Assignment Template (Grades 9-10)

This template presents a process for helping your students read, comprehend,
and respond to nonfiction texts. We recommend that, at the beginning of the
course, you guide your students through each step of the process. As they
become familiar with the reading and writing strategies and internalize some
of the basic processes, they will be able to complete some of the steps on
their own. By the end of the course, your students should be able to read an
appropriate text on their own, without elaborate preparation, and write about
it coherently. We recommend that your students read contemporary essays,
newspaper and magazine articles, editorials, reports, memos, voting
materials, assorted public documents, and other nonfiction texts for the
activities.

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Template Reading Rhetorically
Overview
Prereading Getting Ready to Read
Introducing Key Concepts
Surveying the Text
Making Predictions and Asking Questions
Introducing Key Vocabulary

Reading First Reading

Looking Closely at Language
Rereading the Text
Analyzing Stylistic Choices
Considering the Structure of the Text

Postreading Summarizing and Responding

Thinking Critically

Connecting Reading to Writing

Writing to Learn
Using the Words of Others
Negotiating Voices

Writing Rhetorically

Prewriting Reading the Assignment

Getting Ready to Write
Formulating a Working Thesis

Writing Composing a Draft

Organizing the Essay
Developing the Content

Revising and Revising the Draft

Editing Revising Rhetorically
Editing the Draft
Reflecting on the Writing

Evaluating and Grading Holistically

Responding Responding to Student Writing
Using Portfolios

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 Reading Rhetorically
Prereading
Getting Ready to Read
EnglishLanguage As your students approach a reading assignment, engage them with the text
Arts (ELA) Content through quickwrites, group discussions, brainstorming, or other exercises to
Standard: Writing
Applications
achieve the following goals:
(Genres and Their
 Help your students make a connection between their own personal
Characteristics)
2.1 Write
world and the world of the text.
biographical or  Help your students activate prior knowledge and experience related to
autobiographical the issues addressed in the text.
narratives:
a. Relate a  Help your students share their knowledge and vocabulary relevant to the
sequence of events text.
and communicate
the significance of  Help your students generate questions that anticipate what the text is
the events to the about.
audience.
Quickwrite (5 minutes). Before a class discussion or a reading, assign your
students a five-minute quickwrite. Consider what they know about the topic
and what they might think about it. You might ask them to volunteer to read
their quickwrites or discuss them with a partner or in a group.

Introducing Key Concepts

Word Analysis, This section discusses opportunities for threading the module together
Fluency, and conceptually. Key concepts are highlighted and taught through activities
Systematic
Vocabulary
that will be revisited during the module in your students’ discussions and
Development their writing. Vocabulary strategies are emphasized in the modules, and
1.1 Identify and use specific directions for you to teach new words or concepts are presented in
the literal and this section. The strategies are expanded on in other sections.
figurative meanings
of words and The introduction of key concepts may include the following strategies:
understand word
derivations.
 Identifying and discussing a key concept or term in such activities as
1.2 Distinguish defining, discussing denotation and connotation, and comparing and
between the contrasting
denotative and  Using a prereading activity—such as rankings and rating scales, graphic
connotative
organizers, role-play activities, and scenario discussions and readings—
meanings of words
and interpret the to activate prior knowledge, provide background information and
connotative power schema, motivate your students to become interested in the text, and
of words. capture their opinions or biases before reading
 Organizing key concepts by categorizing them and the key terms, using
sorting activities, semantic maps or webs, or charts

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 Surveying the Text
Reading Compre- Surveying the text gives your students an overview of what the reading
hension (Focus on selection is about and how it is put together. Surveying also helps your
Informational
Materials)
students create a framework in which they make predictions and generate
2.1 Analyze the questions to guide their reading. When they survey the text, your students
structure and format will carry out the following tasks:
of functional
 Looking for titles and subheadings
workplace
documents,  Looking at the length of the reading
including the  Finding out about the author through library research or an Internet
graphics and search and discussing the results with the class
headers, and
explain how authors
 Discovering when and where the text was first published
use the features to  Noting the topics and main ideas
achieve their
purposes.

Making Predictions and Asking Questions

Reading Compre- Begin this activity by asking your students questions that will help them
hension (Focus on make predictions about the text on the basis of the textual features noted in
Informational
Materials)
the surveying process. Help them notice the textual features that are
2.1 Analyze the relevant to the particular genre and rhetorical situation. Ask your students to
structure and format think about the character and image of the writer, the nature of the audience,
of functional and the purpose of the writing. Be sure to ask them to explain how they
workplace
formed their predictions, having them give evidence from the text they have
documents,
including the surveyed. You might ask the following questions:
graphics and  What do you think this text is going to be about?
headers, and
explain how authors
 What do you think is the purpose of this text?
use the features to  Who is the intended audience for this piece? How do you know?
achieve their  Based on the title and other features of the text, what information or
purposes. ideas might this essay present?
2.7 Critique the logic
of functional You might also create an anticipation guide (or a study guide) for the
documents by reading selection to help your students navigate their way through the issues
examining the
presented in the text. The best anticipation guides require students to bring
sequence of
information and their experience to their reading and create a tutorial for the selection.
procedures in
anticipation of
Ask your students to read the first few paragraphs of the text (depending on
possible reader where the introduction ends) and the first sentence after each subheading or,
misunderstandings. in the case of a short text, the first sentence of each paragraph. Then ask
them to address the following questions:
 What is the topic of the text?
 What is the author’s opinion on that topic?
 What do you think the writer wants the reader to do or believe? How did
you come to this conclusion?
 How could you turn the title into a question (or questions) to answer as
you read the essay?

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 Introducing Key Vocabulary
Word Analysis, Before your students start reading the text, assign several key words for
Fluency, and
Systematic
them to look for as they read. Choosing key words and then reinforcing
Vocabulary them throughout the reading process is an important activity for students at
Development all proficiency levels. The following options are useful for introducing key
1.1 Identify and use vocabulary:
the literal and
figurative meanings  Provide your students with the meanings of key words.
of words and  Ask your students to record in a vocabulary log the meanings of key
understand word words from the context of the reading.
derivations.
 Assign your students to work in small groups to look up key vocabulary
1.2 Distinguish
between the
words.
denotative and  Study key words as a class project.
connotative
meanings of words
Note: See Appendix B for brief explanations of various vocabulary
and interpret the activities.
connotative power
of words
1.3 Identify Greek,
Roman, and Norse
mythology and use
the knowledge to
understand the
origin and meaning
of new words (e.g.,
the word narcissistic
drawn from the myth
of Narcissus and
Echo).
COLLEGE
EXPECTATIONS
In addition to
responding to the
ELA standards, this
activity is designed
to develop the
vocabulary skills
assessed by college
placement exams,
such as the
California State
University English
Placement Test and
the University of
California Analytical
Writing Placement
Exam. Students
should be able to do
the following:
 Recognize word
meanings in context.
 Respond to tone
and connotation.

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 Reading
First Reading
Reading The first reading of an essay is intended to help your students understand
Comprehension the text and confirm their predictions. This is sometimes called reading
(Focus on In-
formational
“with the grain” or “playing the believing game” (Bean, Chappell, and
Materials) Gillam). Ask your students the following questions:
2.1 Analyze the  Which of your predictions turned out to be true?
structure and format
 What surprised you?
of functional
workplace The following metacognitive strategies are especially effective at this stage:
documents,
including the  Book marks
graphics and  Chunking
headers, and
 GIST (Generating Interactions between Schemata and Text)
explain how authors
use the features to  Graphic organizers
achieve their  Quickwrites
purposes.  Reciprocal Teaching
2.7 Critique the logic  Say, mean, matter
of functional
documents by
 SQP2RS (Survey, Question, Predict, Read, Respond, Summarize)
examining the  Talking to the text/annotating the text/highlighting
sequence of  Think aloud
information and
procedures in Note: See Appendix A for a brief explanation of each of these strategies.
anticipation of
possible reader
misunderstandings.

Looking Closely at Language

Word Analysis, The reading activity of looking closely at language is meant to build on the
Fluency, and vocabulary work you began with your students in their study of the key
Systematic
Vocabulary
words. To help your students look closely at language used in an article,
Development select a list of words from the text that may be unfamiliar to them, and then
1.1 Identify and use choose one of the following assignments for them to carry out.
the literal and
 Completing a vocabulary self-assessment work sheet
figurative meanings
of words and  Compiling a vocabulary log
understand word  Making predictions from context; looking words up to confirm
derivations.
Note: See Appendix B for brief explanations of various vocabulary
activities.

