HelioCampus Course Survey

Participation Incentive Program

• The HelioCampus end-of-course survey is now open, and will remain
so until Wednesday, December 11.
• We value your participation in the course survey, and any comments
or suggestions that you may make to help us improve this class.
• To encourage your participation in the survey we are offering the
following incentive program:
✓ If the overall class response to the survey reaches the 70% participation
mark by 6 pm, Wednesday, Dec. 11, the entire class will start the Final Exam
with a score of 10 exam points.
✓ If the overall class response to the survey reaches the 80% participation
mark by 6 pm, Wednesday Dec. 11, the entire class will start the Final Exam
with a score of 20 exam points.
✓ If the overall class response to the survey reaches the 90% participation
mark by 6 pm, Wednesday Dec. 11, the entire class will start the Final Exam
with a score of 30 exam points.

1
 Want to be an Undergraduate Facilitator?
• We encourage you to apply to participate as facilitators for the Spring 2025 semester. Students helping students is a big
part of what makes the Rensselaer community work. Of course, we prefer if you choose to be a Physics facilitator/tutor ,
but it’s ok if you go with ALAC, Biology, Comp Sci, or Engineering.
• You should have taken a course or its equivalent in order to serve as a facilitator for it.
• It is likely that most facilitator-student interactions will be in person, but there may be some need for remote
facilitation as well. Please apply even if you will not be on campus.
•Here is a short list of good reasons for you to participate as a Physics facilitator.
1) Its fun and interesting.
2) You contribute to the community spirit of the university.
3) You will learn basic Physics better by engaging others in discussion.
4) You will be able to help students learn Physics.
5) You have an opportunity to improve another student's outlook and success.
6) You get to work in collaboration with faculty and graduate students, getting to know them better and having them
know you as well.
7) You can contribute to the improvement of instruction at Rensselaer by providing feedback on labs and activities.
8) You can earn 2 credits of PHYS 2170 elective with the expectation of a good grade for diligent effort.
9) It can help to build your resume by serving in a leadership role.
EXPECTATIONS AND COMMITMENT:
1) You are expected to review the material each week. You will be aided in this at a weekly staff meeting (Participation
in this one-hour review and staff meeting per week is expected.)
2) You are expected to be prepared and present to facilitate every lab for your assignment. (Typically, 4 hours per week.)
3) You should interact well with students in your assigned class.
4) You must be discreet, tactful, and respectful of all students.
5) You should be able to work with students to help them learn the material.
6) You should know when to engage a faculty member or other staff to address student questions or issues.
• PLEASE WAIT UNTIL YOU KNOW YOUR SPRING CLASS SCHEDULE BEFORE APPLYING. WE NEED TO MATCH AVAILABLE
OPENINGS WITH YOUR SCHEDULES.
• APPLICATION AND SELECTION PROCESS. THE FORM LINKED BELOW IS ONLY FOR APPLYING FOR A PHYSICS POSITION.
THE PROCESS IS DIFFERENT FOR OTHER PROGRAMS.

•https://forms.gle/fhfnJPG8wTG1kkW36
2
 Announcements

• There is no pre-lab online lecture quiz due on Tuesday, Dec.

3. (Your next quiz will be due at 10 am Friday, Dec. 6.)

• There is no online homework assignment due on Thursday,

Dec. 5.

• Monday (Dec. 2) and Tuesday (Dec. 3) class sessions are in-

class practice/review.

3
 Physics 1200
Lecture 25
Fall 2024
Exam 3 Information, Topics Covered, Etc.

4
 Exam 3 Information
• Exam Date: Wednesday Dec. 4, 6 -7:25 pm.
• Conflict Exam, Thursday Dec. 5, 6 – 7:25 pm.
➢Available to students with legitimate time conflict with regularly
scheduled exam.
➢You must submit a request to your section professor and Prof. Ciolek by
email by 5 pm Monday, Dec. 2 that you would like to take the conflict
exam and state the reason why.
➢We reserve the right to deny a student from taking the conflict exam if it
is determined that there is not a legitimate reason for taking the exam at
that alternate time, or if they have not submitted a request from
instructors in advance, as required above.
• Students with accommodations
➢Remind your section instructor of your exam accommodations.
➢Exam will be taken in 2C14 of the J-Rowl Science Center. Bring a copy
(paper or electronic) of your accommodations notice to the exam room.
➢Start at the regular time and submit at the agreed time.
5
 Exam 3 Information (2)

