01/06/2025

Control
Engineering I

Outline
1. Introduction to Control System Engineering
2. Mathematical Modelling of Physical System
3. Transfer Function
4. Block Diagram Algebra
5. Signal Flow Graph
6. System Structure
7. Steady-State Error
8. Time Response Analysis
9. Concept of Stability
10. Root Locus Concept
11. Design and Compensation
12. Concept of State Variable Modelling
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Textbooks
 Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems" by Gene Franklin,
J. Da Powell, and Abbas Emami-Naeini.
 Modern Control Engineering" by Katsuhiko Ogata.
 "Control Systems Engineering" by Norman S. Nise.
 Automatic Control Systems" by Benjamin C. Kuo and Farid
Golnaraghi.
 Feedback Control Theory" by John C. Doyle, Bruce A.
Francis, and Allen R. Tannenbaum.

Introduction to Control
System Engineering

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 A system is a combination of devices and components

connected together by some form of regular interactions to
act together and perform a certain function.

 A control system may be defined as a combination of devices

and components connected or related so as to command,
direct or regulate itself or another system.
Introduction  A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or
to Control plants) assembled to obtain a desired output with desired
performance, given a specified input.
System
Engineering  Control systems are fundamental to modern society,
seamlessly integrated into countless applications around us.
Consider the dramatic launch of a rocket or the lift-off of a
space shuttle into Earth's orbit.

 Elsewhere, a metallic part is machined with precision as

cooling water splashes, and a self-guided vehicle glides
smoothly across the floor of an aerospace assembly plant,
delivering materials to workstations. 5

Thermostat:
01 Found in homes and buildings, it regulates temperature
by turning heating or cooling systems on and off based
on the set temperature.
Control systems are
everywhere, from simple
household appliances to Speed Control in Vehicles:
complex industrial
processes. Here are some
02 Control systems regulate the speed of vehicles,
maintaining a constant speed or adjusting it
according to the driver's input.
common examples:

Water Level Control in Tanks:

03 Used in water tanks to maintain a desired
level by controlling the inflow and outflow
of water.

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Industrial Automation:
04 Control systems are extensively used in
manufacturing processes for tasks like 08
Cruise Control in Cars:
Allows a vehicle to maintain a constant
regulating temperature, pressure, and speed set by the driver without requiring
flow rates in chemical plants, refineries, constant manual adjustments of the
and other industrial facilities. accelerator.

05 Robotics: Anti-lock Braking System (ABS):

Control systems are the backbone of robotic
systems, enabling precise control of
movements and actions.
09 A safety system in vehicles that prevents
wheels from locking up during braking,
helping maintain control and stability.
Power Grid Control:
06 Control systems are used to monitor and
manage electricity generation,
transmission, and distribution in power Flight Control Systems in Aircraft:
grids to ensure reliability and stability.
10 These systems manage the attitude,
altitude, and direction of an aircraft
(HVAC) Systems:
07 Control systems regulate temperature,
humidity, and air quality in buildings to
through various control surfaces such
as ailerons, elevators, and rudders.

maintain a comfortable environment.

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Conceptual method of efficient water extraction using solar power

 A conceptual method of
efficient water extraction
using solar power is
shown. During daylight
hours, the solar collector
would produce electricity
to pump water from the
underground water table
to a reservoir (perhaps on
a nearby mountain or hill),
and in the early morning
hours, the water would be
released into the irrigation
system.
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Important components of the sun-tracking control system

 One of the most important features of

the solar collector is that the collector
dish must track the sun accurately.
 The block diagram beside describes the
general philosophy of the sun-tracking
system together with some of the most
important components. The controller
ensures that the tracking collector is
pointed toward the sun in the morning
and sends a "start track" command.
 The controller constantly calculates the
sun’s rate for the two axes (azimuth and
elevation) of control during the day. The
controller uses the sun rate and sun
sensor information as inputs to generate
proper motor commands to slew the
collector.

