Unit – 2

Computer Networks
 Evolution of Networking: introduction to computer networks, evolution of
networking (ARPANET, NSFNET, INTERNET)
 Data communication terminologies: concept of communication,
components of data communication (sender, receiver, message,
communication media, protocols), measuring capacity of communication media
(bandwidth, data transfer rate), IP address, switching techniques (Circuit
switching, Packet switching)
 Transmission media: Wired communication media (Twisted pair cable, Co-
axial cable, Fiber-optic cable), Wireless media (Radio waves, Microwaves,
Infrared waves)
 Network devices (Modem, Ethernet card, RJ45, Repeater, Hub, Switch, Router,
Gateway, WIFI card)
 Network topologies and Network types: types of networks (PAN, LAN, MAN,
WAN), networking topologies (Bus, Star, Tree)
 Network protocol: HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP, TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
 Introduction to web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML),
Extensible Markup Language (XML), domain names, URL, website, web browser,
web servers, web hosting

Table of Content
 Evolution of Networking
 Data Communication Terminologies
 Transmission Media
 Network Devices
 Network Topologies and Network Types
 Network Protocol
 Introduction to Web Services
 Distribution of Marks: CBSE Class 12th Computer Science Unit 2 Notes

Evolution of Networking

Introduction to Computer Networks

In today's world, computer networks are fundamental to how we connect and
communicate. From sending an email to streaming a video, the technology behind
these actions relies on networks. But how did we get here? Let's journey through
the evolution of networking and understand the basics of computer networks.

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of computers and other hardware
components interconnected by communication channels. These networks allow
devices to share resources and information. Think of a network as a web of
interconnected nodes where each node can communicate with others.

Early Networking: ARPANET and the Birth of the Internet

ARPANET (1969):
 Origins: The story begins in the late 1960s with ARPANET, the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network, funded by the U.S. Department of Defense.

 Purpose: Designed to enable researchers to share information and resources.

 Achievement: ARPANET is considered the precursor to the modern Internet. It
introduced the concept of packet switching, which divides data into small
packets for transmission.
Development of Protocols (1970s-1980s):
 TCP/IP: In the 1970s, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP) were developed, forming the backbone of the Internet. These
protocols ensure data is sent and received correctly.

 Expansion: Networks expanded from ARPANET to include various other

networks, creating a network of networks.

The Rise of the Internet

Commercialization and Growth (1990s):

 World Wide Web (WWW): In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee introduced the WWW, a
system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. This
made the Internet more user-friendly.

 Browsers and Search Engines: The development of web browsers like

Mosaic and search engines like Yahoo! helped users navigate the growing web.

Broadband and Wireless (2000s):

 High-Speed Internet: The transition from dial-up to broadband provided
faster internet speeds, enabling more data-intensive applications like video
streaming.

 Wireless Networking: Wi-Fi technology allowed devices to connect to

networks without cables, making networking more accessible and mobile.

Modern Networking Technologies

Cloud Computing:

 Definition: Cloud computing involves delivering computing services over the

internet. Instead of relying on local servers, businesses and individuals use
remote servers hosted on the cloud.

 Impact: It allows for scalable resources, reduced costs, and flexibility in

managing data and applications.

5G Technology:

 Definition: The fifth generation of mobile network technology, 5G, offers

significantly faster speeds and lower latency compared to previous generations.

 Applications: Supports advanced applications such as autonomous vehicles,

smart cities, and augmented reality.

Key Networking Concepts

 IP Addresses: Unique identifiers for devices on a network. They allow devices

to locate and communicate with each other.

 Protocols: Rules and standards that determine how data is transmitted and
received. Examples include TCP/IP and HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol).
 Network Topologies: The layout or arrangement of different elements (links,
nodes, etc.) in a computer network. Common topologies include star, ring, and
mesh.

Key Components of Computer Network

Network Devices
Networking devices are essential for establishing and managing communication
within and between networks. They include devices like modems, which convert
data between digital and analog forms for transmission, and Ethernet cards, which
provide physical connections to wired networks. RJ45 connectors are used with
Ethernet cables to link these devices. Repeaters strengthen signals over long
distances to prevent data loss, while hubs connect multiple devices but broadcast
data to all of them, making them less efficient than switches. Switches are more
advanced, directing data only to the intended device, thus optimizing network
performance. Routers manage traffic between different networks, such as linking a
home network to the Internet, and gateways facilitate communication between
different types of networks. Wi-Fi cards allow for wireless connections, enabling
devices to connect to the network without cables. Together, these devices ensure
smooth and efficient communication across various network configurations.
 Routers: Direct traffic between networks.
 Switches: Manage data traffic within a network.
 Modems: Connect networks to the Internet.

Summary
Computer networks have evolved from simple, research-focused systems to
complex infrastructures that support global communication and information
sharing. The development of protocols, the rise of the Internet, and advancements
in technology like cloud computing and 5G have transformed how we connect and
interact with the world. Understanding these basics helps appreciate the incredible
capabilities of modern networks and their impact on our daily lives.

