18.

Column buckling

Objectives:

To study the possible failure mode of a column under a compressive axial load as a result
of a “buckling instability”.

Background:

• A column under an axial loading P will experience a material failure due to

P
yielding when the magnitude of the normal stress σ = exceeds the yield
A
strength of the material σ Y .

P
A

• For thin columns experiencing compressive axial loading, failure is possible for
P
axial loads that are considerable less than that which = σ Y due to a “buckling
A
instability”.
• The moment-curvature equation for a thin bending beam is given by:

d 2v
M ( x ) = EI
dx 2
 Buckling

1
Simple model for buckling instability – rigid bar
Consider a rigid bar of length L is pinned to ground at O. A rotational spring (spring
which exerts a couple that is proportional to its angular deformation) is attached between
the bar and ground at O. A downward vertical force P acts at the free end of the bar.
Ignore the influence of gravity.

P
P P

θ
L

Kθ

K
rotational K
O O O
spring
Ox
Oy

undeformed) deformed) FBD)of)

state) state) column)

For equilibrium of the column:

K
∑ M O = −Kθ + PL sinθ = 0 ⇒ sin θ eq =
PL
θ eq = αθ eq (1)
where α = K / PL .

The above equation tells us the relationship among the loading P, the column length L,
the stiffness of the rotational spring and the equilibrium angle θ eq of the column. A
couple observations:
• An undeformed equilibrium state is possible for all values of loading P. To see
this, θ eq = 0 satisfies equation (1) regardless of the value of P. This result agrees
with one’s intuition since the loading P does not cause of moment about O when
θ = 0.
• For α < 1 ( P > K / L ) there exists another nonzero solution of θ eq for equation
(1). To see this, consider the plots of αθ eq and sin θ eq vs. θ eq in the following
graph. Stated in words, for large loadings P, the column can take on deformed
configuration. It can be shown that when this non-zero equilibrium state exists,
the zero solution θ eq = 0 is UNSTABLE. That is, even though the column can be

Column buckling Topic 18: 2 Mechanics of Materials

 in equilibrium, any disturbance away from that state will have the column take on
the stable, “buckled”, deformed state.

αθ ; α > 1
αθ ; α = 1
1 1
α α 1 αθ ; α < 1
α
sin θ

θ
θ eq
θ eq = 0

A sketch of the solution of the above equilibrium equation (1) is shown below:

θ eq

deformed state

STABLE
UNSTABLE

P
P = Pcr

In summary:
• For P < K / L ( α > 1 ), the undeformed state of the column is STABLE.
• For P > K / L ( α < 1 ) the undeformed state of the column is UNSTABLE and the
column will take on the “buckled” deformed state.
K
• Pcr = is known as the critical load for buckling of the bar. This is the largest
L
magnitude of a compressive axial force for which the undeformed state is not
unstable.

Column buckling Topic 18: 3 Mechanics of Materials

 A
Euler buckling model for columns
Here we will consider a thin flexible column that is acted upon by a compressive axial
loading P. The Euler-Bernoulli bending “continuous” model will be used in our buckling
analysis. We will study the buckling load P for four different types of boundary
conditions for the column (shown in the figures below):
A) pinned-pinned column
B) fixed-free column
C) fixed-pinned column
D) fixed-fixed column

P
P P

11
L L L L

pinned-pinned fixed-free fixed-pinned fixed-fixed

T t

Column buckling Topic 18: 4 Mechanics of Materials

A) Pinned-pinned column
P P
F dues
v(x) v(x)
V10 D

M (x)

nÉ P

N 2 D
P

x x

FBD of column FBD of top sec0on of column

Here we have the axial load P and the beam moment (using Euler-Bernoulli theory for
thin beams):

M (x) = EI
d 2v
dx 2
Mz Iz
by Io
III
acting on the top section of the column at the cut. For equilibrium:

E
∑ M B = M (x) + Pv(x) = 0 ⇒
o

OO
d 2v
EI 2 + Pv = 0
dx Ie tu
(2)

Equation (2) is the equation of equilibrium for a deflected column acted upon by an axial
load P. The general form of the solution for this differential equation is:

E
( ) (
v(x) = A cos x P / EI + Bsin x P / EI )
Enforcing the following boundary conditions for the pinned-pinned column:
v(0) = v(L) = 0 (3)
gives:
v(0) = 0 = A cos ( 0 ) + Bsin ( 0 ) = A ⇒ A = 0
and:

