MPC 05 SOLVED ASSIGNMENT

2023-24
Research Methods (MPC-005) Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) Course Code: MPC-
005 Assignment Code: MPC-005/AST/TMA/2023-24 Marks: 100 Note: All Questions
Are Compulsory
Section A
Answer the following question in about 1000 words each. 15x3=45Marks
1. Define sampling. Discuss the different methods of sampling.
Ans. Sampling is a process of selecting a subset of individuals or elements from a larger
population for the purpose of studying or drawing inferences about the population. Sampling
is used in various fields, including social sciences, business, engineering, and health sciences.
The process of sampling involves selecting a sample that is representative of the population
from which it was drawn, in order to minimize bias and increase the accuracy of the results.

There are several different methods of sampling, including probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. Probability sampling methods involve random selection of samples,
while non-probability sampling methods do not.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple Random Sampling: Simple random sampling is a type of probability sampling

method in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for
the sample. This method is often used in small populations, where it is easy to identify and
list all members of the population. Simple random sampling can be done with or without
replacement.

2. Systematic Sampling: Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in

which the population is divided into equal-sized intervals and a random starting point is
chosen. Then, every nth member of the population is selected for the sample, where n is the
interval size. Systematic sampling can be more efficient than simple random sampling,
especially when the population is large and difficult to list.

3. Stratified Sampling: Stratified sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which

the population is divided into homogenous subgroups, or strata, based on a relevant
characteristic. Then, a random sample is selected from each stratum. Stratified sampling can
increase the representativeness of the sample and reduce sampling error.

4. Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which the
population is divided into clusters or groups, and then a random sample of clusters is
selected. All members of the selected clusters are then included in the sample. Cluster
sampling is often used when the population is large and geographically dispersed.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling

method in which individuals who are readily available and accessible are selected for the
sample. Convenience sampling is often used in pilot studies or when time and resources are
limited, but it can result in biased samples.

2. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in

which the researcher identifies a few individuals who meet the inclusion criteria and then
asks them to identify others who also meet the criteria. The sample then grows through
referrals from the initial participants. Snowball sampling is often used when the population is
difficult to access or identify, but it can also result in biased samples.

3. Quota Sampling: Quota sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in which

the researcher selects individuals based on specific characteristics, such as age, sex, or race,
until a predetermined quota is met. Quota sampling is often used in market research or
opinion polls, but it can result in biased samples if the quotas are not representative of the
population.

4. Purposive Sampling: Purposive sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in

which the researcher selects individuals based on a specific purpose or criterion. Purposive
sampling is often used in qualitative research or case studies, but it can result in biased
samples if the criteria are not representative of the population.

Probability sampling methods involve random selection of samples, which ensures that every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This
increases the representativeness of the sample and reduces sampling error, which is the
difference between the sample statistic and the true population parameter. Probability
sampling methods are generally more representative and reliable, but they can be time-
consuming and resource-intensive, especially when the population is large and diverse.

Simple random sampling is the most basic type of probability sampling method, in which
every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This
method is often used in small populations, where it is easy to identify and list all members of
the population. Simple random sampling can be done with or without replacement. When
sampling with replacement, each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected for each draw, even if they have been selected before. When sampling without
replacement, each member of the population can only be selected once, which reduces the
chance of duplication but increases the risk of bias if the sampling frame is not complete or
accurate.

Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which the population is

divided into equal-sized intervals and a random starting point is chosen. Then, every nth
member of the population is selected for the sample, where n is the interval size. Systematic
sampling can be more efficient than simple random sampling, especially when the population
is large and difficult to list. However, systematic sampling can introduce bias if there is a
pattern or regularity in the population, such as a cyclical pattern or a trend.

Stratified sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which the population is

divided into homogenous subgroups, or strata, based on a relevant characteristic, such as age,
sex, or income. Then, a random sample is selected from each stratum, proportional to its size.
Stratified sampling can increase the representativeness of the sample and reduce sampling
error, especially when the strata are well-defined and relevant to the research question.
However, stratified sampling can be more complex and expensive than simple random
sampling, especially when there are many strata or the strata are not clearly defined.

Cluster sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which the population is divided
into clusters or groups, and then a random sample of clusters is selected. All members of the
selected clusters are then included in the sample. Cluster sampling is often used when the
population is large and geographically dispersed, and it can be more efficient and cost-
effective than simple random sampling or stratified sampling. However, cluster sampling can
introduce bias if the clusters are not representative of the population or if there is
heterogeneity within clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods do not involve random selection of samples, which means
that every member of the population does not have an equal chance of being selected for the
sample. Non-probability sampling methods are often used when probability sampling
methods are not feasible or practical, such as when the population is difficult to access,
identify, or define. However, non-probability sampling methods can introduce bias and
reduce the representativeness and reliability of the sample, which can affect the validity and
generalizability of the results.

Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in which individuals

who are readily available and accessible are selected for the sample. Convenience sampling is
often used in pilot studies, exploratory research, or when time and resources are limited, but it
can result in biased samples, as it may not represent the diversity or variability of the
population.
Snowball sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in which the researcher
identifies a few individuals who meet the inclusion criteria and then asks them to identify
others who also meet the criteria. The sample then grows through referrals from the initial
participants. Snowball sampling is often used when the population is difficult to access or
identify, such as in hidden or stigmatized populations, but it can also result in biased samples,
as it may overrepresent certain subgroups or perspectives.

Quota sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in which the researcher selects
individuals based on specific characteristics, such as age, sex, or race, until a predetermined
quota is met. Quota sampling is often used in market research or opinion polls, but it can
result in biased samples if the quotas are not representative of the population or if the
selection of the individuals is subjective or arbitrary.

Purposive sampling is a type of non-probability sampling method in which the researcher

selects individuals based on a specific purpose or criterion, such as expertise, experience, or
relevance. Purposive sampling is often used in qualitative research or case studies, but it can
result in biased samples if the criteria are not representative of the population or if the
selection of theindividuals is subjective or arbitrary.

In conclusion, selecting an appropriate sampling method is critical to the validity and

reliability of research findings. Probability sampling methods are generally more
representative and reliable, but they can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. Non-
probability sampling methods are often used when probability sampling methods are not
feasible or practical, but they can introduce bias and reduce the representativeness and
reliability of the sample. Researchers must carefully consider the strengths and limitations of
different sampling methods and strive to minimize bias in order to produce valid and reliable
results. Additionally, researchers should report the sampling method and sampling frame
clearly in their research reports to facilitate transparency and replicability.

2. Discuss the steps involved in research process.

Ans. The research process is a systematic and scientific approach to investigate a research
question or problem. The research process involves several steps, each of which is important
for the success of the research project. The following are the steps involved in the research
process:

1. Identify the research problem: The first step in the research process is to identify the
research problem or question. The research problem should be clear, specific, and relevant to
the field of study. The research problem can be identified through literature review,
observation, personal experience, or discussion with colleagues.
2. Conduct a literature review: The second step in the research process is to conduct a
literature review. A literature review involves searching and reviewing existing literature
relevant to the research problem. The literature review helps the researcher to identify the
gaps, strengths, and weaknesses in the existing knowledge and to develop a theoretical or
conceptual framework for the research.

3. Develop research questions and hypotheses: The third step in the research process is to
develop research questions or hypotheses. Research questions are specific and focused
questions that guide the research. Hypotheses are tentative statements about the relationship
between variables that can be tested through empirical research.

4. Choose a research design: The fourth step in the research process is to choose a research
design. The research design is the plan or strategy for conducting the research and collecting
data. There are several types of research designs, including experimental, quasi-experimental,
correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.

5. Select a sample: The fifth step in the research process is to select a sample. A sample is a
subset of the population that is selected for the study. The selection of the sample should be
representative of the population and should be done using a suitable sampling method.

6. Collect data: The sixth step in the research process is to collect data. Data can be collected
through various methods, including surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observations, and
experiments. The data collection method should be appropriate for the research question and
the research design.

7. Analyze data: The seventh step in the research process is to analyze data. Data analysis
involves organizing, summarizing, and interpreting the data collected. Data analysis can be
done using various statistical or qualitative methods, depending on the research question and
the type of data collected.

8. Draw conclusions: The eighth step in the research process is to draw conclusions.
Conclusions are the answers to the research questions or hypotheses. The conclusions should
be based on the data collected and analyzed and should be supported by the literature review
and the theoretical or conceptual framework.

9. Communicate the results: The final step in the research process is to communicate the
results. Communication of the results can be done through various means, including research
reports, journal articles, conference presentations, or public presentations. The
communication of the results should be clear, concise, and relevant to the audience.

10. Identify the research problem: This step involves identifying a research problem or
question that is relevant to the field of study. The research problem should be clear, specific,
and manageable in terms of scope and resources. The research problem can be identified
through various sources, including personal experience, observation, literature review, or
discussions with colleagues.

11. Conduct a literature review: This step involves searching and reviewing existing literature
relevant to the research problem. The literature review helps the researcher to identify the
gaps, strengths, and weaknesses in the existing knowledge and to develop a theoretical or
conceptual framework for the research. The literature review can be done using various
sources, including academic journals, books, conference proceedings, and online databases.

