A Quick Reminder

Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra

and Floyd-Warshall

Ali Benzerbadj
University of Ain Temouchent Belhadj Bouchaïb

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 1/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Plan

1 A Quick Reminder

2 Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Pseudocode
Example
Time Complexity

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 2/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Plan
3 Dijkstra Algorithm
Pseudocode
Example
Time complexity

4 Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Pseudocode
Example
Time Complexity

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 3/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Plan

5 Comparison of Algorithms

6 How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 4/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

A Quick Reminder
Dijkstra : Shortest path from one node to all nodes,
negative edge weights not allowed.
Bellman-Ford : Shortest path from one node to all
nodes, negative edge weights allowed.
Floyd-Warshall : Shortest path between all pairs of
vertices, negative edge weights allowed.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 5/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Bellman-Ford Algorithm
The Bellman-Ford algorithm shares some characteristics with
dynamic programming, however it is more accurately described
as a relaxation-based algorithm.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 6/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Bellman-Ford Algorithm
The Bellman-Ford Algorithm is used to nd the shortest
paths from a single source vertex to all other vertices in a
weighted graph.
It can handle graphs with negative weight edges, unlike
Dijkstra's algorithm, but cannot handle negative weight
cycles.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 7/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Bellman-Ford Algorithm (Cont.)
1 Input of the Algorithm :
A weighted graph G = (V , E , w ) where V is a set of
vertices, E is a set of edges, and w represents the weight
of the edges.
A source vertex src from which the shortest paths will be
calculated.
2 Output of the Algorithm :
The shortest path distances from the source vertex to all
other vertices, stored in a distance array.
A predecessor array to reconstruct the paths.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 8/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 1 Bellman-Ford : Initialization Pseudocode
Require: Graph G (V , E , w ) with vertices V , edges E and w : E → R is a function
that assigns a weight to each edge. Note that if there is no edge between vertex
u and vertex v, weight(u, v) = ∞
Require: Source vertex src ∈ V
Ensure: Shortest path distances from src to all other vertices in G
Ensure: Predecessor information to reconstruct shortest paths
1: procedure BellmanFord(G, src)
2: Initialize distance[] and predecessor[] arrays :
3: for each vertex v in G except src do
4: distance[v ] = ∞
5: predecessor[v ] = null
6: end for
7: distance[src] = 0
8: end procedure

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 9/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 2 Bellman-Ford : Relaxation Pseudocode

1: procedure BellmanFord(G, src)
2: for each vertex i from 1 to |V | − 1 do
3: for each edge (u , v ) in G do
4: if distance[u ] + weight(u , v ) < distance[v ] then
5: distance[v ] = distance[u ] + weight(u , v )
6: predecessor[v ] = u
7: end if
8: end for
9: end for
10: end procedure

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 10/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 3 Bellman-Ford : Negative-Weight Cycles Pseudo-

code
1: procedure BellmanFord(G, src)
2: for each edge (u , v ) in G do
3: if distance[u ] + weight(u , v ) < distance[v ] then
4: Error : Negative-weight cycle detected
5: Terminate the algorithm
6: end if
7: end for
8: Return distance[], predecessor[]
9: end procedure

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 11/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Explanation
1 Step 1 : Initialization

In this step, the algorithm initilizes :

1 The distances to all vertices as innite (∞), which
implies that the distance from the source vertex to all
other vertices is initially considered to be innite
2 The distance to the source vertex as 0, indicating that
the shortest path from the source to itself is zero.
Additionally, it initializes an array to keep track of the
predecessors of each vertex.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Explanation (Cont.)
2 Step 2 : Relaxation

For each vertex, relax all the edges. This means checking
if a shorter path exists to each vertex through another
vertex and updating accordingly.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Explanation (Cont.)
2 Step 2 : Relaxation

Mathematically, for an edge (u ,v ) with weight

weight(u ,v ), we check if :
distance[v ]>distance[u ]+weight(u ,v ), where :
distance[u ] : Is the current known shortest distance from
the source to vertex u
distance[v ] : This is the current known shortest distance
from the source to vertex v .
weight(u ,v ) : Is the weight of the edge from vertex u to
vertex v .

