Module 3

Joining Cutting Metal

and Processes

Cairo Inspection Company

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky
ASNT –NDT-LEVEL III
ASME AUTHORIZED INSPECTOR
 Introduction
There are certain aspects of the various joining
and cutting processes which the successful
welding inspector must understand in order to
perform most effectively.
 The inspector should realize the important
advantages and limitations of each process.
 The inspector should be aware of those
discontinuities which may result when a
particular process is used.
 The welding inspector should have some
knowledge of the equipment requirements for
each process.

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 Introduction
 The inspector should be familiar with the
various machine controls and what effect their
adjustment will have on the resulting weld
quality.
 This knowledge will aid in the discovery of
problems when they occur rather than later
when the cost of correction is greater.
 Another benefit of having experience with
these welding methods is that the production
welders will have greater respect for the
inspector and resulting decisions

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 Introduction

The processes discussed here can be divided

into three basic groups: welding, brazing
and cutting.
There are numerous joining and cutting
processes available for use in the
fabrication of metal products. These are
shown by the American Welding Society's
Master Chart of Welding and Allied
Processes, shown in Figure 3.1

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 Welding Processes

A weld is, "a localized coalescence of

metals or nonmetals produced either by
heating the materials to the welding
temperature, with or without the
application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler metal."
Coalescence means "joining together."

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Method Description
 This process operates by heating the
metal with an electric arc between a
covered metal electrode and the metals to
be joined.
 Figure 3.2 shows the various elements
of the shielded metal arc welding process.
This illustration shows that the arc is
created between the electrode and the
work piece due to the flow of electricity.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 This arc provides heat, or energy, to melt

the base metal, filler metal and electrode
coating. As the welding arc progresses to
the right, it leaves behind solidified weld
metal covered by a layer of converted flux,
referred to as slag. This slag tends to float
to the outside of the metal since it solidifies
after the molten metal has solidified.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 Another feature noted in Figure 3.2 is

the presence of shielding gas which is
produced when the electrode coating is
heated and decomposed. These gases
assist the flux in the shielding of the
molten metal in the arc region.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 All carbon and low alloy steel electrodes use
essentially the same type of steel core wire, a
low carbon, rimmed steel. Any alloying is
provided from the coating, since it is more
economical to achieve alloying in this way.
Most SMAW electrodes have a solid metal core.
Some are made with a fabricated or composite
core consisting of metal powders encased in a
metallic sheath. In this latter case, the purpose
of some or even all of the metal powders is to
produce an alloy weld deposit.

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electrode coverings can be designed for
welding with alternating current (ac)
Gases that readily ionize are available
from a variety of compounds, including
those that contain potassium To increase
the deposition rate, the coverings of some
carbon and low alloy steel electrodes
contain iron powder.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 The electrode coating is the feature which classifies
the various types of electrodes. It actually serves five
separate functions:
 Shielding- the coating decomposes to form a
gaseous shield for the molten metal.
 Deoxidation- the coating provides a fluxing
action to remove oxygen and other atmospheric gases.
 Alloying- the coating provides additional
alloying elements for the weld deposit.
 Ionizing- the coating improves electrical
characteristics to increase arc stability.
 Insulating- the solidified slag provides an insulating
blanket to slow down the weld metal
cooling rate (minor effect).

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 The identification
 consists of an "E," which stands for
electrode, followed by four or five digits.
 The first two, or three, numbers refer to the
minimum tensile strength of the deposited
weld metal. These numbers state the
minimum tensile strength in thousands of
pounds per square inch. For example, "70"
means that the tensile strength of the
deposited weld metal is at least 70,000 psi.
 The next number refers to the positions in
which the electrode can be used. A "1"
indicates the electrode is suitable for use in
any position.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
A "2" means that the molten metal is so fluid
that the electrode can only be used in the flat
position for all welding types and in the
horizontal position for fillet welds only.
A "4" means the electrode is suitable for
welding in a downhill progression.
The number "3" is no longer used as a
designation.
 The last number in the designation
describes other characteristics which are
determined by the composition of the coating
present on the electrode.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 It is important to note that those electrodes
ending in "5," "6," or "8" are classified as "low
hydrogen" types. To maintain this low
hydrogen (moisture) content, they must be
stored in their original factory-sealed metal
container or an acceptable storage oven.
 This oven should be heated electrically and
have a temperature control capability in the
range of 150° to 350°F. Since this device will
assist in the maintenance of a low moisture
content (less than 0.2%) it must be suitably
vented.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 Any low hydrogen electrodes which are