• Allowed resources –
➢You may use you a calculator with capabilities and functions
up to the TI-Nspire. Devices with communication/internet
capability are not allowed.
➢You are allowed a single 8.5′′ × 11′′ sheet of paper (both
sides) crib sheet. Must be a single piece of paper – no taped
or stapled pages.
➢Writing instruments (pencils, pens). For pens, darker inks are
preferred. Red ink is not allowed.
• A short table of physical constants (same as done for Exams
1 & 2) will be included on the first page of the Exam 3 test
booklet.

6
 Exam 3 Information (3)
• Exam will focus on topics presented in classes 17, and 19-24.
• Exam Structure
➢Multiple choice and numerical short answer questions for ~ 70%
to 80% of exam pts.
✓ ~ ½ conceptual and scaling questions
✓ ~ ½ numerical solution
➢Free response questions for the remaining % of exam pts.
• Good resources
➢MasteringPhysics: Lecture quizzes; Practice Problems; Homework
➢Exam Archives (LMS)
➢Activity worksheets
➢Lecture slides
➢Text
• Monitor your email and LMS announcements for exam
information and updates.
7
 Exam 3 Information (4)

• Exam cover page

includes table of
physical constants.

8
 Exam 3 Answer Sheet
Front Side Back Side

9
 Exam 3 Rooms
Class Section Instructor Exam Room
1, 2 Ciolek Eaton 214
3, 4 Ward DCC 318
5 Meng Sage 3303
6, 9 Zheng Sage 3303
7, 8 Persans DCC 324
11 Narendran DCC 318
Accommodations All 2C14 J-Rowl SC

Students must take the exam in their assigned section rooms.

(Exception: those with Accommodations go to 2C14 JRSC.)

10
 Exam 3 – Material Covered
• Everything from Classes 17 and 19 - 24 is eligible to be on the
exam.
• Includes:
➢Reading assignments.
➢Homework (paper and online).
➢Lab activities.
➢Quizzes.
➢Lectures and questions.
• Of course, we assume that you understand all the material
covered in classes 1 – 16, and on the last two exams.

11
Exam 3 – Material Covered (2)
Topic
EM waves and light. Index of refraction.
Wave fronts and rays. Huygens’s Principle.
Polarization, Malus’s Law.

12
 EM Waves and Light, Index of Refraction

• All EM waves have universal characteristic:

𝜔 𝜆
EM vacuum wave speed = 𝑐 =
𝑘
= 𝜆𝑓 =
𝑇
.
• EM waves in material media similar to vacuum EM waves, except they have wave
speed 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑐/𝑛 , 𝑛 is the index of refraction of the medium. (Vacuum: 𝑛 = 1.)
• Waves frequency unchanged when going from one medium to another, follows
that
𝑐
𝑣𝑛 𝑛 1 𝑐 𝜆v
𝜆𝑛 = = = = , 𝜆V = wavelength of light of frequency 𝑓 in vacuum.
𝑓 𝑓 𝑛 𝑓 𝑛

13
 EM Waves: Wave Fronts and Rays

• A ray is an imaginary line along the direction of

travel of the wave.
• For waves traveling in a homogeneous isotropic
medium (no preferred directions), rays are
straight lines that are locally normal
(perpendicular) to the wave fronts.