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Explanation (Cont.)
2 Step 2 : Relaxation

If the condition is true : It means that going from the

source vertex to vertex v through vertex u provides a
shorter path. Therefore, you update the distance to
vertex v and set the predecessor of v to u (indicating
that the shortest path to v currently goes through u ) :
distance[v ]=distance[u ]+weight(u ,v )

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Explanation (Cont.)
3 Step 3 : Check for Negative-Weight Cycles

Finally, the algorithm checks for negative weight cycles.

If it nds a shorter path even after |V|-1 iterations, it
indicates the presence of a negative weight cycle.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example
Consider the following graph with 5 vertices (A, B, C, D, E) and weighted edges :

-1
A B

4 3

C 1 2
2

D E
-3

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices
using the Bellman-Ford algorithm.
1 Initialization :

Set the distance to the source vertex A as 0.

Set the distance to all other vertices as innity (∞)

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Table 1  Initialization.
Vertex Distance Predecessor
A 0 -
B ∞ -
C ∞ -
D ∞ -
E ∞ -

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Relaxation :

First Iteration (Relax all edges) :

1 Edge (A, B, -1)
distance[B]=min(∞,0-1)=-1
Predecessor of B is A.
2 Edge (A, C, 4) :
distance[C]=min(∞,0+4)=4
Predecessor of C is A
3 Edge (B, C, 3) :
distance[C]=min(4,-1+3)=2
Predecessor of C is B
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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Relaxation :

First Iteration (Relax all edges) :

1 Edge (B, D, 2) :
distance[D]=min(∞,-1+2)=1
Predecessor of D is B.
2 Edge (B, E, 2) :
distance[E]=min(∞,-1+2)=1
Predecessor of E is B.
3 Edge (D, B, 1) :
distance[B]=min(-1,1+1)= -1 (no update)

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Relaxation :

First Iteration (Relax all edges) :

1 Edge (D, C, 5) :
distance[C]=min(2,1+5)=2 (no update)
2 Edge (E, D, -3) :
distance[D]=min(1,1-3)=-2
Predecessor of D is E.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Table 2  Relaxation : 1st iteration.

Vertex Distance Predecessor
A 0 -
B -1 A
C 2 B
D -2 E
E 1 B

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Relaxation :

Second Iteration (Relax all edges) :

1 Edge (A, B, -1)
distance[B]=min(-1,0-1)=-1 (no update)
2 Edge (A, C, 4) :
distance[C]=min(2,0+4)=2 (no update)
3 Edge (B, C, 3) :
distance[C]=min(2,-1+3)=2 (no update)

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Relaxation :

Second Iteration (Relax all edges) :

1 Edge (B, D, 2) :
distance[D]=min(-2,-1+2)=-2 (no update)
2 Edge (B, E, 2) :
distance[E]=min(1,-1+2)=1 (no update)
3 Edge (D, B, 1) :
distance[B]=min(-1,-2+1)= -1 (no update)

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Relaxation :

Second Iteration (Relax all edges) :

1 Edge (D, C, 5) :
distance[C]=min(2,-2+5)=2 (no update)
2 Edge (E, D, -3) :
distance[D]=min(-2,1-3)=-2 (no update)

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Table 3  Relaxation : 2nd iteration.

Vertex Distance Predecessor
A 0 -
B -1 A
C 2 B
D -2 E
E 1 B

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Relaxing all edges three times, the table looks like this :

Table 4  Relaxation : 3rd iteration.

Vertex Distance Predecessor
A 0 -
B -1 A
C 2 B
D -2 E
E 1 B

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Relaxing all edges one last time :

Table 5  Relaxation : 4th iteration.

Vertex Distance Predecessor
A 0 -
B -1 A
C 2 B
D -2 E
E 1 B

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
3 Checking for Negative-Weight Cycles :

In a graph with no negative-weight cycles, after |V |-1

iterations, the distances will stabilize.
If we perform another iteration and nd that any
distance can still be reduced, it indicates the presence of
a negative-weight cycle.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Relaxing all edges one more time :

Table 6  Relaxation : 5th iteration.

Vertex Distance Predecessor
A 0 -
B -1 A
C 2 B
D -2 E
E 1 B

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Time Complexity
1 The time complexity of the Bellman-Ford algorithm is

O(V ∗ E ), where V is the number of vertices and E is the

number of edges in the graph :

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Time Complexity (Cont.)
Initialization : Setting the initial distances takes O(V )
time.
Relaxation : The algorithm relaxes all edges |V| - 1
times, resulting in a time complexity of O(V ∗ E ) for this
step.
Negative Cycle Check : In the nal step, the algorithm
checks for negative-weight cycles by iterating through all
edges, which takes O(E ) time.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Time Complexity (Cont.)