not to be used immediately should be
placed into the holding oven as soon as
their airtight container is opened. Most
codes require that low hydrogen electrodes
be held at a minimum oven temperature of
250°F (120°C) after removal from their
sealed container.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 Some electrode types are designed to

have a certain moisture level. If this
moisture is eliminated, the operating
characteristics of the electrode will
deteriorate significantly.

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Electrode Coating Classification
F #s

 F1 - EXX20, EXX24, EXX27

 F2 - EXXX2, EXXX3, EXXX4
 F3 - EXX10, EXXX1
 F4 - EXXX5, EXXX6, EXXX8

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 Low Hydrogen Electrodes

 Types end in a ‘5’, ‘6’, or ‘8’

 Purchase in sealed, metal
containers
 Store after opening in heated,
vented oven
 Limit atmospheric exposure

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 Electrode Suffixes - 1 of 2

- A1 0.5% Mo
- B1 0.5% Mo 0.5% Cr
- B2 0.5% Mo 1.25% Cr
- B3 1.0% Mo 2.25% Cr
- B4 0.5% Mo 2.0% Cr
-W Weathering

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 Electrode Suffixes - 2 of 2

- C1 2.5% Ni
- C2 3.5% Ni
- C3 1.0% Ni
- D1 0.3% Mo 1.5% Mn
- D2 0.3% Mo 1.75% Mn
-G 0.2% Mo 0.3% Cr 0.5% Ni
1% Mn 0.1% V

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 Stainless Steel Electrodes

 E308, E308L - Weld 304 and 304L

 E316, E316L - Weld 316 and 316L
 E309 - Weld Stainless to Carbon Steel

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 SMAW Equipment

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
The Equipment
 Shielded metal arc welding equipment is
relatively simple, as can be seen in Figure
3.6. One lead from the welding power source
is connected to the piece to be welded and the
opposite lead goes to the electrode holder
into which the welder places the welding
electrode to be consumed.
 The electrode and base metal are melted
by the heat produced from the welding arc
created between the end of the electrode and
the work piece when they are brought close
together.
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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 The power source for shielded metal

arc welding is a constant current power
source, having a "drooping"
characteristic. This terminology can be
more easily understood by looking at the
characteristic volt-ampere (V-A) curve for
this type of power source.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 long arc length will result in more heat
produced than a short arc length
 the welder can increase or decrease the
fluidity of the weld pool simply by changing
the arc length. However, an extremely long
arc length will cause a loss of heat in the weld
pool due to loss of arc concentration. An
excessively long arc length will also result in a
loss of arc stability and weld pool shielding
gases.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 An experienced welder might choose a

flat slope setting to gain more control,
while an inexperienced welder might
need a steeper slope setting for less
change in weld pool characteristics due
to an inconsistent arc length.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Advantages
 The equipment is relatively simple and
inexpensive.
Limitations
 Slow
 Solidified slag which must be removed
 Low hydrogen electrodes require storage

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Discontinuities
 Porosity in the finished weld
Which is a result of the presence of moisture or
contamination in the weld region could be present
in the electrode coating, on the surface of the
material, or come from the atmosphere
surrounding the welding operation. Or "long
arcing" or arc blow.
 Slag inclusions can also occur with SMAW
simply because it relies on a flux system for weld
protection.

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 Incomplete fusion, incomplete joint
penetration, cracking, undercut, overlap,
incorrect weld size, and improper weld profile.
 Arc blow

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 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Introduction

 we also hear it commonly referred to as

"MIG" it is semiautomatic process; however, it is
also used in mechanized and automatic
applications as well.
 Gas metal arc welding is characterized by a
solid wire electrode which is fed continuously
through a welding gun. An arc is created
between this wire and the work piece to heat
and melt the base and filler materials.

