭try only a few guesses, and not explore‬
‭the entire parameter space of possible periods.‬
‭For 51 Peg, we will examine two possible “guesses” for the period of the planet: 4.2‬
‭days, and 6.7 days.‬
‭a.‬ ‭Calculate the phased date by dividing the date of each observation by the period‬
‭guess, and recording the‬‭remainder‬‭. (Tip: use the‬‭“%” operator in Python).‬
‭b.‬ ‭Make two scatter plots of the radial velocity (y-axis) versus the phased date‬
‭(x-axis) - i.e. two sets of points, one for each phased date column.‬
‭c.‬ ‭Make sure to include errors on the y-values, x and y-labels‬‭with units‬‭, as well as‬
‭a title.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Only one of these guesses is correct. To tell which it is, look and see which set of data‬
‭gives a nice sinusoidal curve in your plot. Congratulations, this is the unmistakable‬
‭signature of an exoplanet! Based on your data, which is the correct period for the planet?‬
‭(c)‬‭Check for goodness of fit‬
‭7.‬ ‭Write a function to calculate a sine function:‬‭𝑦‬‭‬ = ‭‭𝐴 ‬ ‬‭‭𝑠‬ 𝑖𝑛‬(ν‭𝑥‬)‭. , where A is the‬
‭amplitude,‬ν ‭is the frequency, and x is the input‬‭x-value. In your function, A,‬ν‭, and x‬
‭should be variables that you can change.‬
‭8.‬ ‭To quantify the goodness of the fit, calculate the goodness of fit between the data and the‬
‭sine function using a fitting function of your choice (for example, a chi^2 estimator).‬
‭a.‬ ‭Report the goodness of fit of each of the guesses (4.2 and 6.7 days).‬
‭b.‬ ‭Is the result of your code consistent with what you determined by eye?‬

‭(d) Calculate the mass‬

‭9.‬ ‭Use equations 2 and 5 from the introduction to calculate the mass of the planet.‬
‭10.‬‭Check to make sure your answer is sensible (e.g. the planet should be big - bigger even‬
‭than Jupiter, but not the size of a star.)‬

‭3 - Advanced:‬
‭ his activity asks you to write a fitting function and explore the parameter space to find the‬
T
‭best-fit period of 51 Peg. Please check with your GSI before attempting this version.‬
‭Tip: Advanced programmers can start with the “intermediate” activity, and once the code‬
‭to calculate the goodness of fit is in place, write a function that explores the parameter‬
‭space and finds the period and amplitude that give the best fit.‬
‭1.‬ ‭Make a copy of‬‭the advanced notebook‬‭and download‬‭the dataset ‘51_Peg.csv’.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Make a scatter plot (just points, no connecting line) of radial velocity (y-axis) versus date‬
‭(x-axis). Make sure to include the errors on the y-values, x and y-labels‬‭with units‬‭, as‬
‭well as a title.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Recall from the figures in the pre-lab that an exoplanet should induce a sinusoidal‬
‭variation in the radial velocity of the tar. In your plot, there should be variation visible,‬
‭but it should be difficult to tell if it is sinusoidal, or what the period is. To find the period,‬
‭astronomers fit the data points with a function, or the “theoretical expectation”, in this‬
‭case, a sine function with some period and amplitude.‬
‭Write a function that fits the data with a sine function with parameters P (period) and A‬
‭(amplitude) and reports back the orbital parameters of the exoplanet. Look for the best-fit‬
‭period in the range from 1 to 10. You can choose which range of amplitudes to explore.‬
‭a.‬ ‭For each value, report the goodness of fit of a sine function to the data.‬
‭b.‬ ‭What period results in the best fit of the data?‬
‭Calculate the mass‬
‭4.‬ ‭Use equations 2 and 5 from the introduction to calculate the mass of the planet.‬
 ‭5.‬ C
‭ heck to make sure your answer is sensible (e.g. the planet should be big - bigger even‬
‭than Jupiter, but not the size of a star.)‬