Therefore, the overall time complexity is dominated by
the relaxation step, leading to O(V ∗ E ).

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Dijkstra's Algorithm
Dijkstra's Algorithm is a greedy algorithm used to nd
the shortest path from a single source vertex to all other
vertices in a graph with non-negative edge weights.
Unlike the Floyd-Warshall algorithm, which computes
shortest paths between all pairs of vertices, Dijkstra's
algorithm focuses on paths starting from a single source.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Dijkstra's Algorithm (Cont.)

1 Input of the Algorithm :
A weighted graph G = (V , E , w ) represented by an
adjacency list or matrix, where V is a set of vertices, E is
a set of edges, and w represents the non-negative
weights of the edges.
A source vertex s from which the shortest paths to all
other vertices are to be calculated.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Dijkstra's Algorithm (Cont.)

2 Output of the Algorithm :
A distance array where d [i ] holds the shortest distance
from the source vertex s to vertex i .
A predecessor array that helps reconstruct the shortest
path from the source to any vertex.

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 4 Dijkstra's Algorithm : Initialization

1: procedure Dijkstra(graph, source)
2: Input : graph, source
3: Output : distance[], predecessor[]
4: for each vertex v in graph do
5: distance[v ] = ∞ ▷ Initialize distances to innity
6: predecessor[v ] = null ▷ No predecessors yet
7: end for
8: distance[source] = 0 ▷ Distance from source to itself is 0
9: Create a priority queue Q with all vertices, prioritized by distance
10: end procedure

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 5 Dijkstra's Algorithm : Main Loop
1: procedure Dijkstra(graph, source) ▷ Continued
2: while Q is not empty do
3: u = Extract_Min(Q ) ▷ Vertex with the smallest distance
4: for each neighbor v of u do
5: alt = distance[u] + weight(u, v )
6: if alt < distance[v ] then
7: distance[v ] = alt ▷ Update shortest distance to v
8: predecessor[v ] = u ▷ Update predecessor of v
9: Decrease_Key(Q , v , alt )

10: end if
11: end for
12: end while
13: end procedure

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 6 Dijkstra's Algorithm : Final Output

1: procedureDijkstra(graph, source) ▷ Continued
2: Return distance[], predecessor[]
3: end procedure

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example
Consider a graph with 5 vertices (A, B, C, D, E) and the following edges with their
weights :

10
A B

5 2 1

9
C D

3 7
4

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
The adjacency matrix :
A B C D E
A 
0 10 5 ∞ ∞

B ∞ 0 ∞ 1 ∞
d =C ∞

2 0 9 3 
D 0 4 

∞ ∞ ∞
E ∞ ∞ ∞ 7 0

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices using the Dijkstra's
Algorithm :
1 Initialization :
Set the initial distances from A to all vertices :
distance(A) = 0 (starting vertex)
distance(B) = ∞
distance(C) = ∞
distance(D) = ∞
distance(E) = ∞
Set the processed set S= ∅.
Predecessor of each vertex is unknown initially.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 43/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices using the Dijkstra's
Algorithm :
2 Step 1 (Process A) :
Select the unprocessed vertex with the smallest distance,
which is A with distance 0.
Update the distances of A's neighbors (B and C) :
distance(B) = min(∞,0+10)=10
distance(C) = min(∞,0+5)=5
Predecessors : B → A, C → A
Mark A as processed : S={A}.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 44/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices using the Dijkstra's
Algorithm :
3 Step 2 (Process C) :
Select the next unprocessed vertex with the smallest
distance, which is C with distance 5.
Update the distances of C's neighbors (B, D, E) :
distance(B) = min(10,5+2)=7
distance(D) = min(∞,5+9)=14
distance(E) = min(∞,5+3)=8
Predecessors : B → C, D → C, E → C
Mark C as processed : S={A,C}.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 45/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices using the Dijkstra's
Algorithm :
4 Step 3 (Process B) :
Select the next unprocessed vertex with the smallest
distance, which is B with distance 7.
Update the distance of B's neighbor (D) :
distance(D) = min(14,7+1)=8
Predecessor : D → B
Mark B as processed : S={A,C, B}.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 46/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices using the Dijkstra's
Algorithm :
5 Step 4 (Process E) :
Select the next unprocessed vertex with the smallest
distance, which is E with distance 8.
Update the distance of E's neighbor (D) :
distance(D) = min(8,8+7)=8 (no update needed)
Mark E as processed : S={A,C, B, E}.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 47/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Let's nd the shortest paths from vertex A to all other vertices using the Dijkstra's
Algorithm :
6 Step 5 (Process D) :
The last unprocessed vertex is D with distance 8. No
neighbors to update.
Mark D as processed : S={A,C, B, E, D}.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 48/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Final Shortest Distances from A :
A to A:0
A to B:7
A to C:5
A to D:8
A to E:8