12. Develop research questions and hypotheses: This step involves developing specific and
focused research questions or hypotheses that guide the research. Research questions are
usually open-ended and exploratory, while hypotheses are tentative statements about the
relationship between variables that can be tested through empirical research. Research
questions and hypotheses should be based on the research problem and the theoretical or
conceptual framework developed in the literature review.

13. Choose a research design: This step involves choosing a research design that is
appropriate for the research questions or hypotheses. There are several types of research
designs, including experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and
exploratory. The choice of research design depends on several factors, including the nature of
the research problem, the availability of resources, and ethical considerations.

14. Select a sample: This step involves selecting a sample that is representative of the
population and suitable for the research design. The selection of the sample should be done
using a suitable sampling method, such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, or
cluster sampling. The size of the sample should also be determined based on statistical
considerations, such as sample size calculation.

15. Collect data: This step involves collecting data using a suitable data collection method
that is appropriate for the research design and the research questions or hypotheses. Data
collection methods can include surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observations, and
experiments. The data collection process should be carefully planned and executed to ensure
the validity and reliability of the data collected.
16. Analyze data: This step involves analyzing the data collected using appropriate statistical
or qualitative methods. Data analysis can include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics,
content analysis, or thematic analysis, depending on the nature of the research questions or
hypotheses and the type of data collected. Data analysis should be done carefully to ensure
the accuracy and validity of the results.

17. Draw conclusions: This step involves drawing conclusions based on the data analyzed
and the research questions or hypotheses. Conclusions should be based on the evidence
gathered and should be supported by the literature review and the theoretical or conceptual
framework. Conclusions should be clear, concise, and relevant to the research problem and
the field of study.

18. Communicate the results: This step involves communicating the results of the research to
the relevant audience. Communication of the results can be done through various means,
including research reports, journal articles, conference presentations, or public presentations.
Communication of the results should be clear, concise, and relevant to the audience and
should follow the ethical guidelines and standards of the field of study.

In conclusion, the research process is a systematic and scientific approach to investigate a

research problem or question. The research process involves several steps, including
identifying the research problem, conducting a literature review, developing research
questions or hypotheses, choosing a research design, selecting a sample, collecting data,
analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and communicating the results. Each step of the
research process is important for the success of the research project, and researchers should
carefully plan and execute each step to ensure the validity and reliability of the research
findings.

3. Discuss the meaning, types and relevance of qualitative research. Explain the ethical
guidelines in qualitative research.
Ans. Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to understand the meaning and
experiences of individuals or groups. It is a subjective approach that focuses on the
exploration and interpretation of social phenomena in their natural setting. In this section, we
will discuss the meaning, types, and relevance of qualitative research, as well as the ethical
guidelines that researchers must follow when conducting qualitative research.

Meaning of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method that is used to gain an in-depth understanding of
human behavior, perceptions, attitudes, and experiences. It is a subjective approach that
focuses on the exploration and interpretation of social phenomena in their natural setting.
Qualitative research is based on the assumption that social phenomena are complex and
cannot be reduced to simple variables. Therefore, it uses a range of data collection
techniques, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis, to gather
rich and detailed data that can be analyzed using qualitative data analysis techniques.

Types of Qualitative Research

There are various types of qualitative research methods, including:

1. Ethnography: Ethnography is a research method that involves the systematic study of a

culture or social group. It involves the researcher immersing themselves in the culture or
group being studied and observing and participating in their activities.

2. Phenomenology: Phenomenology is a research method that focuses on the subjective

experiences of individuals. It involves exploring and describing the meaning of experiences
as they are lived by individuals.

3. Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a research method that is used to develop theories
from data. It involves collecting data and using it to develop a theory that explains the
phenomenon being studied.

4. Case study: Case study is a research method that involves intensive investigation of a
particular case or cases. It is often used to explore complex phenomena in real-world settings.

Relevance of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is relevant in many fields, including sociology, psychology,

anthropology, education, and healthcare. It is particularly useful in areas where the focus is
on understanding the experiences, attitudes, and perspectives of individuals or groups.
Qualitative research is often used to explore complex social phenomena that cannot be easily
measured or quantified. It is also useful in providing insights into the social and cultural
context of the phenomenon being studied.

Ethical Guidelines in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves the study of human behavior, perceptions, attitudes, and
experiences. Therefore, it is important for researchers to follow ethical guidelines to ensure
that the rights and dignity of participants are protected. The following are some ethical
guidelines that researchers should follow when conducting qualitative research:

1. Informed consent: Researchers should ensure that participants are fully informed about the
research project and their participation, including the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits.
Participants should provide informed consent before participating in the study, and they
should be free to withdraw at any time.