Column buckling Topic 18: 5 Mechanics of Materials

 ( ) (
v(L) = 0 = A cos L P / EI + Bsin L P / EI = Bsin L P / EI ) ( ) ⇒

Bsin ( L P / EI ) = 0 (4)

I
Equation (4) says that EITHER:
m
• B = 0 , OR

(
• sin L P / EI = 0 )
If B = 0 , then v(x) = 0 . That is, the undeformed shape of the column is always possible,
just as it was for the rigid-bar model. For a deformed shape of the column ( B ≠ 0 ), then
we must have:

( )
00
P
sin L P / EI = 0 ⇒ L = nπ ; n = 1,2, 3,... (5)
EI
The values of P satisfying equation (5) are known as the critical loads for buckling of the

I
column:
EI
Pcr = n 2π 2 2 (6)

E
L
For loads above the lowest critical value of P,
EI EA
P > Pcr = π 2 2 = π 2 (7)
L ( L / r )2
the column is assumed to be in a buckled state, where A is the cross-sectional area of the
column and:

EE IIF E
I t
r=
A
is the radius of gyration of the beam’s cross-section.

The axial stress in the column corresponding to the critical buckling load Pcr for a
pinned-end column is given by:
P E

I
σ cr = cr = π 2 (8)
A ( L / r )2
For the other boundary conditions, we will write the critical load and the critical stress as:
EI EA
Pcr = π 2 2 = π 2 (9)
( )
2
Leff L /r eff
E
σ cr = π 2 (10)
( )
2
Leff / r
where Leff is the “effective length” of the column for that particular set of boundary
conditions. From equation (9) we see that if the effective length of the column Leff is
greater than the physical length L for a given set of boundary conditions, then the critical
buckling load is lower than that of the pinned-pinned column.
Column buckling Topic 18: 6 Mechanics of Materials
B) Fixed-free column

P P

O 2L

fixed-free column pinned-pinned column

of length L of length 2L

From the above figure, we see that a fixed-free column under an axial load P is
structurally the same as a pinned-pinned column of half the length. Based on this, we can
directly write down that the critical load for the buckling of a fixed-free column as:
EI
Pcr = π 2 2
h

⑨
Leff
where Leff = 2L = the effective length of the column for buckling.

Column buckling Topic 18: 7 Mechanics of Materials

 C) Fixed-pinned column
P
P P

Per
EEA
L L L
a
L
0.7 L

pinned-pinned fixed-free fixed-pinned fixed-fixed

It can be shown that the effective length of a fixed-pinned column of length L for
buckling is:

o
Leff = 0.7L

P
P
D) Fixed-fixed column P

20.5 L
L L L

I
It can be shown that the effective length of a fixed-fixed column of length L for buckling
pinned fixed-free fixed-pinned fixed-fixed
is:

o
Leff = 0.5L

Column buckling Topic 18: 8 Mechanics of Materials

Comments on boundary conditions and buckling analysis
Recall that a pinned-end condition corresponds to boundary conditions of zero bending
moment at the pin. This is apparent since a smooth pin does not resist rotation about the
pin axis (the z-axis, perpendicular to the page in the side view below). However, the
physical makeup of a pin joint does resist rotation about the x-axis (perpendicular to the
page as seen from the edge view shown below). For a rigid pin, the rotation of the pin
about the x-axis is completely restrained, producing a “fixed” (or, clamped) boundary
condition for rotation about the x-axis.

y y

x O O z

side%view% edge%view%

There are also other combinations of end conditions that may exist in two directions for
other boundaries. One needs to look at these conditions carefully to determine which
conditions to use in the buckling analysis.

In summary, we need to consider buckling about two axes of bending, generally in the
direction perpendicular to the page and in the direction as seen by the edge view of the
structure. Columns will typically have different second area moments, I, for these two
directions. In addition, the pinned end condition places different boundary conditions on
rotations for these two different directions of rotations. Generally, one solves for buckling
critical loads in each direction, and chooses smallest critical load when assessing a
design.