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 49/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Remark
Order of processing D and E : We can choose either vertex in any order since
their distances are equal (8).
For any vertex in Dijkstra's algorithm, if all of its neighbors are already in the
set S (meaning they have already been processed), there is no need to update
their distances. This is because the shortest path to each of those neighbors has
already been determined when they were processed. Therefore, revisiting or
updating these neighbors would not yield any shorter paths.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 50/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Time Complexity
O(V 2 ) with an adjacency matrix
O((E + V ) log V ) using adjacency list with a min-heap
priority queue

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 51/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
The Floyd-Warshall Algorithm is a dynamic programming
algorithm used to nd the shortest paths between all pairs
of vertices in a weighted graph.
Unlike the Bellman-Ford algorithm, which nds the
shortest path from a single source to all other vertices,
the Floyd-Warshall algorithm computes the shortest paths
between every pair of vertices.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 52/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm (Cont.)
1 Input of the Algorithm :

A weighted graph G=(V,E,w) represented by an

adjacency matrix, where V is a set of vertices, E is a set
of edges, and w represents the weight of the edges. The
graph can have positive or negative edge weights, but no
negative cycles (where a cycle's total weight is negative).
2 Output of the Algorithm :
A matrix D where D[i][j] holds the shortest distance from
vertex i to vertex j.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 53/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm (Cont.)
How the Algorithm Works :
1 Initialization :

Start by initializing the distance matrix D with the given

weights :
If there is an edge from vertex i to vertex j, set
D[i][j]=w(i,j).
If there is no edge between i and j, set D[i][j]= ∞.
The distance from any vertex to itself is zero, so
D[i][i]=0 for all i.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 54/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm (Cont.)
2 Iterative Update :

The algorithm iteratively updates the distance matrix by

considering each vertex as an intermediate point on the
path between any two vertices.
For each pair of vertices (i,j), check if a path through
vertex k is shorter than the direct path from i to j.
Update D[i][j] if a shorter path is found :
D[i][j]=min(D[i][j],D[i][k]+D[k][j])
This process is repeated for every vertex k in the graph.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 55/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm (Cont.)

3 Final Matrix :

After all iterations, the matrix D contains the shortest

path distances between all pairs of vertices.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 56/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Algorithm 7 Pseudocode of Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
1: Input :A graph G represented by an adjacency matrix d where d [i ][j ] is the weight of the edge
from vertex i to vertex j . If there is no edge, d [i ][j ] is set to innity.
2: Output : The shortest path distances between all pairs of vertices, stored in the matrix d .
3: procedure FloydWarshall(G )
4: n ← |V |
5: for k ← 1 to n do
6: for i ← 1 to n do
7: for j ← 1 to n do
8: if d [i ][j ] > d [i ][k ] + d [k ][j ] then
9: d [i ][j ] ← d [i ][k ] + d [k ][j ]
10: end if
11: end for
12: end for
13: end for
14: end procedure

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 57/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example
Consider the following graph with 4 vertices (1, 2, 3, 4) and weighted edges :

3
1 2
8

2 7 5 2

4 3
1

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 58/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
1 Initialisation :
1 2 3 4
1 0 3 7
 
∞
d = 23
8 0 2 ∞
5 0 1 
 
∞
4 2 ∞ ∞ 0

The diagonal elements are 0, representing the distance from any vertex to itself.
Non-diagonal elements show the weights of the edges between vertices.
∞ signies that there is no edge between those vertices.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 59/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Iterations :

The algorithm iterates over each vertex as an

intermediate vertex.
For each pair of vertices (i,j), it checks if going through
the intermediate vertex provides a shorter path.
If so, it updates the distance matrix.
1 2 3 4
1 0 3 7
 
∞
d = 23
8 0 2 ∞
5 0 1 
 
∞
4 2 ∞ ∞ 0

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 60/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
1 Vertex 1 as intermediate vertex ⇒ 1st Column and 1st Line remain unchanged.

d (2, 3) d (2, 1) + d (1, 3)

2 < 8 + ∞
d (2, 4) d (2, 1) + d (1, 4)
∞ > 8 + 7
d (3, 2) d (3, 1) + d (1, 2)
∞ > 5 + 3
... ... ... ... ...