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 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 The shielding for welding is provided by a
protective gas which is also emitted from the
welding gun from some external source.
 Gases used include both inert and reactive
types. Inert gases such as argon and helium are
used for some applications. They can be applied
singly, or in combination with each other, or mixed
with other reactive gases such as nitrogen, oxygen
or carbon dioxide
 The electrodes used for this process are solid
wires which are supplied on spools or reels of
various sizes.

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 Gas metal arc electrodes have increased
amounts of deoxidizers such as manganese,
silicon, and aluminum to help avoid the
formation of porosity. The most critical factor
here is that the wire must be kept clean
 power source
 gas metal arc welding uses a constant
voltage, or constant potential, power source.
That is, welding is accomplished using a pre-
set value of voltage over the range of welding
currents.

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 ER XXS-X
 They are denoted by the letters "ER," followed
by two or three numbers, the letter "S," a
hyphen, and finally, another number,
 The ER means Electrode , Rod.
 The next two or three numbers state the
minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld
metal in thousands of pounds per square inch. a
"70" denotes a filler metal whose tensile
strength is at least 70,000 psi. The letter "S"
stands for a Solid wire. Finally, the number after
the hyphen refers to the particular chemistry of
the electrode

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 Gas metal arc welding is normally accomplished
using direct current, electrode positive (DCEP).
When this type of power source is combined with a
wire feeder, the result is a welding process which
can be either semiautomatic, mechanized or fully
automatic.
 To set up for welding, the welder will adjust the
voltage at the power source and the wire feed speed
at the wire feeder. As the wire feed speed is
increased, the welding current increases as well.
The melt-off rate of the electrode is proportional to
the arc current, so the wire feed speed actually
controls this feature as well

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 This feature allows the process to
function as a semiautomatic type,
meaning that the welder does not have to
control the feeding of the filler metal as
was the case for manual shielded metal
arc welding. "Self-Regulating Constant
Potential"

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 Looking at Figure 3.13, it can be seen
that moving the gun closer to the
workpiece will reduce the electrical
resistance and produce an instantaneous
increase in current. This, in turn,
instantaneously burns off the additional
electrode to bring the arc length and
current back to their original values

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 Metal Transfer
 There are four basic modes of metal
transfer. They are spray, globular, pulsed
arc, and short circuiting.
 The type of metal transfer depends upon
several factors, including shielding gas,
current and voltage levels, and power source
characteristics.

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1-Spray transfer is considered to be the
hottest, followed by pulsed arc, globular, and
finally short circuiting. Therefore, spray
transfer is the best for heavier sections and
full penetration weld joints, as long as they
can be positioned in the flat position.
Spray transfer can be achieved only when
there is at least 80% argon present in the gas
mixture.
2-Globular transfer provides almost as much
heating and weld metal deposition, but its
operating characteristics tend to be less
stable, resulting in increased spatter.

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3-Pulsed arc requires a welding power
source capable of producing a pulsing direct
current output which allows for improved
heat control and process flexibility
4-Short circuiting transfer results in the least
amount of heating to the base metal, making
it an excellent choice for welding of sheet
metal and joints having excessive gaps due to
poor fit up. “for heavier section welding,
incomplete fusion can result from insufficient
heating of the base metal”.

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 CO2 is probably the most popular gas for
GMAW of carbon steel, primarily due to its
relatively low cost and its excellent
penetration characteristics. One drawback,
however, is that there will be more spatter
which may require removal, reducing
operator productivity.

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 Spray Globular
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 Short-Circuiting Transfer

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 Advantages:
 GMAW can be effectively used to join or
overlay many types of ferrous and nonferrous
metals.
 GMAW can be used successfully in situations
where the presence of hydrogen could cause
problems.
 GMAW is well suited for automatic and
robotic welding or other high production
situations.
 The efficiency is further increased by the
fact that the continuous spool of wire doesn't
require changing nearly as often as the
individual electrodes used in SMAW.
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 High lbs/hr of metal deposited, which
reduces labor costs
 It is a relatively clean process because
less smoke is generated
 The visibility of the process ,welder
can more easily observe the action of the
arc and molten puddle to improve
control since no slag is present

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 Limitation
 If the base metal is excessively
contaminated, the shielding gas alone may
not be sufficient to prevent the occurrence
of porosity.
 GMAW is also very sensitive to drafts or
wind which tend to blow the shielding gas
away and leave the metal unprotected. For
this reason, gas metal arc welding is not
well suited for field welding.
 The equipment required is complex

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 Inherent Problems
 porosity due to contamination or loss of
shielding,
 Incomplete fusion due to the use of
short circuiting transfer on heavy sections,
and arc instability caused by worn liners
and contact tips.

