CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 Methodology is the third chapter of a research paper.

It includes:
- Research designs
- Locale of the study
- Respondents/participants of the study
- Sampling technique
- Research instrument
- Data gathering procedures
- Data analysis procedures.

Different Qualitative Research Designs

Case Study
- A case study is based on an in-depth analysis of a particular
person, group or occurrence to investigate causation.
 Purpose - describes in-depth the experience of one person,
family, organization, community, or institution.
 Data collection Method- direct observation, interviews, subject
interaction, archival records of documents, physical artifacts and
audiovisual materials.
 Analysis - synthesis of experience
 Outcomes - in-depth description in their real-life settings.
Ethnography
- Ethnography (greek ethnos = folk/people and graphien=writing).
- An analysis of people’s cultural trends and their ethnic
perspective which includes their beliefs, values and behaviors.
 Purpose - To describe culture’s characteristics.
 Data Collection Method -Immerse yourself in the culture and try
to see the world from the point of view of a culture member;
obtain informants; gather knowledge through direct observation,
interviews with key informants and contact with subjects.
 Analysis - Explain the features of culture as its participant
experiences.
 Outcomes – Description of culture.
Grounded Theory
- Systematic inductive approach for conducting qualitative
research aimed toward theory development.
 Purpose - Generate or discover a theory that applies to a specific
situation.
 1. Used in discovering what problems exist in a very social
scene.
2. It involves formulating and testing ideas before a theory
is established.
 Data collection Method -Data is obtained through non-
standardized interviews and participant observation but often
through access to other data sources.
 Analysis –Concept formation, development, modification and
integration.
 Outcomes - Theory supported by examples from credible data.
Phenomenology
- A chosen phenomena focuses on the individual's subjective
experience and attempts to explain a phenomenon's meaning or
form from the viewpoint of others who have encountered it.
 Purpose - To describe experiences as they lived.
Examines the uniqueness of the circumstances of individuals
living.
 Data collection Method -Seek persons who understand research
and are willing to share inner feelings & experiences.
Describe experiences of phenomenon.
 Analysis –Classify and rank data
Examine experiences beyond human consciousness/ or cannot be
communicated.
 Outcomes - Findings defined from the perspective of the subject.
Narrative Inquiry
- It is the method of collecting information through storytelling for
the purpose of research.
 Purpose - Describe person’s understanding of the meaning of
events in their lives.
 Data collection Method -In long interviews, research participants
are asked to provide a comprehensive account of them and their
story instead of answering a predetermined list of questions.
 Analysis –Synthesis of all data; accept and reject data; reconcile
conflicting evidence.
 Outcomes - Can take the form of biographical studies,
autobiographies, memoirs, life histories or oral histories.

2. Researcher-made Questionnaire
  Developed by researchers

Steps in Designing Questionnaire

1. Background
 Craft the purpose and objective of the questionnaire
 What I want to know or measure?
2. Questionnaire Conceptualization
 Choose the response scale to use
 How are the respondents respond to the questions in our study?
- Dichotomous
- Likert Scale
3. Establish the Validity of a Questionnaire
 Making sure it measures what it aims to measure
 Valid questionnaire helps to collect reliable and accurate data
4. Establish the Reliability of the Questionnaire
 Consistency of responses over repeated measurements
 Test-retest Method
 Split half Method
5. Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire
 Pre-testing to identify questions/statements not clear to
participants
 Relevance of questionnaire to the objective of the study
 10-15 among the participants
 Remarks may ask from the participants
6. Revise the Questionnaire
 Questionnaire should match with the research objectives

2. Interview
 Researchers ask a set of questions orally to be answered by
respondents
 Can use recorder to minimize interview effect
 Time consuming and expensive

FIRST SET OF QUESTIONS – opening questions to establish friendly

relationships, like questions about the place, the time, the physical
appearance of the participant.
SECOND SET OF QUESTIONS – generative questions to encourage
open-ended questions like those that ask about the respondents’
inferences, views, or opinions about the interview topic.

THIRD SET OF QUESTIONS – directive questions or close-ended

questions to elicit specific answers like those that are answerable with
yes or no, with one type of an object, or with definite period of time and
the like.

FOURTH SET OF QUESTIONS – ending questions that give the

respondents the chance to air their satisfaction, wants, likes, dislikes,
reactions, or comments about the interview.