1 2 3 4
1 0 3 7
 
∞
d = 23
8 0 2 15 
5 8 0 1 
 
4 2 5 ∞ 0

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 61/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
2 Vertex 2 as intermediate vertex ⇒ 2nd Column and 2nd Line remain unchanged.

d (1, 3) d (1, 2) + d (2, 3)

∞ > 3 + 2
d (1, 4) d (1, 2) + d (2, 4)
7 < 3 + 15
... ... ... ... ...

1 2 3 4
1 0 3 5 7
 

d = 23
8 0 2 15 
5 8 0 1 
 
4 2 5 7 0

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 62/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
3 Vertex 3 as intermediate vertex ⇒ 3rd Column and 3rd Line remain unchanged.

d (1, 2) d (1, 3) + d (3, 2)

3 < 5 + 8
... ... ... ... ...

1 2 3 4
1 0 3 5 6
 

d = 23
7 0 2 3
5 8 0 1
 
4 2 5 7 0

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 63/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
4 Vertex 4 as intermediate vertex ⇒ 4th Column and 4th Line remain unchanged.
1 2 3 4
1 0 3 5 6
 

d = 23
5 0 2 3
3 6 0 1
 
4 2 5 7 0

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 64/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Example (Cont.)
Final Distance Matrix : After the algorithm completes, the distance matrix contains the shortest
paths between all pairs of vertices.
The nal matrix tells you the shortest distance, and we can reconstruct the path by manually
checking possible intermediate vertices that lead to the shortest distance or by using a
predecessor matrix for easier path reconstruction.
1 2 3 4
1 0 3 5 6
 

2
d =3 
5 0 2 3
3 6 0 1

4 2 5 7 0

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 65/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm Pseudocode
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm Example
Comparison of Algorithms Time Complexity
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Time Complexity
O(V 3 ), where V is the number of vertices.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 66/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Comparison of Algorithms (Part 1)

Feature Bellman-Ford Dijkstra Floyd-Warshall

Purpose Shortest paths Shortest paths Shortest paths

from a single from a single between all pairs
source vertex source vertex of vertices
Graph Type Can handle negative weights Assumes non-negative Can handle negative weights
and detect negative-weight edge weights but not negative-weight
cycles cycles

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 67/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Comparison of Algorithms (Part 2)

Feature Bellman-Ford Dijkstra Floyd-Warshall

Time Complexity O(V · E ) O(V 2 ) with an adjacency matrix O(V 3 )

or O((E + V ) log V ) using adjacency list
with a min-heap priority queue

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 68/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Comparison of Algorithms (Part 3)

Feature Bellman-Ford Dijkstra Floyd-Warshall

Relaxation Process Relax all edges Relax edges based Relax all edges
up to V − 1 times on the vertex with for each vertex
the smallest distance
Handling of Negative Weights Yes No Yes

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 69/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

Comparison of Algorithms (Part 4)

Feature Bellman-Ford Dijkstra Floyd-Warshall

Negative Cycle Detection Yes No No

Algorithm Type Dynamic Programming Greedy Algorithm Dynamic Programming

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 70/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
RIP Protocol Overview :
Distance Vector Routing : RIP is based on the
Bellman-Ford algorithm.
It is a distance-vector routing protocol.
Each router maintains a routing table with the
best-known distances to each destination and the next
hop to reach that destination.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 71/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
RIP Protocol Overview (Cont) :
Periodic Updates : Routers share their routing tables with
their neighbors periodically (every 30 seconds by default)
or when there is a signicant change in the network
topology.
Please note that each router periodically shares its entire
routing table with its neighbors.
Hop Count as Metric : RIP uses hop count as a metric to
measure distance, with a maximum allowable hop count
of 15 (to prevent routing loops).
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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