Writing
Rereading the Text
Applications During the initial reading, your students read “with the grain,” playing the
2.3 Write expository
“believing game.” In the second reading, they will read “against the grain,”
compositions,
including analytical playing the “doubting game.” As they reread the text, your students will
essays and develop fluency and build vocabulary, both of which are integral to

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 research reports:
successful comprehension.
e. Anticipate and
address readers’ As your students reread the text, ask them to make marginal notations (e.g.,
potential
asking questions, expressing surprise, disagreeing, elaborating, and noting
misunderstandings,
biases and any instances of confusion). The following approach is one way to structure
expectations. the assignment:
Writing 1. Ask your students to label the following points in the left-hand margin:
Applications
(Genres and Their  Introduction
Characteristics)  Issue or problem being addressed
2.3 Write expository  Author’s main arguments
compositions,
including analytical
 Author’s examples
essays and  Conclusion
research reports:
2. Ask your students to write in the right-hand margin their reactions to
a. Marshal evidence
in support of a what the author is saying.
thesis and related
claims, including
You may want to begin this activity by having your students work
information on all collaboratively as a class. Then ask them to exchange their annotations and
relevant compare their labeling and responses in small groups or in pairs.
perspectives.
c. Make distinctions
between the relative
value and
significance of
specific data, facts,
and ideas.

Analyzing Stylistic Choices

Literary Response
and Analysis The particular line of questioning presented here for analyzing stylistic
3.11 Evaluate the choices is offered to help your students see that the linguistic choices
aesthetic qualities of writers make create certain effects for the readers. The questions are divided
style, including the
into two categories, words and sentences.
impact of diction and
figurative language Words
on tone, mood, and
theme using the  What are the denotative and connotative meanings of the key words?
terminology of  How do the specific words the author has chosen affect your response?
literary criticism.
 Which words or synonyms are repeated? Why?
COLLEGE  What figurative language does the author use? What does it imply?
EXPECTATIONS
In addition to Sentences
responding to the
ELA standards, this  Is the sentence structure varied?
activity is designed  What effects do the choices of sentence structure and length have on the
to develop the close reader?
reading skills
assessed by college
placement exams,
such as the English
Placement Test and
the Analytical
Writing Placement

CSU EXPOSITORY READING AND WRITING COURSE GRADES 9-10 - ASSIGNMENT TEMPLATE | 7
 Exam. Students
should be able to do
the following:
 Draw inferences
and conclusions.
 Respond to tone
and connotation.

Considering the Structure of the Text

Reading These activities call for your students to map out or otherwise graphically
Comprehension represent different aspects of the text. By doing so, they will gain a clearer
(Focus on understanding of the writer’s approach to the essay’s content. The activities
Informational
Materials)
will lead to further questions that will help your students analyze what they
2.1 Analyze the
have read.
structure and format
Mapping the Organizational Structure
of functional
workplace Ask your students to use descriptive outlining to map the organization of
documents,
including the
the text by taking the following steps:
graphics and  Draw a line across the page where the introduction ends. Is it after the
headers, and first paragraph, or are there several introductory paragraphs? How do
explain how authors
use the features to
you know?
achieve their  Draw a line across the page where the conclusion begins. Is it the last
purposes. paragraph, or are there several concluding paragraphs? How do you
2.8 Evaluate the know?
credibility of an
 Discuss in groups or as a class why the lines were drawn where they
author’s argument
or defense of a were. In this activity, thinking and reasoning about organizational
claim by critiquing structure is more important than agreeing on where the lines should be
the relationship drawn.
between
 Further divide the body of the text into sections by topics (what each
generalizations and
evidence, the section is about).
comprehensiveness  Write a short description of what each section is about, what it says
of evidence, and the about that topic, and the rhetorical function of the section (why the
way in which the
author’s intent
writer put it there).
affects the structure After this has been done, ask the following questions:
and tone of the text
(e.g., in professional
 How does each section affect the reader? What is the writer trying to
journals, editorials,
political speeches, accomplish?
primary source  What does each section say? What is the content?
material).  Which section is the most developed?
 Which section is the least developed? Does it need more development?
 Which section is the most persuasive? The least persuasive?
 On the basis of your chart of the text, what do you think is the main
argument? Is that argument explicit or implicit?
Clustering or Webbing
Ask your students to cluster the ideas contained in the text by taking the
following steps:

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  Draw a circle in the center of a blank page, and label the circle with the
main idea of the text.
 Record the supporting ideas of the text on branches that connect to the
central idea.
Mapping the Content
Ask your students to map the content of the text by taking the following
steps:
 Discuss how the ideas are related to one another.
 Draw a picture of the argument, mapping the sequential flow of the text
verbally or graphically.
Graphic Organizers
For this activity, create a partially blank chart that your students can fill in
with key elements such as main ideas, arguments, evidence, key quotations,
and responses. You will need to supply clear prompts on the chart so your
students will know what they are to fill in.
Analyzing the Students’ Findings
 Discuss with the class how the text is organized (text structures).
 Ask your students to work in pairs or small groups to identify the major
parts of the text and discuss the purposes of those parts.
Postreading
Summarizing and Responding
Prerequisite Summarizing is a very important strategy your students will need to learn. It
Seventh Grade:
Writing Appli-
involves extracting the main ideas from a reading selection and explaining
cations (Genres what the author says about them. Some options for teaching this complex
and Their strategy are the following:
Characteristics)
2.5 Write summaries  With the mapping activity, show your students how to construct a
of reading materials: summary using their knowledge of the author’s structure of the text and
a. Include the main
ideas and most
how to respond to the text on the basis of their experiences and
significant details. opinions.
b. Use the student’s  Consider using SQP2RS and GIST, two effective approaches for
own words, except
for quotations.
teaching and reinforcing skills for summarizing.
c. Reflect underlying  Instead of asking your students to write a response, ask them to
meaning, not just summarize a text and then write questions that can be used as the basis
the superficial
for a class discussion.
details.
 Ask your students to work in groups, each one summarizing a main part
Writing
Applications of the text, and then have the entire class work together to create a
(Genres and Their coherent paragraph that summarizes all the main points of the text.
Characteristics)
2.2 Write responses
to literature:
a. Demonstrate a
comprehensive

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 grasp of the
significant ideas of
literary works.

Thinking Critically
Reading Compre- The following questions will move your students through the traditional
hension (Focus on rhetorical appeals. Using this framework, help your students progress from
Informational
a literal to an analytical understanding of the reading material.
Materials)
2.8 Evaluate the Questions about Logic (Logos)
credibility of an
 What are the major claims and assertions made in this reading? Do you
author’s argument
or defense of a agree with the author’s claim that . . . ?
claim by critiquing  Is there any claim that appears to be weak or unsupported? Which one,
the relationship and why do you think so?
between
 Can you think of counterarguments the author does not consider?
generalizations and
evidence, the  Do you think the author has left something out on purpose? Why?
comprehensiveness
of evidence, and the Questions about the Writer (Ethos)
way in which the  Does this author have the appropriate background to speak with
author’s intent
affects the structure
authority on this subject?
and tone of the text  Is the author knowledgeable?
(e.g., in professional  What does the author’s style and language tell the reader about him or
journals, editorials, her?
political speeches,
 Does the author seem trustworthy? Why or why not?
primary source
material).  Does the author seem deceptive? Why or why not?
Literary Response  Does the author appear to be serious?
and Analysis
Questions about Emotions (Pathos)
3.8 Interpret and
evaluate the impact  Does this piece affect you emotionally? Which parts?
of ambiguities,  Do you think the author is trying to manipulate the reader’s emotions?
subtleties, In what ways? At what point?
contradictions,
ironies, and
 Do your emotions conflict with your logical interpretation of the
incongruities in a arguments?
text.  Does the author use humor or irony? How does that affect your
COLLEGE acceptance of his or her ideas?
EXPECTATIONS
In addition to
Other Categories of Questions to Develop Critical Thinking
responding to the  Questions to identify important ideas
ELA standards,
 Questions to identify the meaning of direct statements
these questions are
designed to develop  Questions that require students to draw inferences and conclusions
the skills assessed  Questions to get at underlying assumptions
by college  Questions about the meanings of words and phrases in context
placement exams,
 Questions about tone and connotation
such as the English
Placement Test and Quickwrite (5 minutes). Use this strategy at the beginning of the class to
the Analytical
Writing Placement
get your students thinking about the topic. What is the essay’s main topic?