2. Confidentiality: Researchers should ensure that the identity and personal information of
participants are kept confidential. Participants should be assured that their responses will be
kept anonymous, and their personal information will not be shared with anyone.

3. Respect for participants: Researchers should treat participants with respect and dignity.
They should avoid any harm or deception that may cause physical or psychological harm to
participants.

4. Voluntary participation: Researchers should ensure that participants are not coerced or
pressured into participating in the study. They should be free to decline participation without
any negative consequences.

5. Data storage and security: Researchers should ensure that the data collected from
participants are stored securely and confidentially. Only authorized personnel should have
access to the data.

6. Debriefing: Researchers should provide participants with debriefing after the study is
completed. They should explain the purpose and findings of the study and answer any
questions that participants may have.

7. Minimization of harm: Researchers should take measures to minimize any potential harm
or discomfort that participants may experience during the study. They should ensure that the
research procedures are safe and non-invasive, and they should provide support or referrals to
participants who may require additional assistance.
8. Cultural sensitivity: Researchers should be aware of the cultural and social context of the
participants and should take steps to ensure that the research procedures and questions are
culturally appropriate and sensitive. They should also ensure that the research does not
reinforce stereotypes or prejudices.

9. Conflict of interest: Researchers should disclose any potential conflicts of interest that may
affect the research or the participants. They should ensure that the research is conducted with
integrity and objectivity, and they should not use the research to promote their own interests
or agendas.

10. Institutional review: Researchers should obtain approval from an institutional review
board (IRB) or ethics committee before conducting the study. The IRB or ethics committee
will review the research proposal and ensure that it meets ethical and legal standards.
Researchers should also follow any additional guidelines or regulations set by their institution
or funding agency.

11. Transparency: Researchers should be transparent about the research procedures, findings,
and limitations. They should provide accurate and complete information about the study to
the participants, the scientific community, and the public.

12. Data sharing: Researchers should consider sharing their data with other researchers to
promote transparency, collaboration, and scientific advancement. However, they should
ensure that the data are de-identified and that the privacy and confidentiality of participants
are protected.

In conclusion, ethical guidelines are essential in qualitative research to ensure that the rights
and dignity of participants are protected. Researchers should follow ethical guidelines when
conducting qualitative research to ensure that the research is conducted with integrity,
objectivity, and sensitivity. Ethical guidelines also promote transparency, collaboration, and
scientific advancement, and they are essential in building trust between researchers,
participants, and the public.

Section B
Answer the following questions in about 400 words each. 5x5=25Marks
4. Criteria and misconceptions of case studies.
Ans. Case studies are a type of qualitative research method that involves the in-depth
investigation of a particular case or cases. Case studies are often used in fields such as
psychology, sociology, education, and business to explore complex phenomena in real-world
settings. In this section, we will discuss the criteria and misconceptions of case studies.

Criteria of Case Studies

1. Richness: Case studies should provide rich and detailed data that allows for an in-depth
analysis of the phenomenon being studied. The data should include multiple sources of
information, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and should provide a
comprehensive understanding of the case.

2. Relevance: Case studies should be relevant to the research question or problem being
investigated. The case should be selected based on its ability to provide insights into the
phenomenon being studied.

3. Generalizability: Case studies should not be used to make generalizations about a

population or phenomenon. They are often used to generate hypotheses or theories that can
be tested through further research.

4. Validity: Case studies should be conducted using a rigorous and systematic approach to
ensure the validity of the findings. The researcher should use multiple sources of data and
should triangulate the data to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.

5. Ethical considerations: Case studies should follow ethical guidelines to ensure that the
rights and dignity of the participants are protected. Researchers should obtain informed
consent from the participants, ensure confidentiality, and minimize any potential harm or
discomfort.

Misconceptions of Case Studies

1. Lack of generalizability: One common misconception about case studies is that they lack
generalizability. While case studies cannot be used to make generalizations about a
population or phenomenon, they can provide insights into the complex and unique aspects of
a particular case. Case studies can also generate hypotheses or theories that can be tested
through further research.

2. Subjectivity: Another common misconception about case studies is that they are subjective
and lack objectivity. While case studies are based on the researcher's interpretation of the
data, they can still be conducted using a rigorous and systematic approach. The researcher
can use multiple sources of data and triangulate the data to ensure that the findings are valid
and reliable.

3. Lack of quantitative data: Some researchers may believe that case studies are only useful
for collecting qualitative data and cannot provide quantitative data. While case studies are
often used to collect qualitative data, they can also be used to collect quantitative data, such
as numerical data from surveys or measurements.