• Far away from an EM wave source,

radii 𝑟 of wave front spheres are very
large compared to local regions of
size Δ𝑟 (i.e., Δ𝑟 ≪ 𝑟).
➢ For those situations the wave is a
plane wave, and has parallel wave
fronts and parallel rays.
14
 Energy Transport in an EM Wave
• Magnitude of the average value of Poynting vector 𝑺 is called the intensity. SI
unit of intensity is 1 W/m2.
➢ Intensity is the average power per unit area delivered by an EM wave.
• Because of the high frequencies (rapid oscillations) of EM waves, typically use
average power and Poynting flux in definition of intensity:
𝐸
𝑚
1 𝐸𝑚 𝐵𝑚 1 𝐸𝑚 𝑐 2
1 𝐸𝑚 1 𝐸 2 1
𝐼 = 𝑆av = = = = 𝜖 𝑐2 𝑚 2
= 𝑐𝜖0 𝐸𝑚
2 𝜇0 2 𝜇0 2 𝜇0 𝑐 2 0 𝑐 2
1 2
𝐵𝑚
2
⇒ 𝐼=𝑐 𝜖0 𝐸𝑚 =𝑐 .
2 2𝜇0
1
(Used EM wave relations: 𝐸𝑚 = 𝑐𝐵𝑚 , and 𝑐 2 = .)
𝜖0 𝜇0
• Intensity emitted from an isotropic point source:
𝑃 𝑃
𝐼=
𝐴
=
4𝜋𝑟 2
.
where 𝑃 = total power emitted by source
𝑟 = radius of sphere centered about the source.
15
 Momentum Transport in an EM Wave
• EM waves also carry momentum. If the EM waves interact with a surface
(impact the surface), they deliver an impulse to the surface ⇒ exert radiation
pressure on a surface:

• Radiation pressure is important in some physical environments:

➢ Radiation pressure can be a significant source of support for stars. If a
star has too much radiation pressure, it can blow itself apart! (Called the
“Eddington limit” in astrophysics.)
➢ Radiation pressure is being investigated as a driver for fuel compression
in laser fusion devices. (Called “inertial confinement fusion.”)
➢ Radiation pressure is currently being tested by NASA as a source of space
propulsion, by using “light sails” to use the Sun’s light to drive spacecraft.

16
 Principle of Huygens

• Huygens’s principle states: every point of

a wave front acts a source of secondary
“wavelets” that spread out in all
directions with a speed equal to the
speed of propagation of the wave.
• New wave front at a later time is found
by constructing a surface tangent to the
secondary wavelets or, as it is called, the
envelope of the wavelets.
• Figure shows application of Huygens’s
principle to a wave front at an instant in
time to construct a new wave front at a
later instant of time.

17
 Polarization of EM Waves/Light

• An EM wave is linearly polarized if the

electric field has only one component
along a fixed (constant) axis direction.
• Light from many sources (such as light
bulbs) is a random mixture of waves
linearly polarized in all possible
transverse directions; such light is
called unpolarized light or natural light.
• A polarizing filter converts unpolarized
light to polarized light.

18
 Polarization of EM Waves/Light (2)

• When unpolarized (natural) light of

intensity 𝐼0 is incident on a polarizing
filter used as an analyzer, the intensity
that is passed by the polarizer is
1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 .
2
The light that is transmitted through is
polarized along the polarizer’s axis.
• When polarized light of intensity 𝐼0 is incident on a polarizing filter used as an
analyzer, the intensity I of the light transmitted through the analyzer depends on
the angle ϕ between the polarization direction of the incident light and the
polarizing axis of the analyzer. This is contained by Malus’s law:
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜙 .
The light that passes through the polarizer is again aligned with the polarizer’s
polarization axis.

19
 Exam 3 – Material Covered (3)
Topics
Superposition of waves. Wave interference of coherent light beams.
Intensity in two-beam interference.
Interference and phase change.
Sources of phase change:
Path length and/or index of refraction. Intrinsic.
Young’s double-slit experiment.