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 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
 This is very similar to gas metal arc welding except
that the electrode is tubular and contains a granular
flux instead of the solid wire used for gas metal arc
welding
 The tubular electrode being fed through the contact
tube of the welding gun to produce an arc between the
electrode and the work piece.
 As the welding progresses, a bead of solidified weld
metal is deposited Covered by a layer of slag, as occurs
for shielded metal arc welding.
 With flux cored arc welding, there may or may not be
an externally-supplied shielding gas, depending upon
what type of electrode is used

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 EXXT-X
 An identification begins with the letter "E" which
stands for electrode.
 The first number refers to the minimum tensile
strength of the deposited weld metal in ten
thousands of pounds per square inch, so a "7"
means that the weld metal tensile strength is at
least 70,000 psi.
 The second digit is either a "0" or a "1." A "0"
means that the electrode is suitable for use in the
flat or horizontal fillet positions only, while a "1"
describes an electrode which can be used in any
position

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 Following these numbers is the letter "T" which
refers to a tubular electrode.
 This is followed by a hyphen and then another
number which denotes the particular grouping
based upon the chemical composition of deposited
weld metal, type of current, polarity of operation.
 Some electrodes are to be used without any
additional shielding . They are designated by the
suffixes 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, and 14.
 However, those electrodes having the numerical
suffixes 1, 2, 5, 9, or 12 require some external
shielding to aid in protecting the molten metal

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 Gases typically used for flux cored arc
welding are CO2,or 75%Argon-25%CO2 or
other combination
 Depending on the type of electrode, the
operation may be DCEP (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12)
or DCEN (7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14) or both DCEN
or DCEP (5).

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 Advantages
 High productivity in terms of the
amount of weld metal that can be
deposited in a given period of time.
 Requires less skills
 FCAW is capable of tolerating a greater
degree of base metal contamination than
is GMAW
 FCAW lends itself well to field situations

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 Limitations
 The smoke reduces the welder's visibility to
the point where it may be difficult to properly
manipulate the arc in the joint , and their will
be a need for ventilation
 The equipment required for FCAW is more
complex than that for SMAW
 There exists a possibility that the solidified
slag could become trapped in the finished
weld.
 Lake of maintenance can cause the wire
feeding problems
 incomplete joint penetration, slag
inclusions, and porosity.

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 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

 The most significant feature of GTAW is

that the electrode used is not intended to be
consumed during the welding operation. It is
made of pure or alloyed tungsten which has
the ability to withstand very high
temperatures, even those of the welding arc.
 The presence of the thoria or zirconia aids
in improving the electrical characteristics by
making the tungsten slightly more emissive.

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 Class Alloy Color
 EWP Pure tungsten Green
 EWCe-2 1.8-2.2% cerium Orange
 EWLa-1 1% lanthanum Black
 EWLa-1.5 1.5% lanthanum Gold
 EWLa-2 2.0% lanthanum Blue
 EWTh-1 0.8 -1.2% thorium Yellow
 EWTh-2 1.7-2.2% thorium Red
 EWZr 0.15-0.40% zirconium Brown

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 The EWTh-2 type is most commonly used
for the joining of ferrous materials.
 GTAW can be performed using DCEP, DCEN
or AC. The DCEP will result in more heating of
the electrode, while the DCEN will tend to heat
the base metal more. AC alternately heats the
electrode and base metal. AC is typically used
for the welding of aluminum because the
alternating current will increase the cleaning
action to improve weld quality. DCEN is most
commonly used for the welding of steels.