Evolution of Networking (ARPANET, NSFNET, INTERNET)

ARPANET, NSFNET, and the Internet
The development of computer networks has significantly transformed how we
communicate and share information. Here’s a look at the key milestones in the
evolution of networking, focusing on ARPANET, NSFNET, and the Internet:

1. ARPANET: The Foundation

Introduction:
 Year: 1969
 Developed By: Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), U.S. Department
of Defense agency.
 Purpose: ARPANET was designed to connect various research institutions and
facilitate resource sharing and communication.
Key Features:
 Packet Switching: ARPANET introduced packet switching, a method of
breaking data into small packets that are sent independently and reassembled
at the destination. This was a major innovation compared to traditional circuit-
switching methods.
 First Message: The first message sent over ARPANET was "LO," intended to be
"LOGIN." However, the system crashed after just two letters.

Impact:
 Network of Networks: ARPANET laid the groundwork for future networks by
demonstrating the viability of packet switching and distributed networking.
 Networking Protocols: It was the precursor to many networking protocols
that would later become fundamental to the Internet.

Evolution of Networks

2. NSFNET: Expanding the Network

Introduction:
 Year: 1985
 Developed By: National Science Foundation (NSF)
 Purpose: NSFNET was created to provide high-speed networking capabilities
for research and educational institutions across the U.S.

Key Features:
 Backbone Network: NSFNET initially provided a backbone network connecting
supercomputing centers, which helped facilitate scientific research and
collaboration.
 TCP/IP Protocol: NSFNET adopted the TCP/IP protocol suite, which had been
developed in the 1970s and was foundational for the Internet. This protocol
suite allowed different networks to interoperate and communicate effectively.

Impact:
 Growth of the Network: NSFNET greatly expanded the reach of networking
beyond ARPA's original scope, connecting thousands of institutions and
providing the infrastructure for the growing academic and research community.
 Commercialization: By the early 1990s, NSFNET's backbone network was
decommissioned, and commercial networks took over, leading to the
commercialization of the Internet.

3. The Internet: The Global Network

Introduction:
 Year: Early 1990s (formalized with the creation of the World Wide Web in 1991)
 Developed By: The Internet evolved from ARPANET and NSFNET into a global
network of networks.
 Purpose: The Internet was designed to be a scalable, decentralized network
that connects millions of networks and devices worldwide.

Key Features:
 World Wide Web (WWW): Developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1991, the WWW
made the Internet more accessible by providing a user-friendly way to navigate
and share information using hypertext and web browsers.
 IP Addressing: The Internet uses the IP addressing scheme to identify and
locate devices across the globe.

Impact:
 Global Connectivity: The Internet connects billions of devices worldwide,
facilitating communication, information sharing, and commerce.
 Technological Advancements: It has led to the development of various
technologies, including email, social media, e-commerce, and cloud computing.
 Digital Transformation: The Internet has transformed how we live, work, and
interact, impacting nearly every aspect of modern life.

Data Communication Terminologies

Concept of Communication
Understanding data communication involves familiarizing yourself with key
terminologies and concepts that define how data is transmitted, received, and
managed across networks. Here's a breakdown of essential data communication
concepts:

Data Communication
1. Data Communication
Definition: Data communication is the process of transferring data between
devices or systems using transmission media. This can involve sending data over
cables, wireless connections, or other communication channels.

Key Components:
 Sender: The device or system that initiates the communication and sends the
data.
 Receiver: The device or system that receives and processes the data.
 Medium: The physical or logical pathway through which the data travels (e.g.,
cables, radio waves).
 Protocol: A set of rules or standards that determine how data is formatted,
transmitted, and interpreted.

2. Communication Channels
Definition: Communication channels are the mediums used to convey data from
the sender to the receiver.
They can be classified into two main types:
 Physical Channels: These include cables, fiber optics, and other tangible
mediums. For example, Ethernet cables and optical fiber are physical channels
used for wired communication.
 Wireless Channels: These use electromagnetic waves to transmit
data. Examples include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.

3. Transmission Modes
Definition: Transmission modes describe how data is sent over the
communication channel. They can be categorized as follows:
 Simplex: Data flows in one direction only. Example: A keyboard sending input
to a computer.
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but not
simultaneously. Example: Walkie-talkies where you can talk or listen, but not
both at the same time.
 Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions
simultaneously. Example: Telephones where both parties can speak and listen
at the same time.

4. Data Transmission
Definition: Data transmission is the process of sending data from one point to
another. It can be characterized by:
 Analog Transmission: Data is transmitted in continuous
signals. Example: Traditional radio broadcasts.
 Digital Transmission: Data is transmitted in discrete signals. Example: Data
sent over the Internet using binary code.

5. Bandwidth
Definition: Bandwidth refers to the maximum rate at which data can be
transmitted over a communication channel. It is often measured in bits per second
(bps). Higher bandwidth allows for faster data transfer.
Example: A broadband connection with 100 Mbps bandwidth can transfer data at
a rate of 100 megabits per second.

6. Latency
Definition: Latency is the time delay between sending and receiving data. It is
the time it takes for a data packet to travel from the sender to the receiver.
Example: In online gaming, low latency (or low ping) is crucial for a smooth
experience, as high latency can cause lag.

7. Error Detection and Correction

Definition: Error detection and correction techniques are used to ensure data
integrity during transmission. Errors can occur due to interference or signal
degradation.
 Error Detection: Methods like checksums and cyclic redundancy checks (CRC)
help identify errors.
 Error Correction: Techniques like parity bits and Hamming codes correct
errors in data.