Close-up of the fly-ball governor

Suppose the engine is operating in
equilibrium. Two weighted balls spinning
around a central shaft can be seen to
describe a cone of a given angle with the
shaft. When a load is suddenly applied to
the engine, its speed will slow, and the
governor’s balls will drop to a smaller cone.

Thus, the ball angle is used to sense the output

speed. This action, through the levers, will open
the main valve to the steam chest (which is the
actuator) and admit more steam to the engine,
restoring most of the
lost speed. 10
Source: Washington Imaging/Alamy

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 A variable resistor, called a potentiometer, is

shown. The resistance is varied by moving a wiper
arm along a fixed resistance. The resistance from
A to C is fixed, but the resistance from B to C varies
with the position of the wiper arm. If it takes 10
turns to move the wiper arm from A to C, draw a
block diagram of the potentiometer showing the
input variable, the output variable, and (inside the
block) the gain, which is a constant and is the
amount by which the input is multiplied to obtain
the output.
 An aircraft’s attitude varies in roll, pitch, and yaw as
defined in the Figure. Draw a functional block
diagram for a closed-loop system that stabilizes the
roll as follows: The system measures the actual roll
angle with a gyro and compares the actual roll angle
with the desired roll angle. The ailerons respond to
the roll-angle error by undergoing an angular
deflection. The aircraft responds to this angular
deflection, producing a roll angle rate. Identify the
input and output transducers, the controller, and the
plant. Further, identify the nature of each signal. 11

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Selected Historical Developments of Control Systems

1769 : James Watt's steam engine and
governor developed. The Watt steam 1800: Eli Whitney’s concept of
engine is often used to mark the interchangeable parts manufacturing
1868: J.C. Maxwell formulates a 1913: Henry Ford's mechanized 1927: H.S. Black conceives of the
beginning of the Industrial Revolution demonstrated in the production of
mathematical model for governor assembly machine introduced for negative feedback amplifier, and H.W.
in Great Britain. During the Industrial muskets. Whitney’s development is
control of a steam engine. automobile production. Bode analyzes feedback amplifiers.
Revolution, great strides were made in often considered to be the beginning of
the development of mechanization, a mass production.
technology preceding automation.

1952: Numerical control (NC) 1954: George Devol develops 1957: Sputnik launches the space age,
1932: H. Nyquist develops a method 1941: Creation of the first antiaircraft developed at the Massachusetts "programmed article transfer," leading, in time, to miniaturization of
for analyzing the stability of systems. gun with active control. Institute of Technology for control of considered to be the first industrial computers and advances in automatic
machine-tool axes. robot design. control theory.

1960: First Unimate robot introduced, 1983: Introduction of the personal

based on Devol’s designs. Unimate 1970 : State-variable models and 1980: Robust control system design computer (and control design software 1990: Export-oriented manufacturing
installed in 1961 for tending die- optimal control developed. widely studied. soon thereafter) brought the tools of companies emphasize automation.
casting machines. design to the engineer's desktop.

1998-2003 : Advances in micro- and

1994: Feedback control widely used in 1997: First-ever autonomous rover nanotechnology. First intelligent
automobiles. Reliable, robust systems vehicle, known as Sojourner, explores micromachines are developed, and
demanded in manufacturing. the Martian surface. functioning nanomachines are
created.

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Control Systems Configurations

Two major configurations of control systems:

 Open loop and

 Closed loop
 An open-loop control system is a type of control system where
the output has no influence or effect on the control action of the
input signal. In other words, the control action is not dependent
on the output. Instead, it relies solely on the input command and
the system's dynamics to generate the control signal.
Open-oop
Control
System  In an open-loop system, there is no feedback mechanism to
check or adjust the output based on the desired result. This
means that any disturbances or changes in the system or
environment are not corrected for automatically. As a result,
open-loop systems are typically less accurate and reliable
compared to closed-loop systems, where feedback is used to
adjust the control action.
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 However, open-loop systems are often simpler and less expensive to

implement, making them suitable for applications where precision is not
critical or where the system dynamics are well understood and
predictable.