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Effect of DCEN
Current on
GTAW

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Effect of DCEP
Current on
GTAW

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Effect of AC
Current on
GTAW

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 GTAW uses inert gases for shielding. Argon
and helium are the two inert gases used in
GTAW. Some mechanized stainless steel
welding applications use a shielding gas
consisting of argon and a small amount of
hydrogen
The equipment
 required for GTAW has as its primary
element a power source like the one used for
SMAW, that is, a constant current type. Since
there is a gas present, it is now necessary to
have apparatus for its control and
transmission. Figure 3.22 shows a typical gas
tungsten arc welding setup.
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 An added feature of this welding system,
which is not shown, is a high frequency
generator which aids in the initiation of the
welding arc
 There are numerous applications for GTAW
in many industries. It is capable of welding
virtually all materials, because the electrode
is not melted during the welding operation.
Its ability to weld at extremely low currents
makes gas tungsten arc welding suitable for
use on the thinnest (down to 0.005 in.) of
metals.

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 Its typically clean and controllable operation
causes it to be the perfect choice for extremely
critical applications such as those found in the
aerospace, food and drug processing,
petrochemical, and power piping industries.
Advantages
 The principal advantage of GTAW lies in the
fact that it can produce welds of high quality
and excellent visual appearance
 the process is quite clean and there is no slag
 it is suitable for welding most metals

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 where there is no commercially-available
wire for a particular metal alloy, it is possible
to produce a suitable filler metal by simply
shearing a piece of identical base metal to
produce a narrow piece which can be hand-fed
into the weld zone just as if it were a wire.
 disadvantages.
 GTAW is among the slowest of the available
welding processes
 low tolerance for contamination
 gas tungsten arc welding requires a high
skill level

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 Problems
 porosity in the deposited weld.
 tungsten inclusions

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 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 the most efficient one mentioned so
far in terms of the rate of weld metal
deposition. SAW is characterized by the
use of a continuously-fed solid wire
electrode which provides an arc that is
totally covered by a layer of granular
flux; hence the name "submerged" arc.

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Submerged
Arc Welding
(SAW)

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 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 uses a separate electrode and flux, there
are numerous combinations available for
specific applications. There are two general
types of combinations which can be used to
provide an
alloyed weld deposit: an alloy electrode with
a neutral flux, or a mild steel electrode with
an alloy flux.

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 Identification
FXXX-EXXX
 Examples
 F7A6-EM12K is a complete designation. It
refers to a flux that will produce weld metal
which, in the as-welded condition, will have a
tensile strength no lower than 70,000 psi (480
MPa) and Charpy V-notch impact strength of a
least 20 ft-lb (27 J) at -60°F (-51 °C) when
produced with an EM12K electrode under the
conditions called for in this specification.

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC) Www. CIC-Egypt.com Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

 F7A4-EC1 is a complete designation for a
flux when the trade name of the electrode
used in the classification is indicated as well.
It refers to a flux that will produce weld metal
with that electrode, which in the as-welded
condition, will have a tensile strength no
lower than 70,000 psi (480 MPa) and Charpy
V-notch of at least 20 ft-lb (27 J) at -40°F (-
40°C) under the conditions called for in this
specification.

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC) Www. CIC-Egypt.com Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

 The equipment
 used for submerged arc welding consists of
several components a power source is
required. most submerged arc welding is
performed with a constant voltage power
source, there are certain applications where a
constant current type is preferred.
 the flux is generally placed into a hopper
above the welding torch and fed by gravity so
that it is distributed either slightly ahead of
the arc or around the arc from a nozzle
surrounding the contact tip.

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 For some applications, multiple
electrodes can be used. The electrodes
may be energized by a single power
source, or multiple power sources may be
necessary
 Due to the high rate of weld metal
deposition, it has shown to be quite
effective for overlaying or building up
material surfaces

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Advantages
1-High deposition rate
2-High operator appeal
3-less smoke generated
4-Ability to penetrate deeply
limitation
1-flat or horizontal fillet positions only
2-extensive fixturing and positioning equipment
3-slag must be removed
4-the flux prevents the welder from seeing the
arc

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 Width vs Depth Ratio

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 Inherent problems
 porosity .
 underbead cracking .
 solidification cracking .