Guidelines in Formulating Interview Questions

1. Use clear and simple language.

2. Avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, jargons, and highfalutin
terms.
3. Let one question elicit only one answer; no double-barrel
question.
4. Express your point in exact, specific, bias-free, and gender-free
language.
5. Give way to how your respondents want themselves to be
identified.
6. Establish continuity or free flow of the respondents’ thoughts by
using appropriate follow-up questions (e.g., Could you give an
example of it? Would you mind narrating what happened next?).
7. Ask questions in a sequential manner; determine which should be
your opening, middle, or closing questions.
 Data Analysis:
Organizing and Presenting Data, Planning Statistical Data Analysis
& Interpretating Statistical Results

What is Quantitative Data Analysis?

 Systematic approach of examining data to interpret its meaning
and draw conclusions about a research hypothesis and problems.

How is Data Analysis Important in Research?

Enable researchers to:
1. Describe Data Sets
2. Determine the Degree of Relationship of Variables
3. Determine the Difference Between Variables
4. Predict Outcomes of Research Study
5. Validate Research Hypothesis

Presenting and Interpreting Data

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical
4. Summary statistics

Textual Presentation of Data

1. Uses words/statements or paragraphs with numerals to describe
data.
 e.g. In Labayug National High School, General Academic Strand
(GAS) has the highest number of enrollees equal to 62 students,
this academic year.

Tabular Presentation of Data

1. Presentation of clear and organized data.
Characteristics of a good table:
 Table number and Title
- Placed above the table and title are written right after the
table number
 Caption subhead
- Columns and rows labels
 Body (Data under each subhead)
 Source (acknowledgement of secondary sources of data)

Graphical Presentation of Data

 1. Visual presentation of data using symbols such as lines, dots,
bars or slices.
Characteristics of a good graph:
 Heading and units are included in the x and y axis
 Figure number title at the bottom of the figure.

Statistical summary
1. Results of statistical testing.
 Descriptive statistics
 Statistical result depending on the test
 Post hoc analysis
2. Presented as a table.

STATISTICAL TESTS
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
- Summarize or describe features of data set such as central
tendency and degree of variability.

Mean – average value of the data set

Median – middle vale of the data set
Mode – frequently occurring value in the data set
Range – difference between the highest and lowest value in the data set
Frequency – number of occurrences of a particular value in the data set
Percentage – ratio of frequency and whole observation times 100%

2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
- Used to make conclusions, or inferences, based on the
available data from a smaller sample population.
- Use to test research hypothesis

Considerations before doing the statistical testing

1. Decide for the level of significance
 Confidence level 99% and 1% or 0.01 significance level\
 Confidence level 95% and 5% or 0.05 significance level
 Confidence level 90% and 10% or 0.10 significance level
*Note: The lower the significance level the greater the evidence that the
results are TRUE.

2. Type I and Type II Error

  Type I Error (False positive)
- Happens at the alpha region
- Mistakenly REJECT Ho when its TRUE
 Type II Error (False negative)
- Happens at the beta region
- Mistakenly FAILED TO REJECT Ho when its FALSE

3. Conditions of Critical values and p-values should be known

4. Identify and apply post hoc analysis
 LSD (Least Significant Difference)
- Used only if Ho is rejected
 Scheffe’s Test
- Used only if Ho is rejected but critical value is lower than
LSD
 Tukey HSD (Honestly Significant Difference)
- Unplanned comparison

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
1. z-test
 a statistical technique used to quantify the difference between the
mean (average value) of a variable from up to two samples
(datasets) equal to or greater than 30 participants.
 Conditions:
a) Data must be normally distributed
b) Data points must be independent
c) Variance must be equal

Z-Test
 Independent sample z-test (two independent)
 Paired sample z-test (two identical)

2. t-test
 a statistical technique used to quantify the difference between the
mean (average value) of a variable from up to two samples
(datasets) with less than 30 participants.
 One sample t-test (sample mean is compared with known value)
 Independent sample t-test (sample mean of two independent
groups are compared)
 Paired t-test (sample mean of two groups are compared)

3. ANOVA
 Analysis of Variance
 Used to compare three or more groups

4. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient R

 Relationship between variables
 Identified Independent and Dependent variables