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 Exam. Students
should be able to do
What do you think the writer is trying to accomplish in the essay? You can
the following: then read several quickwrites to the class to start a discussion or have your
 Identify important students read their own quickwrites aloud.
ideas.
 Understand direct When a discussion becomes bogged down or unfocused, ask questions such
statements. as the following: What are the main issues here? What does the writer want
 Draw inferences the reader to believe? What perspectives are represented in the text?
and conclusions.
 Detect underlying At the end of a session, ask questions such as the following: What did you
assumptions. learn from this discussion? How might you be able to use this new
 Recognize word information?
meanings in context.
 Respond to tone
and connotation.

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 Connecting Reading to Writing
Writing to Learn
Although the writing process can be divided into stages, writing, like
reading, is essentially a recursive process that continually revisits different
stages. Much of the prewriting stage has already been accomplished at this
point because your students have been “writing to learn” by using writing for
taking notes, making marginal notations, mapping the text, making
predictions, and asking questions. Now they are ready to use what they have
learned to produce more formal assignments.
Using the Words of Others
Reading One of the most important features of academic writing is the use of words
Comprehension and ideas from written sources to support the writer’s own points. There are
(Focus on
Informational
essentially three strategies for incorporating words and ideas from sources,
Materials) as shown below:
2.4 Synthesize the  Direct quotation: Jeremy Rifkin says, “Studies on pigs’ social behavior
content from several
sources or works by
funded by McDonald’s at Purdue University, for example, have found
a single author that they crave affection and are easily depressed if isolated or denied
dealing with a single playtime with each other” (15).
issue; paraphrase  Paraphrase: In “A Change of Heart About Animals,” Jeremy Rifkin
the ideas and
connect them to
notes that McDonald’s has funded studies on pigs that show that they
other sources and need affection and playtime with one another (15).
related topics to  Summary: In “A Change of Heart About Animals,” Jeremy Rifkin cites
demonstrate study after study to show that animals and humans are more alike than
comprehension.
we think. He shows that animals feel emotions, reason, make and use
Writing Strategies
tools, learn and use language, and mourn their dead. One study even
1.5 Synthesize
information from
shows that pigs need affection and playtime with one another and enjoy
multiple sources and playing with toys (15).
identify complexities
and discrepancies in
Which citation format should you teach? This is not an easy question to
the information and answer because most students will end up using at least two formats in their
the different college work. The two most common documentation styles are the Modern
perspectives found Language Association (MLA) format, used mainly by English departments
in each medium
(e.g., almanacs,
but also in business, and the American Psychological Association (APA)
microfiche, news format, most common in the social sciences. The MLA format is probably
sources, in-depth the better format for your students to learn because instructors of freshman
field studies, composition class are likely to require their students to use it. Other formats
speeches, journals,
technical
students may encounter are the Council of Science Editors (CSE) format,
documents). used in the sciences, and Chicago Manual, which is based on The Chicago
1.6 Integrate Manual of Style, published by the University of Chicago Press.
quotations and
citations into a Whichever format they use, your students will need to learn to record all the
written text while necessary information and acquire the habit of documenting sources. They
maintaining the flow
will need to record, at a minimum, the author, title, city of publication,
of ideas.

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 1.7 Use appropriate
conventions for publisher, date of publication, and page number when citing a source. Style
documentation in manuals are available to guide your students.
the text, notes, and
bibliographies by MLA Format
adhering to those in
style manuals (e.g.,
Books. Here is the MLA format for the citation for a typical book:
Modern Language
Bean, John C., Virginia A. Chappell, and Alice M. Gilliam. Reading
Association
Handbook, The Rhetorically: A Reader for Writers. New York: Longman, 2002.
Chicago Manual of
Style).
Newspapers. Here is the bibliographic information for the article quoted
above in MLA format (because it was published in a newspaper, the format
Writing Strategies
and the information included differ somewhat):
1.7 Use systematic
strategies to Rifkin, Jeremy. “A Change of Heart About Animals.” Los
organize and record
information (e.g.,
Angeles Times 1 Sept. 2003: B15+.
anecdotal scripting, Web sites. Students often want to incorporate material from Web sites. To
annotated
bibliographies).
document a Web site, they will need to give the name of the author (if
known), the title of the site (or a description, such as “Homepage,” if no title
is available), the date of publication or update (if known), the name of the
organization that sponsors the site, the date of access, and the Web address
(URL) in angle brackets. For example:
University Writing Center. 26 June 2003. University Writing Center,
California Polytechnic State University, Pomona. 26 May 2004
<http://www.csupomona.edu/uwc/>.
The author for the above site is unknown, so no name is given. This entry
would appear in the Works Cited section alphabetized by “University.”
In-Text Documentation. MLA style also requires in-text documentation for
every direct quotation, indirect quotation, paraphrase, and summary. Many
students are confused by this, believing that documentation is necessary only
for direct quotations. If the author’s name is given in the text, the page
number should be given in parentheses at the end of the sentence containing
the material. If not, both the author’s name and the page number are
required. For example, here is a paraphrase of material from the Rifkin
article. Because the author is not named in the text, the last name goes in the
parentheses:
It is well-established that animals can learn to use sign language. A long-
term study at the Gorilla Foundation in Northern California shows that
Koko, a 300-pound gorilla, can use more than 1,000 signs to communicate
with her keepers and can understand several thousand English words. She
also scores between 70 and 95 on human IQ tests (Rifkin 15).
An academic paper is most often a dialogue between the writer and his or
her sources. If your students learn to quote, paraphrase, summarize, and
document sources correctly, they will be well on their way to becoming
college students.
This short introduction presents only the basic concepts of MLA

CSU EXPOSITORY READING AND WRITING COURSE GRADES 9-10 - ASSIGNMENT TEMPLATE | 13
 documentation. Your students will need access to the MLA Handbook for
Writers of Research Papers, which covers the system in more detail.
Practice with Sources: Quote, Paraphrase, Respond. An exercise that can
help your students learn to incorporate material from other sources is
“Quote, Paraphrase, Respond.” Ask your students to choose from the text
three passages they might be able to use in an essay. First, have them write
each passage as a correctly punctuated and cited direct quotation. Second,
have them paraphrase the material in their own words, citing the material
correctly. Last, have them respond to the idea expressed in the passage by
agreeing or disagreeing with it and explaining why, again with the correct
citation. It is easy to see whether your students understand the material by
looking at their paraphrases. Later, they can use the material in an essay.

Negotiating Voices
Reading In the “Practice with Sources” activity, your students practiced selecting
Comprehension useful and interesting material, punctuating direct quotations, recasting the
(Focus on
language for indirect quotations and paraphrases, and responding to the
Informational
Materials) ideas. Now you will help your students put direct quotations, indirect
2.1 Analyze the quotations, concepts, facts, ideas, and opinions from other writers into their
structure and format own texts and keep the voices straight. The goal is for your students to be
of functional able to make clear who is saying what as well as what the relationships
workplace
documents,
between the ideas are. In other words, the intent is that they become able to
including the operate in much the same way as an air traffic controller, who must guide
graphics and aircraft of many types from many places to a safe landing without incident,
headers, and or a choir director who organizes multiple voices into a harmonious chorus.
explain how authors
use the features to One strategy for achieving this goal is to give your students models for
achieve their language they might use to integrate and situate those other voices. Students
purposes.
often are confused when they discover that their sources disagree. How can
2.4 Synthesize the
content from several they put these dissonant voices in conversation with one another? You might
sources or works by give your students introductory language, such as the following frames:
a single author
dealing with a single
 The issue of ______ has several different perspectives.
issue; paraphrase  Experts disagree on what to do about ______.
the ideas and You might then give them language that introduces ideas from particular
connect them to writers:
other sources and
related topics to
 Noted researcher John Q. Professor argues that . . .
demonstrate  In a groundbreaking article, Hermando H. Scientist states that . . .
comprehension.  According to Patricia A. Politician . . .
2.5 Extend ideas Contrary views can be signaled by adding transitional phrases:
presented in primary
 However, the data presented by Hermando H. Scientist shows . . .
or secondary
sources through  On the other hand, Terry T. Teacher believes . . .
original analysis, The student writer then needs to add his or her own voice to the mix:
evaluation, and  Although some argue for ________, others argue for _______. In my
elaboration.
view . . .
2.8 Evaluate the  Though researchers disagree, clearly . . .
credibility of an