20
 Interference of Waves, Intensity
• Interference involves differences in the phases of waves that are being
superposed at a point.
➢ Waves of equal amplitude and same frequency being superposed:
𝐸1 = 𝐸0 cos(−𝜔𝑡), 𝐸2 = 𝐸0 cos −𝜔𝑡 + Δ𝜙 ,
Δ𝜙 = 𝜙1 − 𝜙2 is the net phase difference between waves 1 and 2.
Δ𝜙 Δ𝜙
Superposed total: 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 2𝐸0 cos cos −𝜔𝑡 + ,
2 2
➢ Resulting intensity:
Δ𝜙 1
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 cos 2 , 𝐼0 = 𝑐𝜖0 𝐸02 = intensity of single wave 1 or 2.
2 2
➢ conditions for intensity maxima and minima:
If Δ𝜙 = 2𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … (= [even number] × 𝜋)
⇒ intensity 𝐼 = 4𝐼0 (the maximum value) ⇒ constructive interference.
If Δ𝜙 = 2𝑚 + 1 𝜋 , 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … (= [odd number] × 𝜋)
⇒ intensity 𝐼 = 0 (the minimum value) ⇒ destructive interference.
21
 Interference Effects: Phase Differences
• Wave phase differences is the sum
Δ𝜙 = Δ𝜙path + Δ𝜙source + Δ𝜙ref ,
Δ𝜙path = phase difference between waves 1 and 2 due to differences in path lengths traveled
by waves, including differences in refactive index 𝑛 along paths,
Δ𝜙source = intrinsic phase difference introduced by wave sources,
Δ𝜙ref = phase difference caused by reflection of the waves at an interface between regions of
different index of refraction 𝑛.
• Effect of index of refraction on wavelength, phase difference between two waves
2𝜋
along path length has general expression: Δ𝜙 = σ𝑁 1
𝑗=1 𝑛1𝑗 𝑥1𝑗 − σ𝑁2
𝑗=1 𝑛2𝑗 𝑥2𝑗
𝜆

• Waves in vacuum: 𝑛 = 1 for all segments and both waves. Follows

2𝜋 2𝜋
Δ𝜙 = σ𝑁1
𝑗=1 𝑥1𝑗 − σ𝑁2
𝑗=1 𝑥2𝑗 = (𝐿1 − 𝐿2 ) .
𝜆 𝜆
➢ Phase difference is difference of total path length for each wave to reach the overlap point.
2𝜋
➢ Maximum constructive interference: 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 2𝑚𝜋,
𝜆
(𝐿1 −𝐿2 )
⇒ = 𝑚 , where 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
𝜆
2𝜋
➢ Maximum destructive interference: 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 2𝑚 + 1 𝜋,
𝜆
(𝐿1 −𝐿2 ) 1
⇒ = 𝑚+ , where 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
𝜆 2
22
 Young’s 2-Slit Interference Experiment
• Schematic:

23
 Young’s 2-Slit Interference Experiment (2)

𝑦𝑚
𝜃𝑚
𝑑
𝐷

• Small angles: can make approximation sin 𝜃𝑚 ≃ tan 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑦𝑚 /𝐷 .

∴ Interference maxima at small angles in Young’s experiment:
𝑦𝑚 𝑑 𝑚𝜆𝐷
= 𝑚𝜆 ⇒ 𝑦𝑚 = , 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
𝐷 𝑑
24
 The Diffraction Grating

• Similar to two-slit interference problem (Young’s

experiment). Condition for constructive
interference (= intensity maxima) from a
multiple-slit diffraction grating for normally
incident light (see figure) is
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 , 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
𝑑 = spacing between slits,
𝜃 = angle with respect to grating normal.
• Magnitude of integer 𝑚 is referred to as the
‘order’ of the maximum. Example: |𝑚| = 1 is
the ‘first-order’ maximum (and so on).

25
 The Michelson Interferometer
• Can measure fringe shift
differences due to placement
of sample of index of
refraction 𝑛 in one of the
interferometer path legs.
Determine optical path length
change from fringe shift, then
use to calculate 𝑛.
• Michelson interferometer can
also be used to determine if
either of the mirrors moves a
certain distance, even for
extremely small changes in
lengths 𝐿1 or 𝐿2 , by watching
the change in the interference
fringe pattern.
• The sensitivity to minute changes in distance makes the Michelson interferometer
the main instrument for the detection of gravitational waves.

26
 Exam 3 – Material Covered (4)
Topics
Diffraction. Single-slit diffraction pattern and intensity.
Two-slit interference with diffraction.
Circular apertures. Resolution.