8. Protocols
Definition: Protocols are standardized rules and formats used to ensure proper
communication between devices. They define how data is formatted, transmitted,
and interpreted.
Common Protocols:
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Fundamental
protocol suite for internet communication.
 HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring
web pages.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between systems.

9. Modulation
Definition: Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal to transmit data.
It allows data to be transmitted over different types of communication channels.
Types:
 Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the amplitude of the carrier signal.
 Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the frequency of the carrier signal.
 Phase Modulation (PM): Varies the phase of the carrier signal.

10. Throughput
Definition: Throughput is the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted
over a communication channel. It may be affected by factors such as network
congestion and errors.
Example: If a network has a theoretical bandwidth of 100 Mbps but only achieves
80 Mbps in practice due to congestion, the throughput is 80 Mbps.

Components of Data Communication

Data communication involves various key components that work together to
ensure information is successfully transmitted from one point to another. Here’s a
detailed look at each component:
1. Sender
Definition: The sender is the device or system that initiates the communication
by generating and sending the data. This could be a computer, smartphone, or any
other network-enabled device.
Example: When you send an email, your computer or smartphone acts as the
sender.
Role:
 Data Generation: The sender creates or processes the data to be transmitted.
 Data Encoding: The sender encodes the data into a suitable format for
transmission (e.g., converting text into binary).
2. Receiver
Definition: The receiver is the device or system that receives and processes the
data sent by the sender. It could be another computer, server, or any device
capable of receiving data.
Example: When you receive an email, the device you use to read the email is the
receiver.
Role:
 Data Reception: The receiver accepts the incoming data from the
communication channel.
 Data Decoding: The receiver decodes the data back into its original format for
use.

3. Message
Definition: The message is the actual data or information being transmitted from
the sender to the receiver. This could be text, audio, video, or any other form of
data.
Example: The content of an email, a video file, or a text message are all examples
of messages.
Role:
 Data Content: The message contains the information or instructions that need
to be communicated.
 Format: Messages need to be formatted properly to ensure they can be
understood by the receiver.
4. Communication Media
Definition: Communication media refer to the physical or logical pathways
through which data is transmitted from the sender to the receiver. This includes
both hardware and software components.
Types:
 Physical Media: Cables, fiber optics, and other tangible media. For
example, Ethernet cables and optical fiber are used for wired communication.
 Wireless Media: Radio waves, microwaves, and other wireless technologies.
Examples include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular signals.
Role:
 Data Transmission: Provides the pathway for data to travel between sender
and receiver.
 Medium Selection: The choice of media affects the speed, reliability, and
quality of communication.

5. Protocols
Definition: Protocols are standardized sets of rules and procedures that dictate
how data is formatted, transmitted, and received over a network. They ensure that
data is transferred correctly and efficiently.
Examples:
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The
fundamental suite for internet communication, ensuring reliable data
transmission.
 HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring
web pages and secure communications on the web.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between systems.
Role:
 Data Formatting: Protocols define how data should be structured and
formatted.
 Error Checking: Includes mechanisms for error detection and correction to
ensure data integrity.
 Communication Rules: Specifies rules for establishing and maintaining
communication sessions.

Summary
In data communication, each component plays a crucial role:
 Sender: Generates and sends data.
 Receiver: Receives and processes data.
 Message: The actual data being communicated.
 Communication Media: The channels through which data travels.
 Protocols: The rules that guide how data is transmitted and received.

Measuring Capacity of Communication Media (bandwidth, data transfer

rate)
Bandwidth and Data Transfer Rate
When evaluating the performance and capability of communication media, two
key metrics are often considered: bandwidth and data transfer rate. Both are
crucial for understanding how efficiently data can be transmitted over a network.

1. Bandwidth
Definition: Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be
transmitted over a communication channel or network in a given period of time. It
is essentially the capacity of the communication medium.

Bandwidth

Measurement:
 Units: Bandwidth is typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).
 Example: A network with a bandwidth of 100 Mbps can theoretically transfer
100 megabits of data every second.
Types:
 Maximum Bandwidth: The highest possible speed that a channel can handle.
This is often determined by the physical properties of the media (e.g., fiber
optics vs. copper cables).
 Effective Bandwidth: The actual speed experienced by users, which may be
lower than the maximum due to factors like network congestion and
interference.
Importance:
 Capacity: Higher bandwidth allows for more data to be transmitted
simultaneously, which can support more users and more data-intensive
applications.
 Quality of Service: Sufficient bandwidth is crucial for maintaining the quality
of services like video streaming, online gaming, and large file transfers.