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 author’s argument or Many similar frames for introducing the words and ideas of others and
defense of a claim
by critiquing the
signaling a stance on those ideas can be found in They Say/I Say: The Moves
relationship between That Matter in Academic Writing, by Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein,
generalizations and which is an excellent resource for exploring essential phrases used in
evidence, the
academic writing. Your students might also create their own set of frames by
comprehensiveness
of evidence, and the
looking at language used by professional writers.
way in which the
author’s intent
Activity: Listing Models and Frames
affects the structure Give your students a newspaper article or an editorial in which the writer
and tone of the text
(e.g., in professional
summarizes or synthesizes several different perspectives and argues for his
journals, editorials, or her own position. Ask them to underline phrases that signal relationships
political speeches, between and among different ideas and perspectives. Make a list of these
primary source phrases that your students can use in their own writing.
material).
The Problem of the Writer’s Self
Writing Strategies
In this discussion we have used the metaphor of a conversation among
1.1 Establish a
controlling different “voices” or “selves” that a writer has to keep straight, and we
impression of outlined some language frames that will help the student writer begin to
coherent thesis that integrate and synthesize those different voices. But what about the writer’s
conveys a clear and
own voice or self? Current composition theory holds conflicting views of the
distinctive
perspective on the writer’s self. In the “expressivist” view, the writer is a unique individual self,
subject and maintain seeking—and speaking in—an authentic (individual) voice. In the extreme,
a consistent tone this view may lead to what columnist John Leo calls “the romantic notion
and focus
that rules, coherence, grammar, and punctuation are unimportant: what
throughout the piece
of writing. counts is the gushing of the writing self.” However, it may be helpful to
1.4 Develop the think of this extreme view of a totally unique and individual self as one end
main ideas within of a continuum of possible writerly selves. Focusing on this end of the
the body of the continuum, our goal is not just self-expression, but creating a writer with the
composition through
supporting evidence
confidence to express his or her individual feelings and opinions. Personal
(e.g., scenarios, essay assignments that encourage this kind of expression develop fluency
commonly held and confidence. And of course, there are times when it is necessary and
beliefs, hypotheses, appropriate for a writer to say what he or she thinks in his or her own voice.
definitions.
Writing At the other end of the continuum is a competing view that sees the writer at
Applications the center of multiple conflicting discourses and the self, at least in part, as
2.3 Write expository constructed by those discourses. We all play multiple roles in life and speak
compositions,
including analytical
and behave differently in each of them. Our selves are complex. It is also
essays and research true that words tend to be found in groups and that groups of words tend to
reports: have concepts and perspectives built into them. Rhetorician Kenneth Burke
a. Marshal evidence (47) calls such groups of words “terministic screens” because the terms
in support of a thesis themselves screen out certain views and bring others into focus. When we
and related claims,
including information
use such words, do we speak them or are we being spoken by them? It is a
on all relevant little of both. And we have rhetorical choices to make. Choosing the
perspectives. appropriate self to present in the writing is a problem of ethos. It is largely a
b. Convey matter of creating an ethos appropriate to the purpose and audience for the
information and
writing.
ideas from primary

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 and secondary
sources accurately
Some examples. Recently, a team of scientists created an artificial
and coherently. bacterium. They copied the genome of an existing bacterium and are
c. Make distinctions planning to insert the human-made DNA into a cell. Here is the lead from a
between the relative feature article about this achievement from Time magazine:
value and
significance of Man Makes Life. Well, almost. Craig Venter has built the first man-made
specific data, facts, genome. Soon, those genes may cause a cell to come alive. That tiny
and ideas. organism will be Venter’s own—and that one’s just the start (Park 44).
e. Anticipate and
address readers’ The sentence fragment, the lack of scientific vocabulary (except for
potential “genome”), the contraction of “one is” to “one’s,” and the conversational
misunderstandings, tone all make this writer’s personal voice strong and the connection to the
biases, and
expectations.
audience personal. Even the idea that Venter has created his own private
organism makes this reporting of the event human and personal. The writer
uses language choices to make a complex (and perhaps scary) development
interesting (and accessible) to the average reader.
On the other hand, here is the lead from a similar article in the Los Angeles
Times:
Using off-the-shelf chemical compounds, scientists for the first time have
constructed the entire genome of a bacterium, a key step toward their
ultimate goal of creating synthetic life forms, researchers reported today
(Kaplan 10).
Here the reporter’s “voice” is matter-of-fact and distant. The language is
neutral and specific; the writer is uninvolved. It’s just news.
Yet another “voice” can be heard in this selection from the abstract of an
article in Science describing earlier research by the same team:
As a step toward propagation of synthetic genomes, we completely
replaced the genome of a bacterial cell with one from another species by
transplanting a whole genome as naked DNA. Intact genomic DNA from
Mycoplasma mycoides large colony (LC), virtually free of protein, was
transplanted into Mycoplasma capricolum cells by polyethylene glycol–
mediated transformation (Lartigue et al. 632).
Here the vocabulary and style are those of scientific insiders; the tone is
unemotional and objective. However, the use of first person, in “we
completely replaced,” causes the reader to see this scientific team as
personally involved participants in this discovery. Until very recently,
scientific writing would often erase personal involvement by using passive
voice (e.g., “The genome of a bacterial cell was completely replaced.”).
While maintaining standards that dictate clear and precise writing, the
scientific community has become tolerant of a more personal voice.
Questions to consider. As your students read material for research papers
and other assignments that use sources, have them think about the following
questions:
 What impression do I have of this writer? What is it about the text that

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 creates this impression?
 How does the writer’s ethos affect my attitude toward his or her
arguments? Is the writing more or less persuasive because of the way the
writer presents himself or herself?
 Is this writer writing as an insider, a participant in the field or the events,
or as an outsider who is reporting on something? How can I tell?
 When I use material from this writer, do I want to quote it, preserving the
writer’s ethos, or do I want to paraphrase it, diminishing the writer’s
ethos?
As in a conversation, different voices speak with greater or lesser authority
and intensity at different times. In a direct quotation, the voice of the other,
the source, speaks loudly. In a paraphrase, the voices of the writer and the
source merge. In a summary, the source’s voice becomes even more
distanced. However, at some point the writer begins to appropriate the
vocabulary of the sources and use it in his or her own voice to express his or
her own ideas. This is an important moment. The writer is beginning to
internalize the words of this discourse. The words are becoming his or her
own words. As teachers, we need to design lessons that will facilitate this
process.
When your students begin writing about sources, they may want to turn the
above questions around and ask themselves the following questions:
 As a writer, what kind of impression do I want to create in this paper?
How can I create that impression?
 What kind of ethos will be most persuasive?
 In this conversation, am I an insider or an outsider?
 What is my stance toward the material from my sources? Do I agree or
disagree? Am I an objective reporter of the facts? How can I show this
stance?
When the writer inserts himself or herself into the discourse, not any voice
or self will do. If your students want to be persuasive, they will have to show
that they can think and write like members of the community whose
conversation they are trying to join. They will have to speak to their intended
audience using the language, arguments, standards of evidence, and
perspectives of the discourse community they hope to join. And they will
have to internalize the disciplinary practices they are trying on well enough
that they seem a natural fit.
Vocabulary is a good indicator of how the discourse of the field has been
internalized. A student might ask one of these questions:
 What sort of person would use this word?
 Can I become the sort of person who would use this word?
For example, in the sample quotations above, most students will be
comfortable, or could become comfortable, using “human-made,”
“organism,” or “synthetic.” Most will not be comfortable using

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 “Mycoplasma mycoides large colony (LC),” or “polyethylene glycol–
mediated transformation.” However, if a student goes on to major in
microbiology, he or she will become comfortable with this language and will
be able to write as an insider to that more specialized community.
Activity: Trying on Words, Perspectives, and Ideas
Give your students some questions based on the issues raised by the articles
they have been reading. These could be policy questions (What should we do
about _______?) or value questions (Is ______ good or bad?). Then give
each student a persona or perspective to represent. The perspectives could be
based on the writers of the articles they have been reading or sources quoted
in them, but they could also be based on other people they know or know of,
such as the teacher, the school principal, the President of the United States,
or even a movie actor or a rock star. Their task is to think, “What would
________ say about this?” “How would ________ answer this question?”
Encourage your students to use vocabulary from the articles in representing
their adopted position. At the end of the role play, ask your students to state
what they themselves really think.