A-B has a cost of 2
A-C has a cost of 1
B-D has a cost of 3
C-D has a cost of 4

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 73/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Let's consider a small network of routers with the following topology :

2
A B

1 3

C D
4

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 74/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

1 Initial State :
We are going to focus on router B and try to ll in its
routing table.
Initially, routers A, B, C, and D only know the direct
connections to their respective neighbors :

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 75/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Table 7  A's Table
Destination Cost Next hop

A 0 -
B 2 B (Direct)
C 1 C (Direct)
D ∞ -

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 76/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Table 8  B's Table
Destination Cost Next hop

A 2 A (Direct)
B 0 -
C ∞ -
D 3 D

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 77/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Table 9  C's Table
Destination Cost Next hop

A 1 A (Direct)
B ∞ -
C 0 -
D 4 D

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 78/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Table 10  D's Table
Destination Cost Next hop

A ∞ -
B 3 D
C 4 C
D 0 -

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 79/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

2 Step 1 : First Exchange of Tables. Receiving Information from Neighbors.
Router B will receive updates from its neighbors A and D about their respective
costs to reach other routers.
A's table :
Destination A : Cost 0, Next Hop -
Destination B : Cost 2, Next Hop B
Destination C : Cost 1, Next Hop C
Destination D : Cost ∞, Next Hop -

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 80/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

2 Step 1 : First Exchange of Tables. Receiving Information from Neighbors.
Router B will receive updates from its neighbors A and D about their respective
costs to reach other routers.
D's table :
Destination A : Cost ∞, Next Hop -
Destination B : Cost 3, Next Hop B
Destination C : Cost 4, Next Hop C
Destination D : Cost 0 Next Hop -

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 81/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router A's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router A as follows :
Destination A :
Current Cost in B's table : 2 (directly connected to A)
New Cost via A : 2 (Cost from B to A) + 0 (A's cost to
A) = 2
No Update Needed (already has a cost of 2 via direct
link).

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 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router A's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router A as follows :
Destination B :
Current Cost in B's table : 0 (itself)
New Cost via A : 2 (Cost from B to A) + 2 (A's cost to
B) = 4
No Update Needed (B's cost to itself remains 0).

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 83/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router A's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router A as follows :
Destination C :
Current Cost in B's table : ∞ (initially unknown)
New Cost via A : 2 (Cost from B to A) + 1 (A's cost to
C) = 3
Update : B learns that it can reach C via A with a cost
of 3.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 84/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router A's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router A as follows :
Destination D :
Current Cost in B's table : 3 (directly connected to D)
New Cost via A : 2 (Cost from B to A) + ∞ (A's cost
to D) = ∞
No Update Needed (B's direct connection to D with a
cost of 3 remains better).

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 85/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Table 11  Updated Routing Table for B (After receiving A's table)
Destination Cost Next hop

A 2 A
B 0 -
C 3 A
D 3 D

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 86/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router D's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router D as follows :
Destination A :
Current Cost in B's table : 2 (directly connected to A)
New Cost via D : 3 (Cost from B to D) + infty (D's
cost to A) = ∞
No Update Needed (B's direct connection to A with a
cost of 2 remains better.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 87/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router D's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router D as follows :
Destination B :
Current Cost in B's table : 0 (itself)
New Cost via D : 3 (Cost from B to D) + 3 (D's cost to
B) = 6
No Update Needed (B's cost to itself remains 0).

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 88/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router D's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router D as follows :
Destination C :
Current Cost in B's table : 2 (through A)
New Cost via D : 3 (Cost from B to D) + 4 (D's cost to
C) = 7
B learns that it can reach C via D with a cost of 7. (No
update, as 3 < 7)

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 89/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
3 Step 2 : Router B receives Router D's table and updates its own table. Router
B uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to update its table based on the information
received. It processes the information from Router D as follows :
Destination D :
Current Cost in B's table : 3 (directly connected to D)
New Cost via D : 3 (Cost from B to D) + 0 (D's cost to
D) = 3
No Update Needed (already has a cost of 3 via direct
link).