 Examples include automatic washing machines, traffic light control

systems, and basic household appliances.

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 A feedback control system is a type of control system

where the output of the system is continuously
Closed-Loop monitored and compared with a desired reference
value.
Control
Systems  This comparison generates an error signal, which is
then used to adjust the system's input in order to
(Feedback minimize the difference between the output and the
Control reference value.

Systems)  In essence, feedback control systems utilize

information from the output to regulate the input,
thereby maintaining desired performance and
stability.

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Block Diagram of a Closed-loop Control System

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Definitions
The plant refers to the physical system or process being
controlled. It could be a mechanical system, electrical circuit,
Process/Plant chemical process, or any other system that can be controlled or
manipulated

The actuator receives the control signal from the controller and
converts it into a physical action or manipulation that influences
the plant. This could involve activating motors, valves, heaters,
Actuator or any other device that can change the behavior of the system.

The controller is the brain of the feedback control system. It

receives input from the sensor, compares it with the desired
Controller reference value (setpoint), and generates a control signal to
adjust the input to the plant.

The error signal is generated by comparing the output of the

system with the reference input. It represents the difference
Error Signal between the desired and actual states of the system and serves
as the basis for control action by the controller.

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The sensor is responsible for measuring the output or the

state of the plant. It converts the physical quantity (such as
temperature, pressure, position, etc.) into an electrical signal
Sensor (or that can be processed by the controller.
Transducer)

The feedback path is responsible for providing information

about the system's output back to the controller. It ensures
that the controller can continuously monitor the system's
Feedback Path performance and make adjustments as necessary to maintain
stability and achieve the desired setpoint.

Reference Input The reference input, also known as the setpoint, is the desired
value or trajectory that the system aims to achieve or track. It
represents the target performance or operating condition
that the controller strives to maintain.

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Differences between Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems

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 A computer-controlled system uses a computer as the

central unit to manage and regulate processes or
devices. These systems combine control algorithms,
sensors, and actuators to ensure precision, real-time
monitoring, and automated decision-making. The key
components include a controller (computer) to execute
control instructions, sensors to collect environmental
or system data, actuators to perform physical actions,
and feedback loops to enable real-time adjustments.
Interfaces facilitate communication between the
system's components and the user. This architecture
allows for seamless operation and adaptability in
Computer-Controlled various applications.

Systems  Computer-controlled systems are integral to numerous

industries. In manufacturing, they automate tasks like
assembly lines and robotic operations, while in
aerospace, they govern flight control and navigation.
Automotive systems use computer control for engine
optimization, autonomous driving, and safety features
like advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS). Other
applications range from medical devices like robotic
surgery systems to energy management in smart grids
and renewable energy setups. These systems enhance
efficiency, precision, and reliability, making them
essential for advancing modern technology.
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Linear and
Non-linear
Control  Non-linear systems do not obey the principle of
superposition. Almost all practical systems are non-
Systems 
linear to some extent.
Non-linearities are introduced due to the saturation
effect of system components, frictional forces, play
between gear trains, mechanical linkages, and
nonlinearities of electronic components like power
amplifiers, transistors, etc., used.
 Control of linear systems is easy as compared to the
control of non-linear systems.

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Time-invariant and Time-varying Control Systems

 Time-invariant control system is one whose parameters

do not vary with time. The response of such a system is
independent of the time at which input is applied. For
example, resistance, inductance and capacitance of an
electrical network are independent of time.

 A time-varying system is one in which one or more

parameters vary with time. The response depends on
the time at which input is applied. A space vehicle
control system where mass decreases with time, as
fuel it carries is consumed during flight, is an example
of a time-varying system.
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A continuous-time control system operates with signals that

vary smoothly over time, meaning they are defined and
processed at every instant.

Continuous
Time And These systems are typically represented using differential
equations, with time treated as a continuous variable.