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 Writing Rhetorically
Prewriting
Reading the Assignment
Writing Strategies Many students have trouble with writing assignments because they do not
1.1 Establish a read the assignment carefully. Here are some strategies that might help your
controlling
students overcome this problem:
impression of
coherent thesis that  Read the assignment carefully with your students. Many problems with
conveys a clear and student work, particularly in timed, high-stakes writing situations, arise
distinctive
perspective on the
because your students fail to completely understand what the writing
subject and maintain assignment asks them to do. The explanations in Appendix C can help
a consistent tone clarify some key assignment words.
and focus  Help your students specify the subject of the essays they are going to
throughout the piece
of writing.
write. Is the subject specified for them? Do they have choices to make
about the subject?
 Discuss the purpose of the assignment. Are your students informing or
reporting? Are they persuading their readers of something? Help them
recognize how the purpose of the assignment will affect the type of
writing they will do.
 Remind your students to read the assignment for information about
process and deadlines. You may want to help them sketch out a timeline
for completing the assignment in reasonable steps.
 Ask your students to examine the assignment for information about how
they will be graded. On the basis of what criteria will their written work
be evaluated? Do they understand each criterion?
 Have your students look for information in the assignment about the
audience to whom the writing will be addressed. (See “Getting Ready to
Write.”)
Getting Ready to Write
Writing Strategies The following activities will help your students move as smoothly as
1.4 Develop the possible from reading to writing. They may want to refer to their reading
main ideas within
notes before engaging in these activities:
the body of the
composition through  Invention strategies designed to generate ideas, points, and arguments.
supporting evidence Typical strategies include brainstorming, informal outlines, quickwrites,
(e.g., scenarios,
commonly held
webbing, or clustering. (See Appendix D for descriptions of several
beliefs, hypotheses, prewriting options.)
definitions).
 Strategies to help your students consider the audience for the essay.
They should think about what most people know and think about the
topic of their papers. If they want to change the opinions of the audience,
they will need to think about persuasive techniques, both logical and
emotional. Discussions in groups and pairs can be helpful for this
activity.

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 Formulating a Working Thesis
Writing Strategies Most students will find it helpful to formulate a working thesis statement at
1.1 Establish a this point. They can go through their “invention” work to decide on a
controlling
statement or assertion they want to support. Although students can b
impression of
coherent thesis that successful using different approaches to writing, a strong, focused thesis
conveys a clear and statement can keep them on track.
distinctive
perspective on the Your students may want to think about or write the answers to the following
subject and maintain questions:
a consistent tone
and focus
 What is your tentative thesis?
throughout the piece  What support have you found for your thesis?
of writing.  What evidence have you found for this support (e.g., facts, statistics,
statements from authorities, personal experience, anecdotes, scenarios,
and examples)?
 How much background information do your readers need to understand
your topic and thesis?
 If readers were to disagree with your thesis or the validity of your
support, what would they say? How would you address their concerns
(what would you say to them)?
After your students have formulated a working thesis, giving them feedback
(either individually or as a class activity) before they begin to write will be
important. Potential writing problems can be averted at this stage—before
your students generate their first drafts.

Writing
Composing a Draft
Writing Strategies The first draft of an essay provides a time for your students to discover what
1.4 Develop the they think about a certain topic. It is usually “writer-based,” meaning the
main ideas within
goal is simply to get the writer’s ideas down on paper. Your students should
the body of the
composition through start with their brainstorming notes, informal outlines, freewriting, or
supporting evidence whatever other materials they have and write a rough draft of their essay.
(e.g., scenarios,
commonly held
beliefs, hypotheses,
definitions).

Organizing the Essay

Writing Strategies The following items are traditional parts of an essay. The number of
1.1 Establish a paragraphs in an essay will depend on the nature and complexity of the
controlling
student’s argument.
impression of
coherent thesis that Introduction
conveys a clear and
distinctive Your students might want to include the following components in their
perspective on the introductory paragraph or paragraphs:

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 subject and maintain  A “hook” to get the reader’s attention
a consistent tone
and focus
 Background information that the audience may need
throughout the piece  A thesis statement, along with an indication of how the essay will be
of writing. developed (“forecasting”). Note: A thesis statement states the topic of the
1.2 Use precise essay and the writer’s position on that topic. Your students may choose
language, action
to sharpen or narrow the thesis at this point.
verbs, sensory
detail, appropriate Body
modifiers, and the
active rather than  Paragraphs that present support of the thesis statement, usually in topic
the passive voice. sentences supported with evidence. (See “Getting Ready to Write.”)
1.4 Develop the  Paragraphs that include different points of view or address
main ideas within
the body of the
counterarguments
composition through  Paragraphs or sentences in which the writer addresses those points of
supporting evidence view by doing the following:
(e.g., scenarios, – Refuting them
commonly held
beliefs, hypotheses,
– Acknowledging them but showing how the writer’s argument is
definitions). better
– Granting them altogether but showing that they are irrelevant
 Evidence that your students have considered their own values, beliefs,
and assumptions; the values, beliefs, and assumptions of their audience;
and whether they have found some common ground that appeals to the
various points of view
Conclusion
 A final paragraph (or paragraphs) that includes a solid argument to
support the thesis and indicates the significance of the argument—the
“So what?” factor
Developing the Content
Writing Strategies Your students will need to understand that body paragraphs explain and
1.4 Develop the support their thesis statements as they move their writing from writer-based
main ideas within
to reader-based prose.
the body of the
composition through  Most body paragraphs consist of a topic sentence (or an implied topic
supporting evidence sentence) and concrete details to support that topic sentence.
(e.g., scenarios,
 Body paragraphs give evidence in the form of examples, illustrations,
commonly held
beliefs, hypotheses, statistics, and so forth and analyze the meaning of the evidence.
definitions).  Each topic sentence is usually directly related to the thesis statement.
1.5 Synthesize  No set number of paragraphs makes up an essay.
information from
 The thesis dictates and focuses the content of an essay.
multiple sources and
identify complexities
and discrepancies in
the information and
the different
perspectives found
in each medium
(e.g., almanacs,
microfiche, news

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 sources, in-depth
field studies,
speeches, journals,
technical
documents).
1.6 Integrate
quotations and
citations into a
written text while
maintaining the flow
of ideas.

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 Revising and Editing
Revising the Draft
Writing Strategies Your students will now need to work with the organization and development
1.9 Revise writing to of their drafts to make sure their essays are as effective as possible. Your
improve the logic
students should produce the next drafts on the basis of systematic feedback
and coherence of
the organization and from others. These drafts will be more “reader-based” than the first draft
controlling because the students will take into consideration the needs of the readers as
perspective, the they respond to the text. The process is as follows.
precision of word
choice, and the tone Peer Group
by taking into
consideration the Work Working in groups of three or four, each student reads his or her essay
audience, purpose, aloud to other members of the group, after which they complete the
and formality of the Evaluation Form (Appendix F, Part I) for each essay.
context.
Writing Strategies Paired Work
1.4 Develop the
Your students then work in pairs to decide how they want to revise the
main ideas within
the body of the problems identified by their group members.
composition through
supporting evidence
Individual Work
(e.g., scenarios, At this point, your students are ready to revise the drafts on the basis of the
commonly held
beliefs, hypotheses,
feedback they have received and the decisions they have made with their
definitions). partners. You might also direct them to the following revision guides for
1.5 Synthesize their individual work:
information from
multiple sources and
 Have I responded to the assignment?
identify complexities  What is my purpose for this essay?
and discrepancies in  What should I keep? What is most effective?
the information and  What should I add? Where do I need more details, examples, and other
the different
perspectives found
evidence to support my point?
in each medium  What could I omit? Have I used irrelevant details? Have I been
(e.g., almanacs, repetitive?
microfiche, news  What should I change? Are parts of my essay confusing or
sources, in-depth
field studies,
contradictory? Do I need to explain my ideas more fully?
speeches, journals,  What should I rethink? Is my position clear? Have I provided enough
technical analysis to convince my readers?
documents).  How is my tone? Am I too overbearing or too firm? Do I need qualifiers?
1.6 Integrate
 Have I addressed differing points of view?
quotations and
citations into a  Does my conclusion show the significance of my essay?
written text while
maintaining the flow
of ideas.