2. Data Transfer Rate

Definition: Data transfer rate , also known as throughput, is the actual speed at
which data is successfully transmitted over a communication channel. It reflects
the performance of the network in real-world conditions.
Data Transfer Rate

Measurement:
 Units: Data transfer rate is measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps),
similar to bandwidth.
 Example: If a file transfer completes in 10 seconds at a rate of 50 Mbps, the
data transfer rate is 50 Mbps.
Types:
 Peak Transfer Rate: The highest speed achieved under ideal conditions, often
measured during benchmarks or tests.
 Average Transfer Rate: The typical speed experienced during regular usage,
which can be influenced by network congestion, packet loss, and other factors.
Importance:
 Real-World Performance: While bandwidth indicates the maximum potential,
data transfer rate shows how well the network performs in practice.
 User Experience: Higher data transfer rates lead to faster downloads, quicker
file uploads, and smoother streaming.
Comparing Bandwidth and Data Transfer Rate
 Bandwidth represents the maximum potential capacity of a network or
channel.
 Data Transfer Rate represents the actual speed at which data is transmitted
and received.
Example
Consider a home internet connection with a bandwidth of 200 Mbps. This indicates
the maximum speed the connection can theoretically handle. However, due to
factors such as network congestion, distance from the router, and interference,
the actual data transfer rate you experience may be lower. If you are downloading
a large file, and it takes 20 seconds to download 100 MB, the data transfer rate
would be 40 Mbps (assuming the file is 100 MB and 20 seconds for transfer).

IP Address

What It Is and Why It Matters

An IP address (Internet Protocol address ) is a unique identifier assigned to each
device connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
Think of it as the address of your device on the internet or a local network. Just like
a home address helps deliver mail to your house, an IP address helps route data to
the correct device.
Key Concepts of IP Addresses
1. Types of IP Addresses
a. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
 Format: IPv4 addresses are written in a 32-bit format, divided into four octets
separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
 Range: IPv4 provides about 4.3 billion unique addresses, which were initially
thought to be more than enough but are now running out due to the growth of
internet-connected devices.
 Example: Your home router might use an IPv4 address like 192.168.0.1 to
identify itself on your local network.
IPv4 Address Format

b. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):

 Format: IPv6 addresses use a 128-bit format, written as eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
 Range: IPv6 provides a vastly larger address space, allowing for approximately
340 undecillionths (3.4 × 10^38) unique addresses, which should be
sufficient for the foreseeable future.
 Example: An IPv6 address might look like
2607:fed5:4a4e:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000.
IPv6 Address Format

2. Static vs. Dynamic IP Addresses

a. Static IP Address:
 Definition: A static IP address is a fixed address that does not change. It is
manually assigned to a device and remains constant.
 Usage: Often used for servers, network printers, and other devices where a
consistent address is required.
 Example: Your company’s web server may have a static IP like 203.0.113.5.
Static and Dynamic IP address
b. Dynamic IP Address:
 Definition: A dynamic IP address is assigned by a network's DHCP ( Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol ) server and can change periodically.
 Usage: Commonly used for devices that connect to networks frequently, such
as home computers and mobile devices.
 Example: When you connect to your home Wi-Fi, you might be assigned a
dynamic IP address like 192.168.1.10 that could change when you reconnect.

3. Public vs. Private IP Addresses

a. Public IP Address:
 Definition: A public IP address is assigned to a network by an ISP (Internet
Service Provider) and is used to identify a network on the internet.
 Usage: It is what the rest of the world uses to reach your network.
 Example: Your ISP might provide you with a public IP like 203.0.113.20.
Private and Public IP Addresses

b. Private IP Address:
 Definition: Private IP addresses are used within a local network and are not
visible to the outside world. They are reserved for internal use.
 Usage: These addresses allow devices within the same local network to
communicate with each other.
 Example: Common private IP address ranges include 192.168.x.x, 10.x.x.x,
and 172.16.x.x to 172.31.x.x.

Why IP Addresses Matter

 Routing Data: IP addresses help route data from one device to another,
ensuring that your email or website request reaches the correct destination.
 Network Identification: They uniquely identify devices on a network, which is
essential for communication and troubleshooting.
 Security: Proper management of IP addresses can help secure networks by
preventing unauthorized access and tracking network activity.

Switching Techniques (Circuit switching, Packet switching)

Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching
Switching techniques are fundamental to network design and communication,
determining how data is routed and managed across networks. The two primary
switching techniques are circuit switching and packet switching. Here’s a
breakdown of each:

1. Circuit Switching
Definition: Circuit switching is a technique where a dedicated communication
path or circuit is established between two devices for the duration of their
conversation. This path remains open and exclusive to the two devices for the
entire session.
Key Features:
 Dedicated Path: A physical or virtual connection is established between the
sender and receiver for the entire duration of the communication.
 Constant Bandwidth: The allocated bandwidth is constant and reserved for
the conversation, regardless of whether data is being transmitted at all times.
 Setup Time: There is a delay at the beginning to establish the circuit before
communication can begin.
Circuit Switching

Example:
 Traditional Telephone Networks: When you make a phone call, a dedicated
circuit is established between your phone and the recipient's phone for the
duration of the call.
Pros:
 Reliable Connection: Since the path is dedicated, there is less chance of data
loss or delay due to other traffic.
 Consistent Quality: The quality of the communication is consistent
throughout the session.
Cons:
 Inefficient Use of Resources: The dedicated path is reserved whether or not
data is being transmitted, which can lead to inefficient use of network
resources.
 Scalability Issues: Circuit switching is less flexible and can be less scalable
compared to other techniques.