27
 Diffraction
• Effect due to wave barriers/slits/edges having
finite extent. According to Huygens’s principle,
each point of a wave front acts as a source of
new waves.
➢ Even for a finite width, there is an infinite
number of point sources within the aperture.
➢ Should be interference between wavelets
created in a single slit: a self-interference effect.
Gives rise to a diffraction pattern.
➢ Huygens wavelets from unblocked portion of an
impinging wave front explains ‘bending’ of a wave
around a barrier’s edge. Diffraction pattern (for
coherent waves) seen near edge of the obstacle.
➢ Similar results for viewing coherent light diffraction
on other finite-extent objects (e.g., image of the
shadow of a razor blade).

28
 Single-Slit Diffraction
• Single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction: consider single slit
of width 𝑎 to be a source of a large number 𝑁
wavelets.
• Adopt parallel-ray approximation again, similar to
that was done in the interference study.
• Because intensity of a wave is proportional to the
square of the electric field amplitude, using phasor
analysis find single-slit intensity as
𝛽 2
sin 2 2𝜋𝑎
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝛽 , 𝛽= sin 𝜃 ,
𝜆
2 𝑚′ = 3
and 𝐼0 is the intensity at the central maximum. 𝑚′ = 2
𝑚′ = 1
𝛽
➢ Intensity equation yields minima at = 𝑚′ 𝜋,
2
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆 ,′ ′
𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, … 𝑚′ = −1
𝑚′ = −2
𝑚′ = −3

29
 Single-Slit Diffraction (2)

• Iintensity versus angle in a single- 𝜃

slit diffraction pattern shown.
𝑚′ = 3
• Marked are locations of intensity
minima (𝐼 = 0) for each integer 𝑚′ = 2
(order) 𝑚′ . Also shown are 𝑚′ = 1
locations of maximum intensity,
with their intensity values.
• Most wave power goes into the 𝑚′ = −1
central intensity peak, between
𝑚′ = 1 and 𝑚′ = −1 intensity 𝑚′ = −2
minima.
𝑚′ = −3
• Single-slit diffraction pattern
depends on the ratio of slit width 𝑎
to wavelength 𝜆.

30
 Two-Slit Interference & Diffraction: Identical Slits
• Diffraction effects from the slits must be taken into account.
• For two-slit interference with diffraction for identical slits, phasor calculation finds
resultant intensity is the product of the diffraction pattern of a single slit
multiplied by the pattern for two-slit interference in the absence of diffraction :
𝛽 2
sin 𝛼 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑑
𝐼 𝜃 = 𝐼0 𝛽
2
cos 2 , 𝛽= sin 𝜃 , 𝛼= sin 𝜃 .
2 𝜆 𝜆
2

Two-slit interference effect

Single-slit diffraction effect

𝜃 is angle with respect to line from the slits to the viewing screen, 𝑎 =slit width of,
𝑑 = the distance between slits, and 𝐼0 = intensity of central maximum.

31
Two-Slit Interference & Diffraction Identical Slits (2)
➢ Diffraction minima are labeled by
integer 𝑚d = ±1, ±2, … (“d” is for
“diffraction”).
➢ Interference maxima labeled by
integer 𝑚i = 0, ±1, ±2, … (“i” is for
“interference”).

32
 Diffraction from Circular Apertures
• Diffraction also occurs in other apertures,
including circular apertures.
• Diffraction pattern formed by a circular
aperture has a central bright spot encircled
by alternating series of dark and bright
rings.
• Airy disk bound by first dark ring (i.e., first
diffraction minimum) and has angular
radius 𝜃1 :
𝜆
sin 𝜃1 = 1.22 𝐷 ,
𝐷 = diameter of circular aperture.
• Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving two point
objects:
➢ Objects are just resolved (distinguishable) if
center of one diffraction pattern coincides
with first minimum of the other. The angle
for the Rayleigh criterion is
𝜆
𝜃𝑅 = sin−1 1.22 𝐷 .
➢ For small angles, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, and
𝜆
𝜃𝑅 = 1.22 𝐷 (angle in radians). 33
 Exam 3 – Material Covered (5)
Topics
The special theory of relativity. Frames of reference.
Lorentz factor. Time dilation. Length contraction.
Relativistic momentum and energy.
Energy and mass units.