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 Revising Rhetorically
Reading After your students have addressed global issues in their writing (e.g.,
Comprehension response to the prompt, organization, and development), they will be ready
(Focus on
Informational
to analyze their own arguments rhetorically. We often speak of revision as
Materials) “re-seeing”—that post-drafting perspective that allows writers to view their
2.1 Analyze the writing from a different vantage point. We can think of this process as being
structure and format similar to that used by a director who makes final cuts after a live audience
of functional
has previewed a film. Revising rhetorically means “re-seeing” our writing
workplace
documents, through key aspects of the rhetorical situation, including the audience, the
including the writer’s persona, and the occasion.
graphics and
headers, and A rhetorical approach to revision can help your students understand that
explain how authors revising involves more than just including instructor or peer feedback in a
use the features to new draft. A rhetorical approach recognizes that revision is a strategic,
achieve their
purposes.
selective process; what writers choose to revise depends on the ultimate
2.4 Synthesize the
purpose of their writing. Not all potential improvements will be required by
content from several the rhetorical situation. Thus, the process of revising rhetorically can help
sources or works by your students determine the essential characteristics of effective written
a single author communication in a specific context.
dealing with a single
issue; paraphrase Rhetorical revision can be divided into two tasks: rhetorical analysis of the
the ideas and
draft and review of the evaluation criteria in relation to the writing’s purpose
connect them to
other sources and and context.
related topics to
demonstrate
Rhetorical Analysis of a Draft
comprehension. A rhetorical analysis of a rough draft requires the writer to carefully study
2.5 Extend ideas
the purpose, argument, persona, and audience of the text. Your students may
presented in primary
or secondary use the following strategies to complete their rhetorical analysis:
sources through  A Purpose/Argument/Persona/Audience (PAPA) Square graphic
original analysis,
evaluation, and
organizer (Appendix E)
elaboration. • A rhetorical précis (Appendix E)
2.7 Critique the logic • “Descriptive Outlining”
of functional • “Thinking Critically” questions on ethos, pathos, and logos
documents by
examining the A rhetorical analysis, in other words, asks your students to consider the who,
sequence of what, how, and why of their argument.
information and
procedures in “Re-seeing” the Rhetorical Situation and Assessment Criteria
anticipation of
possible reader Once your students have analyzed their drafts rhetorically, they will be ready
misunderstandings. to consider the evaluation criteria they and their readers will use to assess the
2.8 Evaluate the effectiveness of their arguments. As your students evaluate the overall
credibility of an success of their drafts thus far, it is important for them to review the key
author’s argument or
defense of a claim
requirements of the rhetorical situation, including the assessment criteria.
by critiquing the Here are some possible questions for your students to consider:
relationship between
generalizations and  What is the rhetorical situation? Who is my audience, and what is my
evidence, the argument?

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 comprehensiveness  What types of evidence and appeals does this audience value most
of evidence, and the
highly?
way in which the
author’s intent  How can I establish my own authority to address this issue? What
affects the structure credibility do I have with this audience?
and tone of the text  What are the most important factors contributing to either the success or
(e.g., in professional
failure of the argument?
journals, editorials,
political speeches,  Are stylistic maturity and complexity as important as content in this
primary source situation?
material).  What is the most relevant feedback I have received for this audience and
context? What is the least relevant?
 What are the implicit values of the rubric or assessment criteria (if
available)?
Here are some possible activities:
 Ask your students to read the scoring commentary on a sample essay.
They may then self-score or peer-score their essays and write their own
descriptive commentaries justifying the scores they gave.
 Provide instructor or peer feedback on only one paragraph in a draft.
Then have your students selectively apply that feedback to the remainder
of the essay, making critical decisions about which improvements are the
most essential to the composition’s purpose. Your students may then
write a justification of those decisions as a quickwrite or journal entry.
 Have your students revise their essays in light of their responses to the
questions above. Ask them to write a reflection in which they explain the
changes they have made and why they made those changes.

Editing the Draft

Written and Oral Your students will now need to work with the grammar, punctuation, and
English Language mechanics of their drafts to make sure their essays conform to the guidelines
Conventions
of standard written English.
1.1 Identify and cor-
rectly use clauses  Your students will benefit most from specific feedback from you or a
(e.g., main and sub- tutor rather than peer evaluation.
ordinate), phrases
 This work can be preceded by mini-lessons on common grammar, usage,
(e.g., gerund, infini-
tive, and participial), punctuation, and mechanics.
and mechanics of
punctuation (e.g., Individual Work
semicolons, colons,
Your students will now edit their drafts on the basis of the information they
ellipses, hyphens).
1.2 Understand
have received from you or a tutor. Appendix F, Part II offers them some
sentence construc- helpful editing guidelines. The following suggestions to your students will
tion (e.g., parallel also help them edit their individual work:
structure, subordina-
tion, proper place-  If possible, set your essay aside for 24 hours before rereading it to find
ment of modifiers) errors.
and proper English  If possible, read your essay aloud so you can hear errors and awkward
usage (e.g., consis-
constructions.
tency of verb
tenses).  At this point, focus on individual words and sentences rather than on

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 1.3 Demonstrate an overall meaning. Take a sheet of paper and cover everything except the
understanding of
proper English
line you are reading. Then touch your pencil to each word as you read.
usage and control of  With the help of your teacher, figure out your own pattern of errors— the
grammar, paragraph most serious and frequent errors you make.
and sentence
 Look for only one type of error at a time. Then go back and look for a
structure, diction,
and syntax.
second type and, if necessary, a third.
 Use the dictionary to check spelling and confirm that you have chosen
the right word for the context.
Reflecting on the Writing
When you return the essays to your students, a good practice is to ask them
to reflect in writing about the process of writing the essay, what they have
learned that they can apply to their next assignments, or how they feel about
the comments you have given them on the essay.

Evaluating and Responding

Grading Holistically
Reading student papers holistically is also called “general impression”
grading. It allows you to give a student a single score or grade on the basis of
your impression of his or her management of the entire writing assignment.
The basis of this type of evaluation is a rubric or scoring guide, which is
used, along with sample papers, to “norm” the readers before they read the
student papers. In the “norming process,” readers score sets of sample
essays. The leader asks how many readers have given each score on each
paper. Those who have given a certain score raise their hands when it is
announced, and the raised hands are counted. This process is repeated for
each score point for each essay. The process continues until almost all the
hands are consistently being raised at the same time. In a holistic reading, the
readers then read and score the papers very quickly, without marking errors
or making comments. You might consider using the English Placement Test
Scoring Guide printed in Appendix G as your grading criteria for this
exercise.
Grading a set of papers holistically with other faculty members lets you
discuss the grading criteria and norm yourselves to a single set of scores.
This is an excellent exercise to keep a conversation going among department
faculty members about grades and assessment.
Assigning your students to grade a set of papers holistically will give you the
opportunity to have your students work in groups to explain why a paper
received a certain grade. You might then ask your students to revise their
papers on the basis of their group’s assessment.
Responding to Student Writing
Responding to your students’ writing is the final stage of the writing process.

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 You have several ways to respond.
 Use a preprinted evaluation form to respond to your students’ writing.
(See Appendix F.) Make sure to include notes in the margin to support
the marks on the evaluation form.
 Annotate the paper and make a summary comment at the end. In this
case, make sure the marks on the paper explain the comment at the end.
 Meet one-on-one with each student and review the strengths and
weaknesses of the paper. In this situation, you might keep an index card
for each student and include your personal notes on each paper.
Using Portfolios
A very good way to get your students to see their own progress as writers is
to ask them to keep all their writing in a folder so you can discuss it with
them throughout the term. You might even consider assigning some of these
portfolio activities.
 Ask your students to explain their progress throughout the course, using
pieces of their own writing to support their claims.
 Ask your students to find their best and worst papers and explain the
differences between the two pieces of writing.
 Ask your students to revise their worst papers and summarize the pattern
of their changes.