2. Packet Switching
Definition: Packet switching is a technique where data is divided into small
packets, which are sent independently through the network. Each packet may take
a different path to reach the destination, where they are reassembled in the
correct order.
Key Features:
 No Dedicated Path: Data packets are sent through various routes and do not
require a dedicated path between sender and receiver.
 Dynamic Bandwidth: Bandwidth is allocated dynamically based on the
network traffic and demand.
 Efficient Use of Resources: Network resources are used more efficiently as
the same path can be shared by multiple packets from different
communications.
Packet Switching

Example:
 The Internet: When you browse the web or send an email, data is split into
packets that travel through different routes and are reassembled at the
destination.
Pros:
 Efficient Resource Utilization: Network resources are used more effectively
as packets from multiple sources can share the same network paths.
 Scalability: Packet switching is highly scalable and can handle a large number
of simultaneous communications.
Cons:
 Variable Quality: The quality of communication can vary due to the shared
nature of the network paths and possible delays or packet loss.
 Overhead: Packet switching introduces some overhead due to the need for
packet headers and reassembly at the destination.

Comparison
Circuit Switching:
 Connection: Dedicated circuit for the entire session.
 Bandwidth: Constant and reserved.
 Efficiency: Can be less efficient due to reserved bandwidth.
 Usage: Suitable for applications requiring constant and reliable connections,
like traditional phone calls.

Packet Switching:
 Connection: No dedicated circuit, packets travel independently.
 Bandwidth: Dynamic and shared among multiple communications.
 Efficiency: More efficient use of resources and better scalability.
 Usage: Ideal for data-intensive applications like web browsing and email.

Transmission Media
Transmission media are the physical or logical channels through which data is
transmitted from one device to another in a network. They can be broadly
categorized into two types: guided media (or wired) and unguided media (or
wireless). Each type has its own characteristics, advantages, and use cases.

1. Guided Media (Wired Media)

Guided media, also known as wired media, refers to physical transmission
mediums used to convey data signals through a controlled path. It includes cables
and wires such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber-optic cables. These
media guide the signals along a specific route from the sender to the receiver.
Guided media offer reliable and high-speed data transmission. They are commonly
used in network infrastructures for both local and wide area networks.

Wired Communication Media (Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, Fiber-

optic cable)
Here are the primary types:
a. Twisted Pair Cables
Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to
reduce interference.
Types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in Ethernet networks . Offers good
performance at a lower cost.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Provides additional shielding to reduce
electromagnetic interference.
 Speed and Range: Generally supports speeds up to 1 Gbps over short
distances. Categories like Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a support different speeds and
bandwidths.
 Example: Used for telephone lines and local area networks (LANs).

b. Coaxial Cables
 Description: Comprises a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic
shield, and an outer insulating layer.
 Speed and Range: Supports higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.
Commonly used for cable television and broadband internet.
 Example: Coaxial cables are used to connect cable modems to routers.

c. Fiber Optic Cables

 Description: Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light pulses. Offers
very high bandwidth and speed.
 Speed and Range: Supports speeds ranging from 1 Gbps to several terabits
per second over long distances. Less susceptible to interference and signal loss.
 Example: Used for high-speed internet connections, long-distance
telecommunications, and data center connections.
Transmission Media
2. Unguided Media (Wireless Media)
Unguided media, or wireless media, refers to transmission methods that send data
signals through the air or space without physical cables. This includes technologies
like radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals. Unguided media allows for
mobility and flexibility in device connectivity. It is essential for wireless
communication systems such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks. This
media is ideal for environments where cabling is impractical or impossible.

Wireless media (Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves)

Here are the primary types:
a. Radio Waves
 Description: Electromagnetic waves used for various types of wireless
communication.
 Speed and Range: Suitable for short to medium-range communication.
Commonly used in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
 Example: Wi-Fi routers use radio waves to provide wireless internet access in
homes and offices.
Radiowaves

b. Microwaves
 Description: High-frequency radio waves used for point-to-point
communication over long distances.
 Speed and Range: Can support high data rates but require line-of-sight
between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Used in satellite
communication and some long-distance communication systems.
 Example: Satellite television and microwave relay stations.

c. Infrared
 Description: Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible
light but shorter than microwaves.
 Speed and Range: Typically used for short-range communication. Requires
direct line-of-sight between devices. Commonly used in remote controls and
some short-range data transfers.
 Example: Remote controls for televisions and some data transfer applications
between devices.
Infrared
d. Satellite Communication
 Description: Uses satellites in geostationary orbits to relay data between
ground stations.
 Speed and Range: Can cover large geographical areas and provide high-
speed communication. Subject to latency due to the distance signals must
travel.
 Example: Satellite internet services and global broadcasting.

Network Devices
Network Devices Overview
Network devices are hardware components that facilitate communication and data
exchange within and between networks. They include routers, which manage
traffic between networks, switches, which direct data to specific devices, and
modems, which connect networks to the internet. Other devices like hubs,
repeaters, and network interface cards help connect and boost network signals.
Together, these devices ensure efficient and reliable network operation. Here’s a
quick look at some of the key network devices:
Network Devices

1. Modem
 Function: Modulates and demodulates signals between digital data from a
computer and analog signals for transmission over phone lines or cable.
 Usage: Connects your home network to the Internet via your ISP.

