Field Engineering Sciences

Solar Energy & Voltaic (MEC451)

Lecture 4

Dr : Aly Soliman Date : 16/10/2024

Solar Thermal Applications
Residential applications
• Domestic hot water
• Swimming pool and spa heating
• Space heating
• Water purification/distillation
• Air Conditioning

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 Solar Collectors Types

Four types of solar collectors are used for residential applications:

1. Flat‐plate collector
2. Integral collector‐storage systems
3. Batch system
4. Evacuated‐tube solar collectors

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Flat‐Plate Collector
Flat plate collectors are designed to heat water to medium
temperatures (approximately 140 degrees Fahrenheit).

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Flat plate collectors typically include the following components:

1. Enclosure: A box or frame that holds all the components together

2. Glazing: A transparent cover over the enclosure that allows the sun’s
rays to pass through to the absorber. Most glazing is glass but some
designs use clear plastic.

3. Glazing Frame: Attaches the glazing to the enclosure. Glazing

gaskets prevent leakage around the glazing frame and allow for
contraction and expansion.

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4. Insulation: Material between the absorber and the surfaces it touches that
blocks heat loss by conduction thereby reducing the heat loss from the
collector enclosure.

5. Absorber: A flat, usually metal surface inside the enclosure that, because
of its physical properties, can absorb and transfer high levels of solar energy.

6. Flow Tubes: Highly conductive metal tubes across the absorber through
which fluid flows, transferring heat from the absorber to the fluid.

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Integral Collector Storage (ICS)
Systems

In other solar water heating systems the collector and storage tank are
separate components. In an integral collector storage (ICS) system,
both collection and solar storage are combined within a single unit.
Most ICS systems store potable water inside several tanks within the
collector unit. The entire unit is exposed to solar energy throughout the
day. The resulting water is drawn off either directly to the service
location or as replacement hot water to an auxiliary storage tank as
water is drawn for use.

Cutaway of an ICS system 7

Batch System

Batch solar water heater

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• The simplest of all solar water heating systems is a batch system.

• It is simply one or several storage tanks coated with black, solar-

absorbing material in an enclosure with glazing across the top and
insulation around the other sides.

• It is the simplest solar system to make. When exposed to sun during the
day, the tank transfers the heat it absorbs to the water it holds.

• The heated water can be drawn directly from the tank or it can replace
hot water that is drawn from an interior tank inside the building.

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Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
• This type of system features parallel rows of transparent glass tubes.
Each tube contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube
attached to a fin. The fin’s coating absorbs solar energy but inhibits
radiative heat loss. These collectors are used more frequently for
commercial applications.

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Evacuated-tube collectors generally have a smaller solar collecting
surface because this surface must be encased by an evacuated glass tube.
They are designed to deliver higher temperatures (approximately 300
degrees Fahrenheit). The tubes themselves comprise the following
elements:

1.Highly tempered glass vacuum tubes, which function as both glazing

and insulation.

2.An absorber surface inside the vacuum tube. The absorber is

surrounded by a vacuum that greatly reduces the heat loss.

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System Types
Solar water heating systems fall Into two general categories:
1. active systems, which use a pump to control water flow
2. passive systems, which use no pump.
In a direct system, the potable water
circulates from the storage tank to the
collector and back to the storage tank.
Thus, the heat collecting fluid is the same
potable water that is in the water heater.

In an indirect system, the fluid that

circulates through the collector may be
water or it may be another heat transfer
fluid. This heat-collecting fluid never comes
in contact with the potable water in the
storage tank. Instead, it transfers heat to the
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potable water through a heat exchanger.
System Types

• Once again, there are two types of solar water heating systems – active and
passive – and each has two categories – direct and indirect.

Active Passive
Direct Direct
Indirect Indirect

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Active Direct Systems

Active direct systems incorporate the following components:

• Water storage tank
• Solar collector
• Controller to regulate pump operation
• A pump or circulator to transfer water from the storage tank to the collector

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Additional system components
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1. Check valves prevent thermosphoning action.
2. Isolation valves isolate subsystem components for service.
3. Pressure relief valves relieve high pressure.
4. Temperature and pressure relief valves relieve high temperatures
and pressures.
5. Air vents release air that could cause air locks in the system.
6. Vacuum breakers allow proper collector loop drainage.
7. Drain valves drain the collector loop and tank or other subsystem
components.
8. Freeze valves and sensors help to protect the collector from being
damaged by freezing temperatures.
9. Optional temperature indicators and flow meters monitor
components.

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Differential Controlled

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 Photovoltaic Controlled

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 Timer
Controlled
This control method is used in
tropical climates where
temperatures are mild year-round
and significant amounts of solar
energy are available almost every
day. a timer turns on a pump in
mid morning and switches it off in
late afternoon.
if the pump operates during a
cloudy day, only a small amount
of the water at the very bottom
of the tank will be circulated
through the collector. This
prevents potential major tank
heat loss.