4. Inability to test hypotheses: Some researchers may believe that case studies cannot be used
to test hypotheses or theories. While case studies are often used to generate hypotheses or
theories, they can also be used to test them. The researcher can use a comparative case study
approach to test the hypotheses or theories.

In conclusion, case studies are a type of qualitative research method that involves the in-
depth investigation of a particular case or cases. Case studies should meet certain criteria,
such as richness, relevance, generalizability, validity, and ethical considerations.
Misconceptions about case studies, such as lack of generalizability, subjectivity, and inability
to test hypotheses, should be addressed to ensure that researchers use case studies
appropriately and effectively.

5. Types of variables.
Ans. In research, variables refer to characteristics or attributes that can vary or change.
Variables are an essential part of research because they allow researchers to measure and
analyze the relationship between different phenomena. In this section, we will discuss the
different types of variables used in research.

Independent Variable

The independent variable is a variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to

observe the effect on the dependent variable. It is the variable that is hypothesized to cause a
change in the dependent variable. For example, in a study on the effect of caffeine on
alertness, caffeine would be the independent variable, as it is being manipulated to observe
the effect on alertness.

Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or observed in the study. It is
the variable that is hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable. For example, in a
study on the effect of caffeine on alertness, alertness would be the dependent variable, as it is
being measured to observe the effect of caffeine.

Control Variable

The control variable is a variable that is held constant or controlled by the researcher to
ensure that any observed changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent
variable. For example, in a study on the effect of caffeine on alertness, the control variable
could be the amount of sleep the participants had the night before the study. By controlling
for the amount of sleep, the researcher can ensure that any observed changes in alertness are
due to the caffeine and not the amount of sleep.

Categorical Variable

Categorical variables are variables that can be divided into categories or groups. They are
often expressed in terms of labels or names. Categorical variables can be nominal or ordinal.
Nominal variables are categories that have no inherent order or ranking, such as gender or
race. Ordinal variables are categories that have a natural order or ranking, such as income
level or education level.

Continuous Variable

Continuous variables are variables that can take on any value within a specified range. They
are often expressed in terms of numbers. Continuous variables can be interval or ratio.
Interval variables are variables in which the difference between two values is meaningful, but
there is no true zero point, such as temperature. Ratio variables are variables in which the
difference between two values is meaningful, and there is a true zero point, such as weight or
height.

Discrete Variable

Discrete variables are variables that can only take on certain values within a specified range.
They are often expressed in terms of whole numbers. Discrete variables can be nominal or
ordinal. Nominal variables are categories that have no inherent order or ranking, such as the
number of siblings a person has. Ordinal variables are categories that have a natural order or
ranking, such as the grade level of a student.
Extraneous Variable

Extraneous variables are variables that can affect the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables. They are variables that are not of interest to the researcher but can
still affect the results of the study. Extraneous variables can be controlled or measured in the
study to ensure that they do not affect the results.

Moderating Variable

Moderating variables are variables that can affect the strength or direction of the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. They are variables that can change the
relationship between the two variables. For example, in a study on the effect of caffeine on
alertness, age could be a moderating variable. Older adults may be less affected by caffeine
than younger adults, so age could change the strength or direction of the relationship between
caffeine and alertness.

Mediating Variable

Mediating variables are variables that explain the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. They are variables that come between the independent and dependent
variables and explain how the independent variable affects the dependent variable. For
example, in a study on the effect of caffeine on alertness, the mediating variable could be
heart rate. Caffeine increases heart rate, which in turn increases alertness.

In conclusion, variables are an essential part of research, as they allow researchers to measure
and analyze the relationship between different phenomena. There are different types of
variables used in research, including independent, dependent, control, categorical,
continuous, discrete, extraneous, moderating, and mediating variables. Researchers must
understand the different types of variables and how they can affect the results of a study to
ensure that their research is valid and reliable.

6. Advantages and disadvantages of quasi experimental design.

Ans. Quasi-experimental designs are research designs that involve the manipulation of an
independent variable but lack some of the characteristics of a true experimental design, such
as random assignment to groups. Quasi-experimental designs are often used when it is not
possible or ethical to randomly assign participants to groups. In this section, we will discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of quasi-experimental designs.
Advantages of Quasi-Experimental Designs

1. Real-world settings: Quasi-experimental designs often take place in real-world settings,

which can increase the ecological validity of the study. This means that the results are more
likely to be applicable to real-world situations.

2. Ethical considerations: Quasi-experimental designs are often used when it is not ethical to
randomly assign participants to groups. For example, it may not be ethical to randomly assign
participants to a smoking or non-smoking group. Quasi-experimental designs allow
researchers to study the effect of an independent variable while still maintaining ethical
considerations.