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APPENDIX A
Reading Strategies
Book marks. Book marks can be used to help students think about how they read (reflecting on
the mental process itself) and what they read (focusing strategically on content, style, and
form). They can also be used to facilitate a reader’s ability to develop interpretations and aid
in their formulation of questions to help anchor reading in the text. See Burke for examples
of classroom uses.
Chunking. Proficient readers monitor their comprehension and often “chunk” language—break
it up into smaller units—within sentences to help them understand what they read. Chunking
can be used with complex sentences or with longer passages, depending on the reader’s
needs. Such divisions will vary from person to person. See Schoenbach et al. and Burke for
examples of classroom uses.
GIST (Generating Interactions between Schemata and Text). Involving five major steps, this
strategy is an excellent way to show students how to write a summary: (1) read the passage
or chapter; (2) circle or list the important words, phrases, and ideas; (3) put the reading
material aside; (4) use the important words, phrases, and ideas to generate summary
sentences; and (5) add a topic sentence. See Cunningham et al. for more information on this
strategy.
Graphic organizers. By visually representing a text, graphic organizers help students
understand textual and informational structures and perceive connections between ideas.
Graphic organizers can also support comprehension and help students reflect on which parts
of a text are the most important. See Schoenbach et al. and Burke for examples of classroom
uses.
Quickwrites. A form of freewriting, quickwrites are spontaneous, stream-of-consciousness
responses to a single issue or related issues (Fulwiler).
Reciprocal Teaching. Reciprocal Teaching entails taking turns in leading a discussion on a
reading selection with the intention of helping oneself and others understand and retain the
author’s main points. It involves guiding the group toward reasonable predictions, important
questions, essential clarifications or explanations, and coherent summaries. See Schoenbach
et al. and Burke for examples of classroom uses. Also see Palincsar and Brown.
Rereading or repeated reading. Rereading increases readers’ comprehension and raises their
confidence, especially with challenging texts. It also helps less-skilled readers develop
fluency. See Schoenbach et al. and Burke for examples of classroom uses. Say, mean, matter.
This strategy is the process of answering three questions as they relate to a reading selection:
What does it say? What does it mean? What or why does it matter? The purpose of this
exercise is to encourage students to move beyond literal-level thinking (Blau).
Say, mean, matter. This strategy is the process of answering three questions as they relate to a
reading selection: What does it say? What does it mean? What or why does it matter? The
purpose of this exercise is to encourage students to move beyond literal-level thinking (Blau).

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SQP2RS. This is the process of (1) surveying—previewing a text or part of a text; (2)
questioning—listing two or three questions you think will be answered by reading the text;
(3) predicting—stating three or four things you think will be learned by reading this text, then
asking the class to narrow the list of questions to focus on three or four of them; (4) reading
reading the assigned text; (5) responding—confirming and negating predictions, answering
the questions already generated and asking new ones, and discussing the text with the class;
and (6) summarizing— either orally or in writing. See Echevarria et al. and Vogt.
Talking to the text/annotating the text/highlighting. Writing responses and questions in the
margins and underlining and highlighting key ideas are ways of increasing readers’
engagement with ideas presented in the text. These interactions with the reading material
help to activate students’ prior knowledge and support their comprehension. See Jordan,
Jensen, and Greenleaf and Burke for examples of classroom uses. Also see Davey.
Think aloud. Narrating the thought process while reading a passage aloud can help students
externalize points of confusion, articulate questions about the text or its content, and make
connections between the text and the students’ background knowledge and life experience. It
is common to have students alternate reading sentences, paragraphs, or sections aloud. Think
alouds help to make internal thinking processes observable. See Schoenbach et al. and Burke
for examples of classroom uses. Also see Kucan and Beck for a review of the research.

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APPENDIX B
Vocabulary Activities
Concept map. Teachers ask students to generate additional words, contexts, examples, and non-
examples for a new term, concept, or key vocabulary word.
Cubing. Originally created by Cowan and Cowan Neeld, students freewrite about a vocabulary term,
using each of the six ways to discuss the term: describe it, compare it, associate it, analyze it,
apply it, and argue for or against it. Allow students to write about each “side” of the cube for
roughly three minutes. After they have done all six sides, students can share or develop their own
definition of the term.
Denotation/connotation making. Students predict word meanings or look up words based on their
denotations (dictionary definitions) and connotations (personal meanings).
Frayer model. Students define the key concept, describe its attributes, compare and contrast it to
other related concepts, provide examples for it, and explain why the example is appropriate.
Using this model, the students can distinguish between examples and non-examples (Frayer,
Frederick, and Klausmeier).
Rich use of language. Reading research shows that the more experiences and richer experiences
students have with new words, the more likely they are to learn the word. Those experiences
include opportunities for oral and written use of the new words as well as identifying and
comprehending them in text. Teachers can provide students with more practice words by having
them use the new words to create scripts for performing commercials, skits, role plays, poems,
raps, songs, and so forth.
Self-assessment charts. These charts allow students to view key terms from the text to see whether
they know them and, if so, to what extent. Students can then learn the words they do not know,
and teachers will gain some insight as to which words may need direct instruction.
Semantic maps, webs, spiders. This graphic organizer is for categorizating, grouping, and
organizing information.
Sorting activities. Students sort words by derivation or by concept. For a sorting activity, the teacher
makes a list of words that are related either by root/derivation or by concept. The words are then
listed on a grid and manipulated with signs or symbols. The teacher may choose to have an open
sort (no headings stated) or a closed sort (the teacher tells the students what the headings will be).
Synonym/antonym chart with examples. Students identify synonyms for the new word given,
increasing their list of words that are similar but also enhancing their own understanding of the
word in relation to other words that share the meaning. To promote even more understanding and
more words in their storage banks, students look at antonyms. Then they provide examples of the
word in sentences or give the context.
What Am I? This is an activity in which questions are asked about what the vocabulary term is and
what it is not on the basis of the meaning of the word. Students might explore one word and
“teach” it to the class, sharing the clues discovered while studying the word.
Word trees. These are used for derivations and to build similar words on the basis of meaning.
Vocabulary notebooks or logs. These are used for the indirect teaching of vocabulary. With
vocabulary logs, students direct their own learning as they identify and log unknown words that
they find in text.
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APPENDIX C
Key Assignment Words

Analyze Break the issue or problem into separate parts and discuss, examine, or
interpret each part and the relationships between them. Sometimes this
involves looking carefully at causes and effects.

Analyze the Look at the truth and persuasiveness of the reasons given for a position
Argument and the and the degree to which the conclusion is justified on the basis of those
Conclusion reasons.

Compare and Describe the similarities and differences between two objects, situations,
Contrast or ideas. Sometimes this involves a before-and-after comparison.

Define Tell what a particular word or term means in your essay. Usually, this is
not a dictionary definition; rather, it clarifies the way in which you are
using the term.

Describe Give a detailed account, naming characteristics, parts, or qualities.

Discuss This is a general term that covers explanations, reasoning, pro and con
arguments, examples, analysis, and so forth.

Evaluate This term literally means to determine the “value” of something, to

discover how good or bad something is. It usually means that you
should argue that something is good or bad, and then discuss your
reasoning.

Explain Help the reader understand the reasoning behind your position by
showing the logical development in step-by-step fashion. You might
also be asked to show how something works or how to do something.

Illustrate In a writing prompt, this usually does not mean to draw pictures.
Instead, it means to give examples.

Prove This usually means that you should support your opinion with facts and
arguments.

State Tell the reader your opinion strongly and concisely.

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APPENDIX D
Prewriting Strategies
Brainstorming. Based on free association, this is the act of making a list of related words and
phrases.
Clustering/webbing. This is the process of mapping any ideas that come to mind on a specific
topic. It involves writing a key word or phrase at the center of a page and drawing a circle
around it, then writing and circling any related ideas that come to mind and drawing lines to
the words that prompted the new words.
Discussing. This is the act of talking with another person about one’s subject matter and
grappling aggressively with the ideas in the process.
Freewriting. Based on free association, this is the strategy of writing for a brief period of time
about anything that comes to mind.
Outlining. This is the listing of the main ideas and the details related to the subject in the order
in which they will likely be addressed.
Questioning. This is the process of asking questions that will generate new ideas and topics.
This process is often based on the five Ws and one H: Who? What? Why? Where? When?
and How?
Scanning. This is the process of scanning and spot reading specifically to generate ideas and
form opinions.