2. Ethernet Card
 Function: A hardware component that allows a computer to connect to a
network via Ethernet cables.
 Usage: Provides wired network connectivity for data transfer.
3. RJ45 Connector
 Function: A type of connector used for Ethernet cables. It has eight pins that
connect to the wires inside the cable.
 Usage: Commonly used to connect computers, routers, and other network
devices.

4. Repeater
 Function: Amplifies or regenerates signals to extend the range of a network.
 Usage: Used to boost the signal in long-distance networks, such as in larger
buildings or between network segments.

5. Hub
 Function: A basic network device that connects multiple Ethernet devices,
making them act as a single network segment.
 Usage: Transmits data to all connected devices, regardless of which device the
data is meant for (broadcasting).

6. Switch
 Function: Connects multiple devices on a network and directs data only to the
specific device it is intended for.
 Usage: More efficient than a hub because it reduces unnecessary data traffic
and increases network performance.

7. Router
 Function: Directs data packets between different networks, such as between
your home network and the Internet.
 Usage: Manages local network traffic and connects your devices to the wider
Internet.

8. Gateway
 Function: Serves as a bridge between different networks, often with different
protocols.
 Usage: Connects networks that use different protocols or architectures, such
as connecting a company’s internal network to the Internet.
Gateway Bridge

9. Wi-Fi Card
 Function: Allows a computer or device to connect to a wireless network.
 Usage: Provides wireless network access without the need for physical cables.

Summary
 Modem: Connects to the Internet by converting signals.
 Ethernet Card: Provides wired network connections.
 RJ45: Connector for Ethernet cables.
 Repeater: Extends network range by boosting signals.
 Hub: Basic device that broadcasts data to all connected devices.
 Switch: Efficiently directs data to specific devices.
 Router: Connects different networks and manages traffic.
 Gateway: Bridges networks with different protocols.
 Wi-Fi Card: Enables wireless network connectivity.

Network Topologies and Network Types

Types of Networks
Networks are categorized based on their size, scope, and the technology used to
connect devices. Here’s a quick overview of the main types:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Definition: A small network designed for personal use, typically within a range
of a few meters.
 Scope: Connects devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops in close
proximity, usually within a room or small area.
 Example: Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and wireless
headphones or a USB connection between a laptop and a printer.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

 Definition: A network that covers a small geographic area, such as a single
building or campus.
 Scope: Connects multiple devices within a limited area, allowing them to share
resources like files, printers, and internet access.
 Example: A home network connecting computers, smart TVs, and printers or a
school network connecting computers in a lab.
Network Types

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Definition: A network that covers a larger geographic area than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, typically within a city or a large campus.
 Scope: Used to connect multiple LANs within a city or town, enabling
communication between different locations.
 Example: A network linking various branch offices of a company within a city
or a public Wi-Fi network provided by a city.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Definition: A network that spans a large geographic area, often covering
multiple cities, countries, or continents.
 Scope: Connects LANs and MANs across broad distances, enabling
communication on a global scale.
 Example: The Internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting networks
and devices worldwide. A company’s global network that links offices in
different countries is another example.

Networking Topologies
Networking topologies refer to the physical or logical layout of devices in a
network. They determine how data is transmitted and how devices are
interconnected. Here’s a brief overview of three common topologies: Bus, Star,
and Tree.

1. Bus Topology
Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central
cable, called the bus topology or backbone. Data sent by a device travels along
the bus and is received by all other devices.
Bus Topology

Characteristics:
 Simplicity: Easy to set up and cost-effective for small networks.
 Performance: Can suffer from performance issues as more devices are added,
due to data collisions.
 Failure: If the central bus cable fails, the entire network is affected.
 Example: Early computer networks often used bus topology, such as the old
Ethernet networks.

2. Star Topology
Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or
switch. The hub acts as a repeater for data transmitted from one device to
another.
Star Topology

Characteristics:
 Centralized Management: Easy to manage and troubleshoot since all
connections are centralized at the hub.
 Performance: Better performance compared to bus topology because each
device has a dedicated connection to the hub.
 Failure: If the central hub fails, the entire network is affected, but individual
device failures do not impact the rest of the network.
 Example: Most modern office networks use star topology, with a central switch
connecting computers and printers.

3. Tree Topology
Description: Tree topology combines characteristics of both star and bus
topologies. It features groups of star-configured networks connected to a linear
bus backbone.
Tree Topology

Characteristics:
 Scalability: Supports expansion by adding new star-configured networks to the
backbone.
 Hierarchy: Organized in a hierarchical manner, making it easier to manage
large networks.
 Failure: A failure in the backbone can affect entire branches of the network,
but issues in individual star networks are isolated.
 Example: Large organizational networks often use tree topology, allowing for
multiple departments or floors to be connected in a structured manner.