3. Cost-effective: Quasi-experimental designs are often more cost-effective than true

experimental designs. They require fewer resources and can be conducted in natural settings,
which can save time and money.

4. More feasible: Quasi-experimental designs are often more feasible than true experimental
designs. They can be used when it is not possible to control all of the variables in the study,
which is often the case in real-world settings.

5. High external validity: Quasi-experimental designs can have high external validity,
meaning that they can be generalized to other populations and settings. This is because they
are often conducted in natural settings and involve real-world situations.

Disadvantages of Quasi-Experimental Designs

1. Lack of control: Quasi-experimental designs lack some of the control of a true

experimental design. This means that there may be other variables that are affecting the
results of the study that the researcher cannot control.

2. Selection bias: Quasi-experimental designs can be vulnerable to selection bias, which

occurs when the participants in one group are different from the participants in another group.
This can affect the results of the study.
3. Confounding variables: Quasi-experimental designs are vulnerable to confounding
variables, which are variables that are not being manipulated by the researcher but can affect
the results of the study. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine the cause-
and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

4. Less internal validity: Quasi-experimental designs have less internal validity than true
experimental designs. This means that it is more difficult to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

5. Limited generalizability: Quasi-experimental designs may have limited generalizability,

meaning that the results may only be applicable to a specific population or setting. This is
because the participants in the study may be different from the general population.

In conclusion, quasi-experimental designs have advantages and disadvantages. Quasi-

experimental designs are often used when it is not possible or ethical to randomly assign
participants to groups. Quasi-experimental designs can take place in real-world settings, be
cost-effective, and have high external validity. However, they also lack some of the control of
a true experimental design, can be vulnerable to selection bias and confounding variables,
have less internal validity, and may have limited generalizability. Researchers must carefully
consider the advantages and disadvantages of quasi-experimental designs when choosing a
research design.

7. Types of questions that can be used in a survey research.

Ans. Surveys are a common research method used to collect data from a sample of
individuals. Surveys can be administered in a variety of forms, including paper and pencil,
telephone, online, and in-person interviews. Surveys can be used to collect data on a variety
of topics, such as attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and demographics. In this section, we will
discuss the types of questions that can be used in a survey research.

1. Closed-Ended Questions

Closed-ended questions are questions that provide a set of response options for the participant
to choose from. Closed-ended questions are often used to measure attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors. Examples of closed-ended questions include:

- Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: "I feel happy most of the time."
- How many hours per week do you exercise?
- Have you ever smoked cigarettes?

Closed-ended questions can be used to collect quantitative data that can be analyzed using
statistical methods.

2. Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions are questions that allow participants to respond in their own words.
Open-ended questions are often used to collect qualitative data, such as opinions,
experiences, and perceptions. Examples of open-ended questions include:

- What do you think are the benefits of exercise?

- Can you describe a time when you felt stressed at work?
- How do you feel about the current political climate?

Open-ended questions can provide rich and detailed data that can be used to gain insights into
the participant's thoughts and experiences.

3. Likert Scale Questions

Likert scale questions are a type of closed-ended question that measures the participant's level
of agreement or disagreement with a statement. Likert scale questions typically use a five-
point or seven-point scale, with response options ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly
disagree." Examples of Likert scale questions include:

- How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement: "I feel confident in my
ability to manage my finances."
- To what extent do you believe that climate change is a serious issue?
- How satisfied are you with your current job?

Likert scale questions can provide quantitative data that can be analyzed using statistical
methods.

4. Multiple Choice Questions

Multiple choice questions are a type of closed-ended question that provides a set of response
options for the participant to choose from. Multiple choice questions are often used to collect
demographic data, such as age, gender, and education level. Examples of multiple choice
questions include:

- What is your age group?

A) 18-24
B) 25-34
C) 35-44
D) 45-54
E) 55 or older
- What is your highest level of education?
A) High school diploma or less
B) Some college
C) Bachelor's degree
D) Master's degree or higher

Multiple choice questions can provide quantitative data that can be analyzed using statistical
methods.

5. Ranking Questions

Ranking questions are a type of closed-ended question that asks participants to rank a set of
items in order of importance. Ranking questions are often used to measure preferences or
priorities. Examples of ranking questions include:

- Please rank the following factors in order of importance when choosing a restaurant: price,
location, quality of food, ambiance, and service.
- Please rank the following environmental issues in order of priority: climate change, air
pollution, water pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity.

Ranking questions can provide quantitative data that can be analyzed using statistical
methods.
In conclusion, there are several types of questions that can be used in a survey research,
including closed-ended questions, open-ended questions, Likert scale questions, multiple
choice questions, and ranking questions. Each type of question has its own strengths and
weaknesses and can be used to collect different types of data. Researchers must carefully
consider the types of questions that are most appropriate for their research question and the
population they are studying.