34
 The Special Theory of Relativity
• The theory is founded on two postulates:
I. Relativity principle: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial
reference frames, despite the fact that these frames may be in
uniform translation with respect to each other. Consequently, all
inertial frames are completely equivalent. There are no preferred
inertial reference frames.
II. Constancy of the speed of light: The velocity of light in vacuum is
the same (𝑐) in all inertial reference frames and is independent of
the motion of its source.

35
 Relativistic Time Dilation
• Clock at rest and located at position 𝑥 ′ in frame
𝑆 ′ . Time interval between two events 𝐴 and 𝐵
that occur at clock location at times 𝑡𝐴′ and 𝑡𝐵′
(recorded by an observer in 𝑆 ′ who also stays
located at 𝑥 ′ ) is the proper time interval:
Δ𝑡0 = 𝑡𝐵′ − 𝑡𝐴′ .
• An observer in frame 𝑆, sees events 𝐴 and 𝐵
occur at different locations 𝑥𝐴 and 𝑥𝐵 ,
recorded at times 𝑡𝐴 and 𝑡𝐵 by their own clock.
Relativistic (Lorentz) transformation equations
yield:
𝑡𝐵 − 𝑡𝐴 = Δ𝑡 = 𝛾Δ𝑡0 .
1 Δ𝑡
• Lorentz factor 𝛾 = > 1 for 𝑢 ≠ 0, it follows that = 𝛾 > 1.
𝑢 2 Δ𝑡0
1−
𝑐

➢ Observer in 𝑆 would say that the clock in 𝑆 ′ (perceived as moving relative to

𝑆) is running slow compared to their own clock. Clocks (and time between
events) run more slowly when moving relative to an observer.
36
 Relativistic Length – Length Contraction
𝒖

𝑥𝐴′ 𝑥𝐵′ 𝑥′

𝑥𝐴 𝑥𝐵 𝑥
• Lorentz transform equations give:
𝑥𝐵′ − 𝑥𝐴′ = 𝛾(𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 ) ⇒ 𝐿0 = 𝛾𝐿 , where 𝐿0 = 𝑥𝐵′ − 𝑥𝐴′ is the proper
length (rod seen at rest in 𝑆 ′ -frame) and 𝐿 = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 is the length of the rod as
measured in 𝑆 -frame (frame in which the rod is seen as moving).
1
• Rewriting equation: 𝐿= 𝐿0 .
𝛾

1 𝑢 2
• Because = 1− < 1 for 𝑢 ≠ 0, 𝐿 < 𝐿0 . Relativistic length contraction.
𝛾 𝑐

• The dimension of a moving object aligned with the axis/direction of motion

always appears shorter than when it is at rest.
37
 Momentum and Energy in Relativity
• Conservation of momentum also holds in relativity theory. The form of
relativistic momentum of a particle is
1
𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚𝒗 , 𝑚 = the mass of the object, and 𝛾 = 2
is the Lorentz
𝑣
1− 𝑐

factor of the particle moving at speed 𝑣 = |𝒗|.

• The relativistic energy of a particle is given by
𝐾 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 .
• The total relativistic energy of a particle is
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝐸0 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 ,
where 𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑐 2 is its “rest energy”.
• A relation linking energy and momentum is the relativistic energy-momentum
relation (which holds true even for particles with mass 𝑚 = 0):
𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑐 2 2 .