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APPENDIX E
Strategies for Reading and Writing Rhetorically
PAPA Square
The PAPA Square is adapted from Maxine Hairston’s Contemporary Composition (short
edition). Through a PAPA Square, students analyze the purpose, argument, persona, and
audience of a text.
Around the perimeter of the box, students answer the following questions in response to their
own writing: Who is my audience? What is the persona, or public image, that I create for myself
through my language choices and tone? What is my thesis or argument? What is my purpose or
the desired outcome of my argument (i.e., what would I like my reader to do if he or she is
persuaded my argument)? In the center of the PAPA Square, students identify the stylistic
devices and the emotional, logical, and ethical appeals they use to persuade their audiences.
These may include types of evidence, figurative language, text structures (e.g., cause and effect),
and tone.
Purpose:

Audience: Rhetorical Argument:

Methods and
Strategies

Persona:
Rhetorical Précis
In a rhetorical précis, students write a brief analysis of the content, purpose, and persuasive
strategies of a text using the pattern below (from Reading Rhetorically by John C. Bean, Virginia
A. Chappell, and Alice M. Gillam):
Sentence 1: Note the name of the author, the genre and title of the work, and the publication date
in parentheses; a rhetorically accurate verb; and a that clause containing the major assertion or
thesis statement in the work.
Sentence 2: An explanation of how the author develops and supports the thesis, usually in
chronological order.
Sentence 3: A statement of the author’s apparent purpose, followed by an “in order to” phrase.
Sentence 4: A description of the intended audience, the relationship the author establishes with
the audience, or both.

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APPENDIX F
Evaluation Form
Based on the CSU English Placement Test (EPT)
Part I: Revising Checklist—Mark the appropriate categories.
Superior Strong Adequate Marginal Weak Very Weak Comments
Response to
Addresses the topic Addresses the topic Addresses the topic Distorts or neglects Indicates confusion Suggests an inability
the topic
clearly and responds clearly but may but may slight some aspects of the task about the topic or to comprehend the
effectively to all respond to some aspects of the task. neglects important question or to respond
aspects of the task aspects of the task aspects of the task. meaningfully to the
more effectively than topic.
others.
Understanding Demonstrates a Demonstrates a Demonstrates a Demonstrates some Demonstrates very Demonstrates little or
and use of the thorough critical sound critical generally accurate understanding of the poor understanding of no ability to
assigned understanding of the understanding of the understanding of the assigned reading but the main points of the understand the
reading assigned reading in assigned reading in assigned reading in may misconstrue assigned reading. assigned reading or to
developing an developing a well developing a sensible parts of it or make Does not use the use it in developing a
insightful response. reasoned response. response. limited use of it in reading appropriately response.
developing a weak in developing a
response. response or may not
use the reading at all
Quality and Explores the issues Shows some depth May treat the topic Lacks focus or Lacks focus and Is unfocused, illogical,
clarity of thoughtfully and in and complexity of simplistically or demonstrates coherence and often or incoherent.
thought depth. thought. repetitively. confused or simplistic fails to communicate
thinking. ideas.

Organization, Is coherently Is well-organized and Is adequately Is poorly organized Has very weak Is disorganized and
development, organized and developed, with ideas organized and and developed, organization and undeveloped,
and support developed, with ideas supported by developed, generally presenting development, providing little or no
supported by apt appropriate reasons supporting ideas with generalizations providing simplistic relevant support.
reasons and well- and examples. reasons and without adequate generalizations
chosen examples. examples. support or details without support.
without
generalizations.
Syntax and Has an effective, Displays some Demonstrates Has limited control of Has inadequate Lacks basic control of
command of fluent style marked by syntactic variety and adequate use of syntax and control of syntax and syntax and
language syntactic variety and a facility in the use of syntax and language. vocabulary. vocabulary. vocabulary.
clear command of language.
language.

Grammar, Is generally free from May have a few errors May have some Has an accumulation Is marred by Has serious and
usage, and errors in grammar, in grammar, usage, errors but generally of errors in grammar, numerous errors in persistent errors in
mechanics usage, and and mechanics. demonstrates control usage, and grammar, usage, and grammar, usage, and
(See list on mechanics. of grammar, usage, mechanics that mechanics that mechanics that
next page for and mechanics sometimes interfere frequently interfere severely interfere with
details) with meaning. with meaning. meaning.

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Part II: Editing Checklist
Problem Questions Comments
Sentence boundaries Are there fragments, comma splices, or fused sentences?

Word choice Are word choices appropriate in meaning, connotation, and

tone?

Subject-verb Do main verbs agree with the subject in person and

agreement number?

Verb tense Is the tense appropriate to the topic and style? Does the
writing shift back and forth from present to past
inappropriately?
Word forms Are any parts of verb phrases missing or incorrect? Are verb
endings correct? Do other words have correct endings and
forms?
Noun plurals Do regular plurals end in “s”? Are irregular plurals correct?
Are there problems with count and non-count nouns?

Articles Are articles (a, an, and the) used correctly? (Note: Proper
nouns generally don’t have an article, with exceptions like
“the United States” and “the Soviet Union,” which are more
like descriptions than names.)

Spelling Are words spelled correctly?

Punctuation Are periods, commas, and question marks used correctly?

Are quotations punctuated correctly? Are capital letters used
appropriately?
Pronoun reference Does every pronoun have a clear referent? (Note: Pronouns
without referents or with multiple possible referents create a
vague, confusing style?)
Other problems Are there other important problems?

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APPENDIX G
Holistic Scoring Guide
(Based on the English Placement Test Criteria)
The categories of each score are consistent with the following legend:
a. response to the topic
b. understanding and use of the passage
c. quality and clarity of thought
d. organization, development, and support
e. syntax and command of language
f. grammar, usage, and mechanics
Score of 6: Superior
A 6 essay is superior writing, but may have minor flaws. A typical essay at this level is characterized by
these features:
a. addresses the topic clearly and responds effectively to all aspects of the task
b. demonstrates a thorough critical understanding of the passage in developing an insightful
response
c. explores the issues thoughtfully and in depth
d. is coherently organized and developed, with ideas supported by apt reasons and well-chosen
examples
e. has an effective, fluent style marked by syntactic variety and a clear command of language
f. is generally free from errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics
Score of 5: Strong
A 5 essay demonstrates clear competence in writing. It may have some errors, but they are not serious
enough to distract or confuse the reader. A typical essay at this level is characterized by these features:
a. addresses the topic clearly, but may respond to some aspects of the task more effectively than
others
b. demonstrates a sound critical understanding of the passage in developing a well-reasoned
response
c. shows some depth and complexity of thought
d. is well organized and developed, with ideas supported by appropriate reasons and examples
e. displays some syntactic variety and facility in the use of language
f. may have a few errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics
Score of 4: Adequate
A 4 essay demonstrates adequate writing. It may have some errors that distract the reader, but they do not
significantly obscure meaning. A typical essay at this level is characterized by these features:
a. addresses the topic, but may slight some aspects of the task
b. demonstrates a generally accurate understanding of the passage in developing a sensible response
c. may treat the topic simplistically or repetitively
d. is adequately organized and developed, generally supporting ideas with reasons and examples
e. demonstrates adequate use of syntax and language
f. may have some errors, but generally demonstrates control of grammar, usage, and mechanics

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Score of 3: Marginal
A 3 essay demonstrates developing competence, but is flawed in some significant way(s). A typical essay
at this level reveals one or more of the following weaknesses:
a. distorts or neglects aspects of the task
b. demonstrates some understanding of the passage, but may misconstrue parts of it or make limited
use of it in developing a weak response
c. lacks focus, or demonstrates confused or simplistic thinking
d. is poorly organized and developed, presenting generalizations without adequate and appropriate
support or presenting details without generalizations
e. has limited control of syntax and vocabulary
f. has an accumulation of errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics that sometimes interfere with
meaning
Score of 2: Very Weak
A 2 essay is seriously flawed. A typical essay at this level reveals one or more of the following
weaknesses:
a. indicates confusion about the topic or neglects important aspects of the task
b. demonstrates very poor understanding of the main points of the passage, does not use the passage
appropriately in developing a response, or may not use the passage at all
c. lacks focus and coherence, and often fails to communicate its ideas
d. has very weak organization and development, providing simplistic generalizations without
support
e. has inadequate control of syntax and vocabulary
f. is marred by numerous errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics that frequently interfere with
meaning
Score of 1: Incompetent
A 1 essay demonstrates fundamental deficiencies in writing skills. A typical essay at this level reveals one
or more of the following weaknesses:
a. suggests an inability to comprehend the question or to respond meaningfully to the topic
b. demonstrates little or no ability to understand the passage or to use it in developing a response
c. is unfocused, illogical, or incoherent
d. is disorganized and undeveloped, providing little or no relevant support
e. lacks basic control of syntax and vocabulary
f. has serious and persistent errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics that severely interfere with
meaning
Readers should not penalize ESL writers excessively for slight shifts in idiom, problems with articles,
confusion over prepositions, and occasional misuse of verb tense and verb forms as long as such features
do not obscure meaning.

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