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Plasma Arc
Welding
(PAW)

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 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

 A plasma is defined as an ionized

gas. With any process using an arc, a
plasma is created.
 Both GTAW and PAW use the same
type of power source
 Both the PAW and GTAW torches
use a tungsten electrode for the
creation of the arc

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 There is a "plasma" gas which is forced
through this orifice and past the welding arc
resulting in the constriction of the arc.
 This constriction, or squeezing, of the arc
causes it to be more concentrated, and
therefore more intense.
 There are two categories of plasma arc
operation, the transferred and nontransferred
arc.
 The transferred arc is generally used for
both welding and cutting of conductive
materials,

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  The no transferred arc is preferred
for the cutting of nonconductive
materials and for welding of
materials when the amount of
heating of the work piece must be
minimized.

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Transferred vs Nontransferred Arc

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 two separate gases are required: the
shielding gas and the orifice (or plasma) gas.
Argon is most commonly employed for both
types
 PAW is used for full penetration welds in
material up to 1/2 in. thick by employing a
technique referred to as "keyhole welding."
Figure 3.32 shows the typical appearance of a
keyhole weld.
 Keyhole welding is performed on a square
butt joint with no root opening.

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 Keyhole
Welding
Technique

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Advantages
 It provides a very localized heat source.
 Faster welding speeds and less distortion
 The welder has better visibility
 The welder is less likely to contact the
molten metal and produce a tungsten
inclusion.
Limitations
 possibility of getting incomplete fusion
 small amounts of mistracking can produce
incomplete fusion along the joint.

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 Electroslag Welding (ESW)
 ESW is characterized by the joining of
members which are placed edge to edge so
that the joint is vertical. The welding is done
in a single pass such that the progression is
from the bottom to the top of the joint
 ESW is that it is not an arc welding
process. It relies on heating from the
electrical resistance of the molten flux to
melt the base and filler metals.

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 Electroslag
Welding
Equipment
----
Conventional

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Electroslag
Welding
Equipment
---
Consumable
Guide

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 ESW Advantages

 Joins heavy sections

 High deposition rates
 Single or multiple electrodes
 Minimum joint preparation
 Low distortion

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 ESW Limitations
 Vertical ‘casting’ process
 Very extensive setup time
 Uses water-cooled shoes
 Flux storage
 Largely confined to vertical
orientation and flat position only

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 ESW Discontinuities

 Gross porosity
 Slag inclusions
 Large grains
 Gross shrinkage
 Cracks

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Oxyacetylene
Welding
(OAW)

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 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
 acetylene is the only fuel gas capable of
producing high enough temperatures for effective
welding.
 With OAW, the energy for welding is created by a
flame, so this process is considered to be a
chemical welding method.
 the shielding for is accomplished by this flame
therefore no flux or external shielding is necessary
 The equipment
for oxyacetylene welding is relatively simple
 It consists of several parts: oxygen tank,
acetylene tank, pressure regulators, torch, and
connecting hoses.
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 A higher amount of oxygen will create an
oxidizing flame and a higher amount of
acetylene will produce a carburizing flame.
 filler material identification
 Two examples are RG-45 and RG-60. The
"R" designates it as a rod, "G" stands for gas
and the 45 and 60 relate to the minimum
tensile strength of the weld deposit in
thousands of pounds per square inch (psi).
 It is used for the welding of thin steel
sheet and small diameter steel piping and
maintenance situations.

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 Oxyacetylene Welding

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 OAW
Equipment

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 OAW Filler Metals

RG - 45
RG - 60

‘R’ refers to rod

‘G’ refers to gas

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 OAW Advantages

 Simple equipment
 Suitable for thin materials
 Very portable
 No electricity required

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 OAW Limitations

 Very slow process

 Manual only
 Less concentrated heat
 Low productivity
 Flame adjustment sensitive

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Stud Welding
(SW)

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 Stud Welding (SW)
 SW is considered to be an arc welding
process
 The process is controlled by a mechanical
gun which is attached to a power supply
through a control panel
 Due to the convenience and simplicity
offered by SW, it has seen tremendous usage in
many industries for a variety of metals.
 SW has two possible discontinuities. They
are lack of 360° flash and incomplete fusion at
the interface
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 Stud
Welding
Cycle