‭Part 2: The Transit Method‬

‭ cience objective‬‭: calculate the effective temperature‬‭of different planets.‬
S
‭Computational objective‬‭: use one code on several sets‬‭of input, thus saving time and effort by‬
‭letting the computer do the work for you instead of calculating the same thing for different inputs‬
‭by hand.‬

I‭ n this part of the lab you will examine data outputs of simulations of Kepler lightcurves of main‬
‭sequence stars and the transits of planets around the stars, to see what they can tell you about‬
‭exoplanets.‬

‭1.‬ L ‭ oad in the data set ‘Star_transit.csv’. This data set contains the day number on which a‬
‭planet transits its host star (counting starts at 0 for each case), the peak brightness drop of‬
‭the star in percent, the mass of the star (M_sun), the radius of the star (R_sun), and the‬
‭effective temperature (K).‬
‭2.‬ ‭With your group, pick a star to work on.‬
‭3.‬ ‭What is the period of the planet?‬
‭4.‬ ‭Using the data available in the csv file, calculate (in python) the semi-major orbit of the‬
‭planet.‬‭Make sure you are paying attention to units!‬
‭5.‬ ‭The drop in the star’s brightness as the planet passes in front of it is given by the ratio of‬
‭the planet’s area to the star’s area. Using the star’s radius and the peak drop in brightness‬
‭from the lightcurve, estimate the radius of the transiting exoplanet in cm‬
‭10‬
‭(‭𝑅
‬ ‬‭𝑠𝑢𝑛‬ = ‭‭6 ‬ ‬ ‭𝑐𝑚‬‭).‬
‬ .‬ ‭96‬ × ‭1‭0
‭8‬
‭a.‬ ‭What is the radius of the planet in Earth radii (‬‭𝑅‬‭𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ‬ = ‭‭6 ‬ ‬ ‭𝑐𝑚‬‭)?‬
‬ .‬ ‭37‬ × ‭1‭0
‭9‬
‭b.‬ ‭What is the radius of the planet in Jupiter radii (‬‭𝑅‬‭𝐽𝑢𝑝‬ = ‭‬‭6.‬ ‭99‬ × ‭1‭0
‬ ‬ ‭𝑐𝑚‬‭)?‬
‭6.‬ W ‭ rite a function that will calculate the effective temperature of your exoplanet using‬
‭equation 10 from the introduction.‬
‭a.‬ ‭Determine the temperature of your planet.‬
‭b.‬ ‭Check your answers to make sure they make sense (e.g. a planet shouldn’t be‬
‭hotter than a star, or have Pluto-like temperatures at Mercury-like distances.)‬
‭7.‬ ‭In order for an exoplanet to be habitable, it needs to have liquid water. Water exists in the‬
‭liquid state between 273 and 373 K. Is your exoplanet in the right range to be considered‬
‭as “candidate” life-supporting planets? If not, is it too hot or too cold?‬
‭How to submit your lab‬
‭ ou should be able to save the notebook as a pdf under the print option. Upload the pdf to‬
Y
‭Gradescope with the following outline:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Loading the libraries and data file (2 pts)‬
‭2.‬ ‭Scatter plot of data (5 pts)‬
‭3.‬ ‭Phased date calculation (3 pts)‬
‭4.‬ ‭Phased date plots (5 pts)‬
‭5.‬ ‭Goodness test [beginner steps 9 - 14, intermediate step 7, advanced step 3a] (5 pts)‬
‭6.‬ ‭Planet mass (5 pt)‬
‭7.‬ ‭Loading transit data and picking a star (2 pt)‬
‭8.‬ ‭determining the period and semi-major axis (4 pt)‬
‭9.‬ ‭Radii (4 pt)‬
‭10.‬‭Temperature calculation (5 pt)‬
‭11.‬‭Habitability (5 pt)‬