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 90/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Table 12  Updated Routing Table for B (After receiving D's table)
Destination Cost Next hop

A 2 A
B 0 -
C 3 A
D 3 D

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 91/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP

Iteration and Convergence : This process repeats at each router, and each
router continually updates its table as it receives new information from its
neighbors. Eventually, all routers in the network will converge on a stable set of
paths (i.e., the routing tables will no longer change).
Convergence Detection : The convergence point is reached when all routers'
tables stabilize and no longer update based on the distance vectors exchanged
by neighbors.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 92/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a widely used link-state routing protocol in
IP networks.
OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm to calculate the shortest path tree (SPT) for
each router, which helps determine the best route to each destination within
the network.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 93/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm
Consider a small OSPF network with four routers :
Router A is connected to Router B with a cost of 2.
Router A is connected to Router C with a cost of 1.
Router B is connected to Router D with a cost of 3.
Router C is connected to Router D with a cost of 4.

2
A B

1 3

C D
4

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 94/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm
1 Step 1 : Link-State Advertisement (LSA) Each router broadcasts its link-state
information to all other routers in the OSPF area. The information includes the
router's directly connected neighbors and the cost of each link.
Router A advertises :
A-B with a cost of 2
A-C with a cost of 1
Router B advertises :
B-A with a cost of 2
B-D with a cost of 3

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 95/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm
1 Step 1 : Link-State Advertisement (LSA) Each router broadcasts its link-state
information to all other routers in the OSPF area. The information includes the
router's directly connected neighbors and the cost of each link.
Router C advertises :
C-A with a cost of 1
C-D with a cost of 4
Router D advertises :
D-B with a cost of 3
D-C with a cost of 4

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 96/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

2 Step 2 : Building the Link-State Database (LSDB) Each router collects all LSAs
and builds the Link-State Database (LSDB), which represents the network's
topology.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 97/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

3 Step 3 : Running Dijkstra's Algorithm Now, each router runs Dijkstra's
algorithm on the LSDB to calculate the shortest path tree (SPT) to all other
routers.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 98/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Example : Dijkstra's Algorithm on Router A
1 Initial Setup :
Router A initializes the distance to itself as 0.
Distances to all other routers are set to ∞.
The set S (processed routers) is initially empty.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 99/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Initial Distances :
Distance to A:0
Distance to B:∞
Distance to C:∞
Distance to D:∞

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 100/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

1 Step 1 : Process Router A
Current Router : A
Neighbors : B, C
Update the distance estimates :
Distance to B : min(∞, 0 + 2) = 2 (via A)
Distance to C : min(∞, 0 + 1) = 1 (via A)
Add A to the set S.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 101/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

1 Step 1 : Process Router A
Updated Distances :
Distance to A : 0
Distance to B : 2
Distance to C : 1
Distance to D : ∞
Set S : A

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 102/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

2 Step 2 : Process Router C (Next closest unprocessed router)
Current Router : C
Neighbors : A, D
Update the distance estimates :
Distance to D : min(∞, 1 + 4) = 5 (via C)
Add C to the set S.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 103/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

2 Step 2 : Process Router C (Next closest unprocessed router)
Updated Distances :
Distance to A : 0
Distance to B : 2
Distance to C : 1
Distance to D : 5
Set S : A, C

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 104/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

3 Step 3 : Process Router B (Next closest unprocessed router)
Current Router : B
Neighbors : A, D
Update the distance estimates :
Distance to D : min(5, 2 + 3) = 5 (via B) (no change)
Add B to the set S.

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 105/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

3 Step 3 : Process Router B (Next closest unprocessed router)
Updated Distances :
Distance to A : 0
Distance to B : 2
Distance to C : 1
Distance to D : 5
Set S : A, C, B

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 106/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm
4 Step 4 : Process Router D
Current Router : D
Neighbors : B, C
No further updates are needed as all shortest paths have
been found.
Final Shortest Path Tree from Router A :
Router A to Router B : Cost 2 (via A)
Router A to Router C : Cost 1 (via A)
Router A to Router D : Cost 5 (via either C or B)

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 107/108
 A Quick Reminder
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Dijkstra Algorithm
Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Comparison of Algorithms
How Bellman-Ford algorithm is leveraged in the RIP
How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

Optimizing Network Routing

How OSPF uses Dijkstra's algorithm

4 Step 4 : Updating the Routing Table
Router A will now have the following routing table :
Destination B : Next hop B, Cost 2
Destination C : Next hop C, Cost 1
Destination D : Next hop C or B, Cost 5

Ali Benzerbadj Networks: Optimizing Network Routing: Bellman-Ford, Dijkstra and Floyd-Warshall 108/108