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 SW Studs and Fasteners

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 Stud Welding - Studs

 Flux on tip cleans weld area

 ‘Stand off’ tips also used

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 SW Advantages

 Simple
 Fast
 Repetitive
 Automatic stud feeding (option)

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 SW Limitations

 Needs clean surface

 Equipment malfunctions

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 SW Discontinuities

 Lack of ‘flash’
 Incomplete fusion

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Laser Beam
Welding
(LBW)

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 LBW - 1 of 2

 Laser
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
 A fusion welding process
 Heat from concentrated light source
 Keyhole welding
 Light beam very small x-section

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 LBW - 2 of 2

 Light can be transmitted by

fiber optics or mirrors
 Non-contact process
 Shielding gas often required

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 Cross Section of LB Weld

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 LBW Advantages - 1 of 2
 Low heat input
 Less grain growth and distortion
 High D/W ratios of 10:1 attainable
 Relatively thick single pass welds -
(up to 1.25 “)
 Welds thin metals or small
diameter wires
 Closely spaced components, small
welds
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 LBW Advantages - 2 of 2
 Welds wide variety of materials
 Beams readily focused and aligned
 Not influenced by magnetic fields
 Welds metals of dissimilar physical
properties
 No vacuum or X-ray shielding
required
 Beams transmitted to many work
stations

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 LBW Limitations

 Joints must be accurately positioned

 Surfaces must be forced together
 Alloy reflectivity and thermal
conductivity
 Plasma control device often required
 Cost

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 LBW Discontinuities

 Porosity
 Embrittlement

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 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

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 EBW
 Originally required high vacuum
 Can now operate in low, or no,
vacuum
 A fusion joining process
 Heat applied from stream of
high-energy electrons from gun

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 EB
Schematic

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 Electron
Beam
Welding
Fixture

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 EB Weld

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 EBW Advantages

 Similar to LBW
 Deeper penetration capability
 High purity, especially for
vacuum environment
 High welding speeds
 Ability to change weld shape

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 EB Limitations

 Similar to LBW
 Vacuum chamber may be
required
 Vacuum chamber size can
limit assembly size
 X-Rays generated
 Cost

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 EBW Discontinuities

 Cracking
 Root voids
 Porosity

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Resistanc
e Welding
- 1 of 3

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 Resistance Welding
- 2 of 3

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 Resistance Welding
- 3 of 3

 Heat obtained from resistance

of workpieces as current flows
through them
 Electrodes are usually copper

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 RSW Advantages

 Very fast welding times - < 1

sec / spot
 Semiautomatic or automatic
 Good for thin materials
 No flux required

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 RSW Limitations

 Inspection of welds may be

difficult
 Primarily a shop process
 Electrodes must be clean
 Metal surfaces must be clean

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 RSW Discontinuities

 Non-fusion areas
 Cracks
 Misalignment of RSEW
electrodes

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Brazing

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 Brazing vs Welding vs
Soldering
 Base metal not melted in brazing or
soldering
 Brazing filler metals melt above
8400 F (4500 C)
 Soldering filler metals melt below
8400 F
 Strong joints possible with all
processes if designed properly

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 Brazing Aspects

 Large surface area

 Very small clearance
 Clean surfaces
 Flux often used
 Capillary action

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Braze Joint Configurations

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 Brazing Filler Metals

 Wire
 Strip
 Foil
 Paste
 Preforms

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 AWS Brazing Filler
Metals
Designation Primary Element
BAlSi Aluminum-Silicon
BCuP Copper-Phosphorus
BAg Silver
BAu Gold
BCu Copper
RBCuZn Copper-Zinc
BMg Magnesium
BNi Nickel

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 Brazing Methods
Named after heating
method
 Torch
 Furnace
 Induction
 Resistance
 Dip
 Infrared

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 Brazing Advantages

 Strong joints
 Joins dissimilar metals
 Joins metals to nonmetals
 Joins “unweldable” metals
 Less heat, less distortion