8. Types of correlational research design.

Ans. Correlational research is a type of research design that aims to investigate the
relationship between two or more variables. This type of research design is used to determine
whether there is a relationship between variables and the strength of that relationship.
Correlational research is used when it is not possible or ethical to manipulate one variable to
determine its effect on another variable. In this article, we will discuss the various types of
correlational research designs.

1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient

The Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear
relationship between two variables. It is the most commonly used measure of correlation in
research. The Pearson correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to 1, with -1 indicating a perfect
negative correlation, 0 indicating no correlation, and 1 indicating a perfect positive
correlation. This type of correlation is often used in psychology and other social sciences to
measure the relationship between two continuous variables.

2. Spearman's Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient

Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient is a non-parametric measure of correlation that

is used when the variables being studied are not normally distributed. This correlation
coefficient measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, but
it does not assume a linear relationship between the variables. Instead, it measures the degree
to which the ranks of the variables are related. This type of correlation is often used in
research in which the variables being studied are ranked or rated by observers or participants.

3. Point-Biserial Correlation Coefficient

The point-biserial correlation coefficient is used when one variable is continuous and the
other variable is dichotomous (i.e., has only two possible values). This correlation coefficient
measures the strength and direction of the relationship between the continuous variable and
the dichotomous variable. This type of correlation is often used in psychology and other
social sciences to measure the relationship between a continuous variable (such as age) and a
dichotomous variable (such as gender).

4. Phi Coefficient

The phi coefficient is a measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two
dichotomous variables. This correlation coefficient is similar to the point-biserial correlation
coefficient, but it is used when both variables are dichotomous. The phi coefficient ranges
from -1 to 1, with -1 indicating a perfect negative correlation, 0 indicating no correlation, and
1 indicating a perfect positive correlation. This type of correlation is often used in research in
which both variables are categorical, such as in studies of the relationship between smoking
and lung cancer.

5. Biserial Correlation Coefficient

The biserial correlation coefficient is used when one variable is continuous and the other
variable is dichotomous, but the continuous variable is assumed to have a normal distribution.
This correlation coefficient measures the strength and direction of the relationship between
the continuous variable and the dichotomous variable. This type of correlation is often used
in psychology and other social sciences to measure the relationship between a continuous
variable (such as IQ) and a dichotomous variable (such as diagnosis of a mental disorder).

6. Polychoric Correlation Coefficient

The polychoric correlation coefficient is a non-parametric measure of correlation that is used

when both variables being studied are ordinal (i.e., they have a natural order, but the distance
between the categories is not known). This correlation coefficient measures the strength and
direction of the relationship between two ordinal variables. This type of correlation is often
used in research in which the variables being studied are rated or ranked by observers or
participants.

7. Kendall's Tau Correlation Coefficient

Kendall's tau correlation coefficient is a non-parametric measure of correlation that is used

when both variables being studied are ordinal. This correlation coefficient measures the
strength and direction of the relationship between two ordinal variables, but it does not
assume a linear relationship between the variables. Instead, it measures the degree to which
the ranks of the variables are related. This type of correlation is often used in research in
which the variables being studied are rated or ranked by observers or participants.

In conclusion, correlational research is a valuable research design that can be used to

investigate the relationship between two or more variables. The different types of
correlational research designs allow researchers to choose the appropriate measure of
correlation for the variables being studied and the research questions being investigated.
Understanding the strengths and limitations of each type of correlational research design is
important for conducting high-quality research that produces reliable and valid results.

Section C
Answer the following in about 50 words each. 10x3=30Marks
9. Difference between causal comparative and experimental research design
Ans. Causal-comparative research is a type of research design that aims to identify the cause-
and-effect relationship between two or more variables. This type of research design involves
comparing groups of individuals who differ on a particular variable of interest to determine
the effect of that variable on an outcome. In contrast, experimental research is a research
design that involves manipulating one variable (the independent variable) and measuring the
effect on another variable (the dependent variable) while controlling for other variables. The
key difference between the two designs is that experimental research involves manipulating
the independent variable, while causal-comparative research does not.

10. Types of hypotheses.

Ans. A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a possible explanation for a phenomenon or
event. There are several types of hypotheses that researchers can use to guide their research:

1. Null hypothesis: This type of hypothesis states that there is no relationship or difference
between variables.

2. Alternative hypothesis: This type of hypothesis states that there is a relationship or

difference between variables.

3. Directional hypothesis: This type of hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship
between variables.
4. Non-directional hypothesis: This type of hypothesis does not predict the direction of the
relationship between variables.