Network Protocol
Network protocols define rules and conventions for communication
between devices on a network. Here’s a brief overview of some key
protocols: HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP, TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
 Function: Used for transferring web pages and related resources over the
Internet.
 Port: 80
 Usage: When you visit a website, HTTP is the protocol used to request and
receive web pages from servers.
 Example: Browsing a website like www.example.com.
HTTP Protocol

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Function: Transfers files between a client and a server on a network.
 Port: 21 (default)
 Usage: Used to upload or download files from a server.
 Example: Uploading a website's files to a hosting server.
FTP Protocol

3. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

 Function: Establishes a direct connection between two network nodes,
commonly used for dial-up connections.
 Usage: Used for connecting to the Internet via a phone line or serial
connection.
 Example: Dial-up Internet connections in the past.
PPP Protocol Suite

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

 Function: Sends and routes email between servers.
 Port: 25
 Usage: Used by email servers to send messages to other servers or clients.
 Example: Sending an email from [email protected] to [email protected].
SMTP Protocol

5. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 Function: A suite of protocols that manage how data is transmitted over the
Internet.
 Usage: Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data between
devices.
 Example: The fundamental protocols used for Internet communication.
Working of TCP/IP

6. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)

 Function: Retrieves email from a server to a client.
 Port: 110
 Usage: Used to download emails from a mail server to an email client.
 Example: Accessing your email through an email client like Outlook.

7. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

 Function: Secure version of HTTP, encrypting data to ensure privacy and
security.
 Port: 443
 Usage: Used for secure communication over the Internet, such as online
banking or shopping.
 Example: Accessing a secure website like https://www.example.com.
HTTPS Protocol

8. TELNET
 Function: Provides a command-line interface for remote communication with
other systems.
 Port: 23
 Usage: Allows users to log in and interact with remote servers or devices.
 Example: Accessing a remote server to run command-line operations.

9. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

 Function: Enables voice communication over the Internet.
 Usage: Used for making voice calls over IP networks instead of traditional
phone lines.
 Example: Services like Skype or Zoom for making voice or video calls.
Summary
 HTTP: Transmits web pages and resources.
 FTP: Transfers files between client and server.
 PPP: Connects two network nodes directly.
 SMTP: Sends and routes email.
 TCP/IP: Manages data transmission over the Internet.
 POP3: Retrieves emails from a server.
 HTTPS: Secure version of HTTP for encrypted communication.
 TELNET: Provides remote command-line access.
 VoIP: Allows voice communication over the Internet.

Introduction to Web Services

Web services are technologies that enable different applications or systems to
communicate with each other over the Internet. They are fundamental to how data
and services are accessed and shared across the web. Here’s a basic overview:
Web Services

World Wide Web (WWW)

Definition: The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents
and multimedia content accessed via the Internet using web browsers.
Components:
 Web Browsers: Software like Chrome, Firefox, and Safari that allows users to
view and interact with web content.
 Web Servers: Computers that host websites and deliver web pages to users'
browsers upon request.
 Web Pages: Documents that are linked together through hyperlinks and
displayed in a web browser.
 Example: When you search for information on Google and click on a link,
you’re accessing a web page through the WWW.
World Wide Web

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

Definition: HTML is the standard language used to create and design web pages.
It provides the structure and content of a web page using a set of tags and
attributes.
Components:
 Tags: HTML uses tags to define elements like headings, paragraphs, links, and
images. Tags are enclosed in angle brackets (e.g., <h1>, <p>, <a>).
 Attributes: Tags can include attributes to provide additional information (e.g.,
<a href="https://www.example.com">).
 Elements: An HTML document is made up of elements, which include an
opening tag, content, and a closing tag (e.g., <p>This is a paragraph.</p>).
 Example: The basic structure of an HTML document includes elements like the
<!DOCTYPE html>, <html>, <head>, and <body> tags. A simple HTML page
might look like this:

HTML
1 <!DOCTYPE html>
2 <html>
3 <head>
4 <title>My First Web Page</title>
5 </head>
6 <body>
7 <h1>Hello, World!</h1>
8 <p>Welcome to my first web page.</p>
9 </body>
10 </html>

Extensible Markup Language (XML)

XML (Extensible Markup Language ) is a flexible and widely-used format for
organizing and structuring data in a way that is both human-readable and
machine-readable. It is designed to store and transport data, making it a key
technology for data interchange between systems.

Key Features of XML

 Self-Descriptive: XML documents are both human-readable and machine-
readable. The tags used in XML are descriptive, which helps convey the
meaning of the data.
 Hierarchical Structure: XML organizes data in a tree-like structure with
nested elements. This makes it easy to represent complex relationships
between pieces of data.
 Extensible: XML allows users to define their own tags and data structures,
making it highly customizable to fit different needs.
 Standardized: XML is a W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) standard, ensuring
compatibility and consistency across different platforms and applications.

Basic Structure of an XML Document

 Declaration: The XML declaration specifies the XML version and the character
encoding used. It is optional but recommended.

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

 Root Element: An XML document must have a single root element that
contains all other elements. It represents the top level of the hierarchy.
<library>
<!-- Other elements go here -->
</library>
 Child Elements: These elements are nested within the root element and can
contain other elements or data.

<book>
<title>XML Basics</title>
<author>John Doe</author>
<year>2024</year>
</book>
 Attributes: Elements can have attributes that provide additional information.
Attributes are specified within the opening tag of an element.