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 Brazing Limitations

 Cleanliness requirements
 Joint design requirements
 Difficult to inspect

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 Brazing Discontinuities

 Voids, unbonded areas

 Base metal erosion
 Corrosion by flux
 Trapped flux

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TORCH BRAZING
TORCH BRAZING IS accomplished by heating with one or
more gas torches. Depending upon the temperature and
the amount of heat required, the fuel gas (acetylene,
propane, city gas, etc.) may be burned with air,
compressed air, or oxygen. Air-natural gas torches
provide the lowest flame temperature as well as the
least heat. Acetylene under pressure is used in the air-
acetylene torch with air at atmospheric pressure. Both
air-natural gas and air-acetylene torches can be used to
advantage on small parts and thin sections.
Torch heating for brazing is limited in use to filler metals
supplied with flux or self-fluxing.
Brazing filler metal may be preplaced at the joint in the
forms of rings, washers, strips, slugs, or powder, or it may
be fed from hand-held filler metal, usually in the form of
wire or rod. In any case, proper cleaning and fluxing are
essential.
Torches which employ oxygen with natural gas, or other
cylinder gases (propane, butane) have higher flame
temperatures. When properly applied as a neutral or
slightly reducing flame, excellent results are obtainable
with many brazing applications.
 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

Visual Inspection
The joint should be free from foreign materials: grease, paint, oil, oxide
film, flux, and stopoff. Visual examination
should reveal flaws due to damage, misalignment and poorfit-up of
parts, dimensional inaccuracies, inadequate flow
of brazing filler metals, exposed voids in the joint, surface
flaws such as cracks or porosity, and heat damage to base metal.
Visual inspection will not detect internal flaws, such as
flux entrapment in the joint or incomplete filler metal flow
between the faying surfaces.
Proof Testing
PROOF TESTING IS a method of inspection that subjects the completed
joint to loads slightly in excess of those that will be experienced during
its subsequent service life.
Leak Testing
PRESSURE TESTING DETERMINES the gas or liquid tightness of a closed
vessel.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
THIS NDT METHOD finds cracks, porosity, incomplete flow, and similar
surface flaws in a brazed joint. Commercially colored or fluorescent
penetrants penetrate surface openings by capillary action.
Radiographic Inspection
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF brazements detects lack of bond or
incomplete flow of filler metal.
Ultrasonic Inspection
THE ULTRASONIC TESTING method using low energy, high
frequency mechanical vibration (sound waves) readily detects, locates,
or identifies discontinuities in brazed joints.
INSPECTION BY HEAT transfer will detect lack of bond in
such brazed assemblies as honeycomb and covered skin
panel surfaces
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF inspection clearly show
whether a brazement design will meet the requirements of
intended service conditions.
Metallographic Inspection
THIS METHOD REQUIRES the removal of sections from the
brazed joints and preparing them for macroscopic or microscopic
examination. This method detects flaws (especially porosity), poor
flow of brazing filler metal, excessive
base metal erosion, the diffusion of brazing filler metal,
improper fit-up of the joint, and it will reveal the microstructure of
the brazed joint.
Peel Tests
PEEL TESTS ARE frequently employed to evaluate lap type
joints. One member of the brazed specimen is clamped rigidly in a
vise, and the free member is peeled away from the joint. The broken
parts reveal the general quality of the bond
Tension and Shear Tests
THESE TESTS DETERMINE quantitatively the strength of the
brazed joint, or verify the relative strengths of the joint .
Torsion Tests
THE TORSION TEST evaluates brazed joints with a stud,
screw, or tubular member brazed to a base member.
 Cutting Processes

We will be discussing:
 Oxyfuel Cutting
 Air Carbon Arc Cutting
 Plasma Arc Cutting
 Mechanical Cutting

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 Oxyfuel
Cutting (OFC)

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 Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC)

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 OFC - Kerf and Drag

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 Oxyfuel Cutting Gases
Commonly used

 Acetylene
 Methane
 Propane
 MPS

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 OFC Torches

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 OFC Cut

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 OFC Advantages

 Simple equipment
 Very portable
 Cuts thin or thick materials
 Good accuracy
 Manual or mechanized

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 The End …… any questions?

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