38
 Energy and Mass Units
• Atomic and Nuclear Physicists and Engineers often use the energy unit:
electron-volt or eV.
• The electron volt is a good unit for atomic physics – binding energies are
of the order of 1 to 10 eV. For instance, the ground-state binding energy
of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.
• Recall that, in SI units, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J.
• Nuclear reactions tend to occur on the mega-electron-volt or MeV scale.
1 MeV = 106 eV.
• In addition to the SI unit of mass (kg), when dealing with nuclear
reactions scientists and engineers may also use the unit MeV/𝑐 2 .
Convenient to use for energy calculations, especially for rest energies,
since rest energy 𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .
• To convert from kg to MeV/𝑐 2 , use
𝑐2 𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸0
𝑚=𝑚 = = .
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2

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 Exam 3 – Material Covered (6)
Topics
Photons. Photoelectric effect, stopping potential. Einstein’s
photoelectric equation. Work function.
Intensity in the photon model.
. Photon momentum & the Compton experiment.
Introduction to wave-particle duality.

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 Photoelectric Effect Experiment
• Experiment had results contrary to
expectations based on EM wave theory
deduced from Maxwell’s equations. Cathode
Anode
• Electrons are ejected from the illuminated
emitter plate (cathode) & travel to the
collector plate (anode).
➢ Energy of freed electrons is conserved.
➢ The stopping potential 𝑉0 = −𝑉AC is the
potential that just stops the current from
getting to the anode, that is, the potential
that causes 𝐾A = 0.
➢ The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected
cathode electrons for that case is
𝐾C,max = 𝑒𝑉0 .

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 Photoelectric Effect Experiment (2)
• Einstein proposed Individual photon with
energy
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = (ℎ = Planck’s constant)
𝜆
arriving at a surface is absorbed by a single
electron.
➢ He also proposed maximum kinetic energy of
ejected photoelectrons from a surface is
➢ 𝐾C,max = 𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙 ,
𝜙 is the work function of a metal.
➢ Electron can escape from the surface
(𝐾C,max > 0) only if the energy it absorbs is
greater than the work function 𝜙.
➢ The greater the work function of a material,
the greater the minimum frequency needed
to emit photoelectrons. Explains why there is
a threshold frequency.
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 EM Wave Intensity in the Photon Description
• For EM waves, wave intensity is:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐸𝑀 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
Intensity 𝐼 = = .
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)

• For photons:
𝑁𝛾 ℎ𝑓 𝑁𝛾
𝐼= = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐹𝛾 𝐸𝛾 ,
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

(𝑁𝛾 )
𝐹𝛾 = = photon flux,
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝛾 = ℎ𝑓 = = photon energy.
𝜆

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 Photon Momentum, Compton Scattering
• Photons travel at speed of light and have mass 𝑚 = 0.
• For photons, 𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑐 2

𝐸 ℎ𝑓 ℎ
⇒ 𝑝= = = = magnitude of photon momentum.
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆

• In Compton scattering, an incident photon collides with

an electron that is initially at rest.
➢ The photon gives up part of its energy and momentum to
the electron, which recoils as a result of this impact.
➢ Scattered photon flies off at an angle ϕ with respect to the
incident direction, but it has less energy and less
momentum than the incident photon.
➢ Using conservation of total momentum-energy of the X ray
and electron system, the change in the wavelength of the
scattered photon is
ℎ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐 (1 − cos 𝜙)
𝑚 = electron mass, 𝜙 = scattering angle, 𝜆 = initial
wavelength, and 𝜆′ = wavelength after scattering.
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 Light: Waves or Particles?

• Physical experiments reveal that light has a dual nature: a “wave-particle

duality”.
• No single model or interpretation (EM wave model, photon particle-like
model) suffices in describing all physically observed aspects of light
(propagation, interaction with matter, etc.).
• It comes down to: what sort of experiment is being performed?
➢ If an experiment is designed to observe the wave-like properties of light, the
wave-like properties of light (e.g., two-slit interference, diffraction etc.) are in
fact observed.
➢ If an experiment is designed to observe the particle-like properties of light, the
particle-like aspects of light (e.g., photoelectric effect, Compton scattering,
etc.) are in fact observed.

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 Review Lab Activity
• Lab classes Mon (Dec. 2)/Tues (Dec. 3): set of practice questions.
• Worth 6.67 extra-credit lab activity points. Can work in groups and ask
questions, just like a regular lab.
• Class 25 attendance and participation is required to earn the extra-
credit lab points.

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