5. Composite hypothesis: This type of hypothesis includes multiple variables or conditions.

6. Simple hypothesis: This type of hypothesis includes only one variable or condition.

11. Types of Validity.

Ans. Validity refers to the extent to which a study or test measures what it intends to measure.
There are several types of validity that are important to consider in research:

1. Internal validity: The extent to which a study's findings are accurate and can be attributed
to the independent variable.

2. External validity: The extent to which a study's findings can be generalized to other
populations or situations.

3. Construct validity: The extent to which a study's measures accurately assess the concept or
construct being studied.

4. Content validity: The extent to which a test or measure covers all aspects of the concept or
construct being studied.

5. Criterion validity: The extent to which a test or measure is related to a criterion measure or
outcome.

6. Face validity: The extent to which a test or measure appears to measure what it intends to
measure.

12. Reliability.
Ans. Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a measure or test over time or across
different evaluators or raters. A measure or test is considered reliable if it produces consistent
results each time it is administered. There are several types of reliability that are important to
consider:
1. Test-retest reliability: The extent to which a measure produces consistent results when
administered to the same individuals at different times.

2. Inter-rater reliability: The extent to which different raters or evaluators produce consistent
results when using the same measure.

3. Internal consistency reliability: The extent to which different items on a measure or test are
consistent with each other and measure the same construct.

4. Parallel forms reliability: The extent to which different versions of a test or measure
produce consistent results.

13. Types of survey research.

Ans. Survey research is a type of research design that involves collecting data from a sample
of individuals through the use of a standardized questionnaire or survey. There are several
types of survey research that can be used:

1. Cross-sectional survey: A survey that collects data at one point in time.

2. Longitudinal survey: A survey that collects data from the same individuals over an
extended period of time.

3. Panel survey: A type of longitudinal survey that involves collecting data from the same
individuals at multiple points in time.

4. Trend survey: A type of longitudinal survey that collects data from different individuals at
multiple points in time.

5. Cohort survey: A type of longitudinal survey that collects data from individuals who share
a common experience or characteristic.

14. Quantitative research design.

Ans. Quantitative research is a research design that involves collecting and analyzing
numerical data to test hypotheses and make statistical inferences. It is used to investigate
relationships between variables and to identify patterns or trends in data. Quantitative
research designs are characterized by the use of structured data collection methods, such as
surveys or experiments, and the use of statistical analysis to draw conclusions from the data.
This approach emphasizes objectivity, generalizability, and the ability to test hypotheses
using statistical techniques. It is commonly used in fields such as psychology, sociology,
education, and business to answer research questions and inform decision-making.

15. Factorial Design.

Ans. Factorial design is a research design that involves manipulating two or more
independent variables to examine the effects of each variable on the dependent variable and
the interactions between the variables. Each independent variable in a factorial design is
referred to as a "factor," and the levels of each factor are systematically combined to create
the experimental conditions. This design allows researchers to examine the main effects of
each factor on the dependent variable as well as the interaction effects between the factors.
Factorial designs are commonly used in experimental research to investigate the complex
relationships between multiple variables.

16. Definition of research design.

Ans. Research design refers to the overall strategy or plan that a researcher uses to conduct a
study and answer research questions. It involves the selection of research methods, data
collection techniques, and data analysis methods. A good research design ensures that the
study is well-organized, systematic, and is able to provide valid and reliable results. It also
helps to ensure that the study can be replicated by other researchers. The choice of research
design is dependent on the research questions, the type of data to be collected, and the
resources available for the study.

17. Field experiment.

Ans. A field experiment is a type of research design in which researchers manipulate an
independent variable in a natural setting to observe its effect on a dependent variable. Unlike
a laboratory experiment, a field experiment is conducted in a real-world setting, allowing
researchers to directly observe the behavior of participants in a more realistic environment.
Field experiments are often used in social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and
economics, to study the effects of interventions or policies on real-world outcomes. This type
of research design is valuable for its external validity, as the results can be generalized to
real-world situations and populations.

18. Research Biases.

Ans. Research bias refers to the systematic errors or deviations that can occur in research,
leading to inaccurate or misleading results. Common types of research biases include:

1. Sampling bias: Occurs when the sample of participants is not representative of the
population being studied.

2. Selection bias: Occurs when participants are not randomly assigned to groups or
conditions, leading to non-equivalent groups.

3. Measurement bias: Occurs when the measure used to collect data is not valid or reliable.

4. Confirmation bias: Occurs when researchers interpret data in a way that supports their
preconceived beliefs or hypotheses.

5. Publication bias: Occurs when studies that do not find significant results are less likely to
be published, leading to an overrepresentation of significant findings in the literature.