Column buckling Topic 18: 9 Mechanics of Materials

Limitations on the Euler buckling theory
As we have seen, the Euler theory provides us with the following expression for the
critical buckling stress of a column of length L and radius of gyration:
E
σ cr = π 2 (11)
( )
2
Leff / r
As discussed earlier in the course, the Euler theory for beams is valid for slender beams
(the length dimension is large compared to a characteristic beam thickness dimension).
Stated differently, the Euler theory is valid for a large “slenderness ratio”, Leff / r .

A plot of the critical buckling stress given in equation (11) is shown in the following
figure.
σ cr cri$cal'stress'for'yielding'

σY

cri$cal'stress'for'buckling'
(Euler'theory)'

Leff / r (slenderness ratio)

Some comments on this plot:

• For large slenderness ratios, the critical stress for buckling is quite low, as one
would expect for long, slender beams. For small slenderness ratios, the Euler
theory predicts unreasonably high critical stresses required for buckling. This is a
shortcoming of the Euler theory.
• In addition to the critical stress for buckling, we need to keep in mind that the
induced axial stress must not exceed the yield strength σ Y of the material. In
short, the induced stress in the column must lie below both the yield strength and
the critical stress for buckling.
• Experiments have shown that the Euler theory is actually only valid for induced
stresses up to 0.5σ Y . From equation (11), we see that this says we should not use
the Euler buckling theory for slenderness ratios less than ( Leff / r )c , where:
π 2E
( Leff )
/r =
c 0.5σ Y

Column buckling Topic 18: 10 Mechanics of Materials

 The following quadratic transition curve for slenderness ratio values of
( )c
0 < Leff / r < Leff / r has been proposed and used extensively:
⎡
( )
2 ⎤
L / r
σ cr = ⎢1− ⎥σ
eff
⎢
( )
2⎥ Y
⎢⎣ 2 Leff / r c ⎥⎦
The above is known as the “Johnson column formula”.

The modified critical stress for buckling plot is shown below. For 0 < Leff / r < Leff / r , ( )c
one is to use the Johnson formula, whereas for Leff / r > Leff / r ( )c the Euler formula is to
be used.

σ cr cri$cal stress for yielding

σY

0.5 σ Y

cri$cal stress for buckling

(Euler theory)

Leff / r (slenderness ratio)

Johnson theory Euler theory

( Leff / r )c

Column buckling Topic 18: 11 Mechanics of Materials

Solving buckling problems using the Euler/Johnson formulas

1. Calculate – Leading up to choosing the correct formula for determining critical

loads, you need to determine the following:
• Determine the compressive axial load acting on the member.
• Determine the appropriate boundary conditions for the column. From this,
determine the effective length Leff .
• Calculate the radius of gyration for the column cross section: r = I / A .
• Calculate the slenderness ratio for the column, Leff / r . (This number
depends on only the geometric properties of the column.)
• Calculate the critical slenderness ratio: Leff / r ( ) c
= 2π 2 E / σ Y . (This
number depends on only the material properties of the column.)
2. Compare – Compare the slenderness ratio Leff / r with the critical slenderness

(
ratio value Leff / r . ) c
3. Choose – Choose the appropriate formula for the critical load value:
⎡ ⎤
( )
• If Leff / r > Leff / r , then use the Euler buckling formula: Pcr = ⎢
π2 ⎥ EA .
⎢ L /r
( )
c 2⎥
⎣ eff ⎦
( )
• If Leff / r < Leff / r , then use the Johnson buckling formula:
c
⎡
( )
2 ⎤
L / r
Pcr = σ cr A = ⎢1− ⎥σ A
eff
2⎥ Y .
⎢
(
⎢⎣ 2 Leff / r c ⎥⎦ )
σ cr cri$cal stress for yielding

σY

0.5 σ Y

cri$cal stress for buckling

(Euler theory)

Leff / r (slenderness ratio)

Johnson theory Euler theory

( Leff / r )c
Column buckling Topic 18: 12 Mechanics of Materials
 Example 18.1
Determine the critical load Pcr of a steel pipe column that has a length of L with having a
tubular cross section of inner radius ri and thickness t. The material has a Young’s
modulus of E and yield strength of σ Y . Use pinned-fixed boundary conditions.

o rite
E Ty
Per
Éfixed Le 0.7L
pinned

use Euler's
Ig
If Jer a Ty
is
buckling
valid

If Jar Ty use other theory

Column buckling Topic 18: 13 Mechanics of Materials

 Example 18.2
The steel compression strut BC of the frame ABC is a steel tube with an outer diameter
of d = 48 mm and a wall thickness of t = 5 mm. Determine the factor of safety against
elastic buckling if a distributed load of 10 kN/m is applied to the horizontal frame
member AB as shown. Let E = 210 GPa and σY = 340 MPa.