Discrete  In contrast, a discrete-time control system operates with signals that are defined and

Control specific intervals or discrete time steps. These systems are usually represented using
equations and rely Continuous-time control
on digital signals that systems
take on distinctare used
values atin processes
each sampling point.
requiring real-time and precise responses, such as robotics,

Systems 
automotive control, and industrial process control.
Discrete control systems are prevalent in digital electronics and computer-based systems,
sampling and processing occur at specific rates.

 Examples include They

digitalrely
signal processing,
on analogue computer
signals, numerical
which controlan
can represent (CNC) machines,
communication systems.
infinite While
range they can approximate
of values, continuous
ensuring that systems,
the system’s their accuracy
behaviour
the sampling rate, which
can bemust adhereand
observed to the Nyquist-Shannon
adjusted sampling
continuously. theorem to avoid aliasing
Examples
include hydraulic systems, temperature control systems,
and many traditional mechanical systems.
 Discrete systems are often easier to implement using microcontrollers, PLCs, or digital computers
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In contrast, a discrete-time control system operates with signals that

are defined and processed at specific intervals or discrete time steps.
These systems are usually represented using difference equations and
rely on digital signals that take on distinct values at each sampling
point.

Discrete control systems are prevalent in digital electronics and

computer-based systems, where sampling and processing occur at

Discrete specific rates.

Control Examples include digital signal processing, computer numerical

Systems control (CNC) machines, and modern communication systems. While

they can approximate continuous systems, their accuracy depends on
the sampling rate, which must adhere to the Nyquist-Shannon
sampling theorem to avoid aliasing.

Discrete systems are often easier to implement using

microcontrollers, PLCs, or digital computers.

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o A system with one input and one output is called a single-input–

single-output control system.
o In other words, there is only one command and one controlled
output.
o A system with multiple inputs and multiple outputs is called a multi-
input–multi-output control
o system. For example, boiler drum level control, robot arm control,
etc. The robot arm performs multiple functions with multiple inputs.
These multiple functions are called degree of freedom.

 Control systems that can be described by ordinary differential

equations are lumped parameter control systems whereas
distributed parameter control systems are described by partial
differential equations.

 The parameters of a long transmission line, that is, the resistance,

inductance and capacitance, are distributed along the line but they
may be considered as lumped parameters at certain points.
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 Deterministic and stochastic control systems: A control system is

deterministic if the response is predictable and repeatable. If not, the
control system is a stochastic control system which involves random
variable parameters.

 Static and Dynamic systems: A system is called dynamic or time-

dependent if its present output depends on past input, whereas, a
static system is the one whose current output depends only on
current input.

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Servomechanism, Regulator and Process Control

 A servomechanism is an automatic control system in which the controlled variable
value is forced to follow the variations of the reference value, instead of regulating a
variable value to a “set point”. For example, control of an industrial robot arm, a
position control system, etc. It is also called a tracking control system.

 Regulator is a feedback control system in which a controlled variable is maintained at

A constant value in spite of external load on the plant. The reference input or command
signal, although adjustable, is held constant for a long period of time. The primary task is
then to maintain the output at the desired value in the presence of disturbances.

 Process control refers to control of such parameters as level, flow, pressure,

temperature and acidity of process variables. A particular parameter has only one
desired value. The control system is required to ensure that the process output is
maintained at the desired level in spite of external disturbances which affect the
process.
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Brain Trust

1.1 The road and vehicle noise that invades an automobile’s cabin hastens
occupant fatigue. Design the block diagram of an “antinoise” feedback
system that will reduce the effect of unwanted noises. Indicate the device
within each block.
1.2 Many cars are fitted with cruise control that, at the press of a button,
automatically maintains a set speed. In this way, the driver can cruise at a
speed limit or economic speed without continually checking the
speedometer. Design a feedback-control in block diagram form for a cruise
control system.
1.3 As part of the automation of a dairy farm, the automation of cow
milking is under study. Design a milking machine that can milk cows four or
five times a day at the cow’s demand. Sketch a block diagram and indicate
the devices in each block.
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Mathematical Modelling of
Physical Systems

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A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as

a set of equations that represents the dynamics of the
system accurately, or at least fairly well.

Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given

system. A system may be represented in many different
ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical
models, depending on one’s perspective.

The dynamics of many systems, whether they are

mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and
so on, may be described in terms of differential equations.
Such differential equations may be obtained by using
physical laws governing a particular system—for example,
Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff’s
laws for electrical systems.

We must always keep in mind that deriving reasonable

mathematical models is the most important part of the
entire analysis of control systems. 30

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Translational Motion Dashpot

Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an
energy. If a force is applied on a body having mass M, opposing force due to friction of the dashpot. This
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body.
This opposing force is proportional to the acceleration Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.
of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are
negligible.

Where, •Fb is the opposing force due to

friction of dashpot
•F is the applied force
•B is the frictional coefficient
•Fm is the opposing
force due to mass •v is velocity

•M is mass •x is displacement

•a is acceleration
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•x is displacement

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Spring Rotational System

Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a In a translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic
force is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by an energy. Similarly, in a rotational mechanical system, a
opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing moment of inertia stores kinetic energy. If a torque is
force is proportional to the displacement of the spring. applied on a body having a moment of inertia J, then it is
Assume mass and friction are negligible. opposed by an opposing torque due to the moment of
inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are
negligible.

•Where,

•T is the applied torque

Where,
•Tj is the opposing torque
•F is the applied force
due to moment of inertia
•Fk is the opposing force
due to elasticity of spring •J is moment of inertia

•K is spring constant •α is angular acceleration

•x is displacement •θ is angular displacement

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Torsional Spring Dashpot

If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed
opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of by an opposing torque due to the rotational friction of
torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to
to the angular displacement of the torsional spring. the angular velocity of the body. Assume the moment
Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are of inertia and elasticity are negligible.
negligible.

Where,
•Tb is the opposing torque due
to the rotational friction of
the dashpot
•B is the rotational friction
coefficient
•ω is the angular velocity
•θ is the angular
displacement

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Mass-Dash pot-Spring System Electrical System

Mesh equation for this circuit is

The above equation is a second-order differential

equation. 34

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Develop the mathematical model for the following systems

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For the rotational system shown, write the equations of motion

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Force Voltage Analogy

Mesh equation for this circuit is

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get

the analogous quantities of the translational
mechanical system and electrical system. The
following table shows these analogous quantities.
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Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Voltage(V)
Mass(M) Inductance(L)

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance

Displacement(x) Charge(q)
Velocity(v) Current(i)
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TRANSFER FUNCTION

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 The transfer function G(s) of a linear, time-invariant system is

defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable, under
the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

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Important Laplace Transforms

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Important Laplace Transforms

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Examples
A system is described by the following differential equation below, find
the expression for the transfer function.

Find the transfer function for the translational mechanical system.

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Find the transfer function for the following

G(s)=Vo(s)/Vi(s)

G(s)=Vo(s)/V(s)

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G(s)=X1(s)/F(s)

G1(s)= Φ1(s)/T(s)

G2(s)= Φ2(s)/T(s)

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

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A Block Diagram and Its Importance

Advantages of Block Diagram Representation in
Control Systems
1.Ease of construction by connecting blocks according to
signal flow.
Definition
2.Simplifies evaluation of each component's contribution
A block diagram in a control system
to overall performance.
is a graphical representation of the
3.Enhances understanding of the system's functional
system’s components and their
operation.
functional relationships. It is used to
4.Facilitates mathematical analysis and overall transfer
visualize how signals flow through
function derivation.
various parts of the system, aiding in
5.Clearly identifies relationships, feedback loops, and
understanding, design, and analysis.
signal paths.
6.Allows for quick modification and redesign during
development.
7.Serves as a diagnostic tool for troubleshooting issues.
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Key Features of a Block Diagram in Control Systems