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 Direct System Advantages

• Service water used directly from collector loop.

• No heat exchanger – more efficient heat transfer to storage.

• Circulation pump (if needed) needs only to overcome friction losses –system
pressurized.

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 Direct System Disadvantages

• Quality of service water must be good to prevent corrosion, scale or deposits in

components.

• Freeze protection depends on mechanical valves.

• Recommended in climates with minimal/no freeze potential, and good water

quality.

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Active Indirect Systems
Indirect systems are typically
used in areas of freezing
temperatures or areas that
have water that is very high in
mineral content. The
combination of high dissolved
minerals and high
temperatures produced by the
solar system can accelerate
scale buildup in system piping,
fittings, and valves.

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 Indirect Circulation Systems

• Pump circulates a non‐freezing, heat transfer fluid through the collector(s) and a
heat exchanger.

• This heats the water that then flows into the home.

• This type of system works well in climates prone to freezing temperatures.

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Indirect Pumped System Using Anti‐Freeze Solution
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Indirect Pumped System Using Anti‐Freeze Solution and Wrap Around Heat Exchanger

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Indirect System Advantages

• Freeze protection provided by antifreeze fluid or drainback.

• Collector/piping protected from aggressive water.

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Indirect System Disadvantages

• Must account for reduced heat transfer efficiency through heat exchanger.

• Added materials = added cost.

• If not using water, fluids require maintenance.

• Most designs require added pumping cost.

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Passive Solar Water Heaters

• Passive solar water heaters rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally
circulate as it is heated.
• Passive solar water heater systems contain no electrical components, are generally
more reliable, easier to maintain, and possibly have a longer work life than active
solar water heater systems.
• The two most popular types of passive solar water heater systems are: Integral-
Collector Storage (ICS) and thermosiphon systems.

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Direct thermosiphon system
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Typical Components of a Direct Flat Plate Collector System 37
 Selecting a Solar Water Heating System

• Investigate local codes, covenants, and regulations.

• Consider the economics of a solar water heating system.
• Evaluate the site’s solar resource.
• Determine the correct system size.
• Estimate and compare system costs.

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Heat-transfer fluids
Heat-transfer fluids carry heat through solar collectors and a heat exchanger
to the heat storage tanks in solar water heating systems. When selecting a
heat-transfer fluid, the following criteria should be considered:
Coefficient of expansion – the fractional change in length (or sometimes in
volume, when specified) of a material for a unit change in temperature
Viscosity – resistance of a liquid to sheer forces (and hence to flow)
Thermal capacity – the ability of matter to store heat
Freezing point – the temperature below which a liquid turns into a solid
Boiling point – the temperature at which a liquid boils
Flash point – the lowest temperature at which the vapor above a liquid can
be ignited in air.

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 Types of Heat-Transfer Fluids
Air

Air will not freeze or boil, and is non-corrosive. However, it has a very low heat capacity,
and tends to leak out of collectors, ducts, and dampers.
Water

Water is nontoxic and inexpensive. With a high specific heat, and a very low viscosity, it's
easy to pump. Unfortunately, water has a relatively low boiling point and a high freezing
point. It can also be corrosive if the pH (acidity/alkalinity level) is not maintained at a
neutral level. Water with a high mineral content (i.e., "hard" water) can cause mineral
deposits to form in collector tubing and system plumbing.
Glycol/water mixtures

Glycol/water mixtures have a 50/50 or 60/40 glycol-to-water ratio. Ethylene and propylene
glycol are "antifreezes." These mixtures provide effective freeze protection as long as the
proper antifreeze concentration is maintained. Antifreeze fluids degrade over time and
normally should be changed every 3–5 years. These types of systems are pressurized, and
should only be serviced by a qualified solar heating professional.

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Hydrocarbon oils

Hydrocarbon oils have a higher viscosity and lower specific heat than water. They
require more energy to pump. These oils are relatively inexpensive and have a low
freezing point.
The basic categories of hydrocarbon oils are synthetic hydrocarbons, paraffin
hydrocarbons, and aromatic refined mineral oils. Synthetic hydrocarbons are relatively
nontoxic and require little maintenance. Paraffin hydrocarbons have a wider
temperature range between freezing and boiling points than water, but they are toxic
and require a double-walled, closed-loop heat exchanger. Aromatic oils are the least
viscous of the hydrocarbon oils.

Silicones

Silicones have a very low freezing point, and a very high boiling point. They are
noncorrosive and long-lasting. Because silicones have a high viscosity and low heat
capacities, they require more energy to pump. Silicones also leak easily, even through
microscopic holes in a solar loop.

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