Pac is in
10 kN / m
comp
A B

1m

2m

Calculate PBC

j EM 0
a
j son im pts.am o

PBC 22.36 KN

65.59 KN
Por
IÉ It
s
B T
Column buckling Topic 18: 14 Mechanics of Materials

97 MPa C 340 MPa Ty

Tor
IIe
 Example 18.4
A straight, slender rod is fixed to a rigid support at end A and pinned to a rigid support at
end B. At the reference temperature, the rod is perfectly stress-free.
a) Derive a formula that expresses the uniform increase in temperature ΔTcr
required to cause elastic buckling of the compression member.
b) Determine the value of ΔTcr required to cause elastic buckling of an aluminum
rod with a diameter of d = 20 mm and a length of L = 1m . The coefficient of
thermal expansion, Young’s modulus and yield strength for aluminum are
α = 23× 10−6 / °C , E = 10.6 × 103 ksi and σ Y = 60 ksi , respectively.
210 GPa
fixed
d
Finned Ty 340hPa
x

Le 0.7L
L
A B

Dt L o
e t a

II F a DT EA
in compression
Fl Per
TEI
a DTC
II I AL

Atc 870C
b
L TY
Check if
Column buckling
Tar
Bff
Topic 18: 15 Mechanics of Materials
Example 18.6
Consider Truss I shown below. What load is carried by members BE and DH?
Considering the load carried by those members, why are those members included in the
design of the truss? Why not use the design of Truss II instead where members BE and
DH have been removed and members AI and EI are continuous members?
Truss I Truss II
I I

E H
F G F G

A E A E
B C D B C D

Column buckling Topic 18: 16 Mechanics of Materials

Additional notes:

Column buckling Topic 18: 17 Mechanics of Materials

Column buckling Topic 18: 18 Mechanics of Materials
 A.1 Geometric properties of plane areas

In the following, O, A, I y and I z represent the centroid, the area, the second area
moment about the y-axis, and the second area moment about the z-axis, respectively, of
the plane area shown.
y

b/ 2 b/ 2
Rectangle
A = bh 2h / 3

1 h/2
I y = b3h z
12 z
O h/3
1
I z = bh3 h/2
12
b/ 2

b/ 2 b y/ 2
Triangle y y
1 2h / 3
b/ 2 b/ 2
A = bh h/2 z
2 2h / 3 z 4R / 3π
1 z
I y = hb/ 32h O h/3
48 zz O
z O
O h / 2h / 3 R
1 3
I z = hbh b/ 2
36 / 2 y
b/ 2 b/ 2
y

b/ 2 b/ 2 y
y
Circle y 2h / 3
2
h/2 A=πR z
z 4R / 3π
π 4 z
O / 3π
O R
z I yO= I z = R 4R
4 h/3 z O
z O R
h/2 R

b/ 2 b/ 2
Semi-circle
π y
A = R2
2y
π
I y = R4
8 z
O R
⎛ 9π 2 − 64 ⎞ 4 4R / 3π
Iz = ⎜ ⎟R
z ⎝O 72π ⎠
R

Geometric properties of beam cross sections A1:1 Mechanics of Materials

Geometric properties of beam cross sections A1:2 Mechanics of Materials
 NIST WTC Investigation Objectives
• Determine:
• why and how the WTC Towers collapsed following the initial
impact of the aircraft, and
• why and how the 47-story WTC 7 collapsed
Fire-induced core column shortening detected. Due to heating from fires following the aircraft impacts and
subsequent buckling, there was a shortening of core columns seen in both towers on floors at or near the fire-
affected impact sites. Shortening of the core columns caused the floor system to pull the perimeter columns
inward—the observed inward bowing that was seen minutes prior to the collapse of each tower. Significant
thermal sagging of the floor system exacerbated the inward pull on the perimeter columns in WTC 2. Vertical
loads carried by shortened columns were redistributed to perimeter columns, putting additional strain on their
load-bearing capabilities.