1. Block: Each functional element of the control system, such as sensors,
controllers, actuators, and the plant, is represented as a block. These
blocks encapsulate the system’s individual processes.
2. Transfer Functions: The behavior of each component is mathematically
expressed as a transfer function, which relates the input and output in
the Laplace domain. These transfer functions are displayed within the
respective blocks.
3. Signal Flow: Arrows connect the blocks, indicating the direction of
signal flow. These signals represent the movement of information or
control actions between components, and they only travel in the
direction specified by the arrows.
4. Summing Junctions: Points where multiple signals are combined,
typically to calculate an error signal (the difference between the
desired output and the actual output), are represented as summing
junctions with appropriate ++ or −- signs.
5. Feedback Path: In a closed-loop control system, a feedback loop
connects the output back to the input. This feedback enables the system
to compare the actual output with the desired reference input and
adjust its operation accordingly.
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Block Diagram Representation of Components of a Servomechanism

A servomechanism, also known as a

position control system, is a feedback
control system designed to control the
output, representing mechanical
position, velocity, or acceleration.
Servomechanism and position control
systems are often used interchangeably.
DC motor drives and gear mechanisms
are integral components in most
servomechanism applications.

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Block diagram representation

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Block diagram Simplification

a) When two or more blocks are connected in series

b) When two blocks are connected in parallel

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c) Shifting the summing point beyond, i.e. after a block

d) When shifting the summing point prior to, i.e. before a block

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e) Moving a take-off point beyond, i.e. after a block

f) Moving a take-off point from after a block to before a block

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g) Eliminating the feedback path

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Example: Reduce the block diagram into a canonical form and determine its transfer function

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Example: Reduce the block diagram of a system represented in into canonical form

Solution
There are two input signals, R(s) and U(s), and one output signal, C(s). We apply the superposition theorem to
reduce the block diagram, considering the effect of one input at a time when the other is set to zero.

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Example

Example

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Example

Example

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

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Definition

 A signal flow graph is a graphical representation that illustrates the

relationships between the variables in a set of linear algebraic equations.
It comprises a network where nodes, representing the system's
variables, are interconnected by directed branches that indicate the
flow of influence between these variables.

 Block diagrams are convenient for representing control systems.

However, for complex systems, reducing block diagrams to determine
the transfer function between input and output variables can be tedious
and time-consuming.

 An alternative method is the signal flow graph (SFG), developed by S. J.

Mason. Unlike block diagrams, SFGs eliminate the need for reduction
processes by utilizing the flow graph gain formula, which directly
relates the system's input and output variables.
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Definition of Terms in SFG

Node: It represents a system variable which is equal to
the sum of all incoming signals at the node. Points
designated by R, E, and C are the nodes

Branch: A signal travels along a branch from one node

to another in the direction indicated by the branch
arrow and, in the process, gets multiplied by the gain
or the transmittance.

Input Node or Source: It is a node with only outgoing

branches; for example, R.

Output Node or Sink: It is a node with only incoming

branches. However, this condition is not always met.
An additional branch with unity gain may be
introduced to meet the specified condition.
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Path: It is the traversal of connected branches

in the direction of the branch arrows such
that no node is traversed more than once.

Forward Path: It is a path from the input

node to the output node, when no node is
encountered twice. R-E-C is a forward path.

Forward Path Gain: It is the product of branch gains in the forward path; for example, the forward
path gain of the path R-E-C in the Fig is G.

Loop: It is a path which originates and terminates at the same node; for example, E-C-B-E is a loop.

Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered in traversing the loop, for example,
the loop gain of the loop E-C-B-E in the Fig. is -GH.

Non-touching Loops: Loops are said to be non-touching if they do not possess any common
node.
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Steps in Drawing SFG

The equations, describing

a system, are used to draw
the signal SFG. Consider a
system described by the
following set of equations.
The input node is x1 and
the output node is x2.

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Mason’s Gain Formula

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Example Obtain the transfer function of the system Solution

shown using SFG

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Example: Find the gain of the control system represented in block diagram form using Mason’s gain formula.

Solution

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Example Find by signal flow graph technique the transfer function of the control system

Solution

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STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS

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