<book id="001">
<title>XML Basics</title>
<author>John Doe</author>
<year>2024</year>
</book>

Example of an XML Document

Here’s a simple XML document representing a list of books:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<library>
<book id="001">
<title>XML Basics</title>
<author>John Doe</author>
<year>2024</year>
</book>
<book id="002">
<title>Advanced XML</title>
<author>Jane Smith</author>
<year>2025</year>
</book>
</library>

Summary
 XML: A versatile and standardized format for structuring and exchanging data.
 Structure: Consists of a declaration, a single root element, nested child
elements, and optional attributes.
 Usage: Commonly used in web services, configuration files, and data
interchange between systems.

Domain Names and URLs

Domain names and URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) are fundamental
concepts in the structure of the Internet. They help in identifying and accessing
resources on the web. Here’s a breakdown of each:

Domain Names
Definition: A domain name is a human-readable address used to identify a
website or online resource on the Internet. It translates numeric IP addresses into
a format that is easy for people to remember.
Domain Name

Structure:
 Top-Level Domain (TLD): The suffix at the end of a domain name, such
as .com, .org, or .net. TLDs indicate the type or origin of the site.
 Second-Level Domain: The part directly before the TLD, often representing
the name of the organization or the website. For example, in example.com,
"example" is the second-level domain.
 Subdomain: An optional prefix before the second-level domain that further
divides the domain into sections. For instance, in blog.example.com, "blog" is
the subdomain.
 Example: In www.example.com, "example" is the second-level domain, and
".com" is the TLD.

URLs (Uniform Resource Locators)

Definition: A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) that
provides the address of a resource on the Internet and specifies the protocol to be
used for accessing it.
Structure:
 Protocol: Indicates the method used to access the resource, such as http://,
https://, ftp://.
 Domain Name: Specifies the domain where the resource is hosted.
 Path: Indicates the specific location of the resource on the server. It usually
follows the domain name and is separated by slashes.
 Query Parameters (optional): Provide additional information to the server,
starting with a question mark and followed by key-value pairs separated by
ampersands.
 Fragment (optional): Refers to a specific section within the resource, starting
with a hash symbol (#).
Uniform Resource Locator

Example:
https://www.example.com/path/to/resource?name=value#section
 Protocol: https://
 Domain Name: www.example.com
 Path: /path/to/resource
 Query Parameters: name=value
 Fragment: #section

Key Web Concepts: Website, Web Browser, Web Servers, Web Hosting
Here’s a concise overview of each concept:

Website
Definition: A collection of web pages and related content, typically hosted on
a web server, and accessible via the Internet. Websites can include text, images,
videos, and interactive elements.
Components:
 Web Pages: Individual documents that make up a website, usually written in
HTML and styled with CSS.
 Domain Name: The address used to access the website (e.g.,
www.example.com).
 Content: Includes text, images, videos, and other media displayed on the web
pages.
 Example: www.example.com is a website that might contain an about page, a
blog, and a contact form.
Web Browser
Definition: A software application used to access and view websites and web
pages. Web browsers interpret and display HTML, CSS, and JavaScript content.
Features:
 User Interface: Provides navigation controls like the address bar, back/forward
buttons, and bookmarks.
 Rendering Engine: Processes HTML and CSS to render web pages visually.
 Security: Offers features like private browsing and protection against malicious
sites.
 Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari.

Web Server
Definition: A computer system or software that stores, processes, and serves web
pages to clients (web browsers) over the Internet. It responds to requests from
browsers and delivers the requested content.
Web Server

Functions:
 Hosting: Stores website files and resources.
 Serving Content: Processes incoming requests and sends the appropriate web
pages or data.
 Handling Requests: Uses protocols like HTTP/HTTPS to communicate with web
browsers.
 Examples: Apache HTTP Server, Nginx, Microsoft Internet Information Services
(IIS).

Web Hosting
Definition: A service that provides the technology and infrastructure needed to
host a website on the Internet. It involves renting space on a server where your
website’s files are stored.
Web Hosting
Types:
 Shared Hosting: Multiple websites share the same server resources, which is
cost-effective but can affect performance.
 VPS Hosting: Virtual Private Server hosting offers more resources and control
than shared hosting by partitioning a server into virtual machines.
 Dedicated Hosting: Provides an entire server exclusively for one website,
offering maximum control and performance.
 Cloud Hosting: Uses a network of servers (the cloud) to host websites,
providing scalability and flexibility.
 Example: Companies like Bluehost, HostGator, and SiteGround provide web
hosting services where you can upload and manage your website’s files.

Summary
 Website: A collection of web pages accessible through a domain name,
containing various types of content.
 Web Browser: Software used to access and display web pages, like Chrome or
Firefox.
 Web Server: A system that hosts and serves web pages to browsers over the
Internet.
 Web Hosting: A service that provides the infrastructure to store and serve
your website’s files on the Internet.

Distribution of Marks: CBSE Class 12th Computer Science Unit 2 Notes

Based on previous paper trends, here is the distribution of marks for Unit 2:
Computer Networks:
1. Evolution of Networking (ARPANET, NSFNET, INTERNET): 1-2 Marks
2. Data Communication Terminologies: 1-2 Marks
3. Transmission Media: 1-2 Marks
4. Network Devices: 1-2 Marks
5. Network Topologies and Network Types: 1-2 Marks
6. Network Protocols: 1-2 Marks
7. Introduction to Web Services: 1-2 Marks
Total Marks: 60