This lesson covers the topic of copper wiring conditions.

Copper Wiring Conditions

There are several conditions that can affect the performance and functions of copper wiring. The following table describes
a few of these conditions.

Issue Description
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference are external signals that
interference interfere with normal network communications. Common sources of EMI/RFI include
(EMI) nearby generators, motors (such as elevator motors), radio transmitters, welders,
transformers, and fluorescent lighting.
and
To protect against EMI/RFI:
Radio frequency
interference  Use fiber optic instead of copper cables. Fiber optic cables are immune to
(RFI) EMI/RFI.
 Use shielded twisted pair cables. Shielded cables have a metal foil that encloses
all the wires. Some cables might also include a drain wire that is a bare wire
outside of the foil, but within the cable jacket. The drain wire can be grounded to
help absorb EMI/RFI.
 Avoid installing cables near EMI/RFI sources.

Crosstalk Crosstalk is interference that is caused by signals within the twisted pairs of wires. For
example, current flow on one twisted pair causing a current flow on an adjacent pair.

 You can reduce crosstalk between pairs by twisting wires into pairs. Each pair of
wires is twisted at a different rate.
 Crosstalk is often introduced within connectors where the twists are removed to
add the connector.
 Crosstalk can also occur where wires are crushed or where the plastic coating is
worn.

There are several forms of crosstalk:

 Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) is measured on the same end as the transmitter. For
example, when a signal is sent on one wire pair, near-end crosstalk measures the
interference on an adjacent wire pair at the same connector end.
 Far-end crosstalk (FEXT) is measured on the end without the transmitter. For
example, when a signal is sent on one wire pair, far-end crosstalk measures the
interference on an adjacent wire pair at the opposite connector end.
 Alien crosstalk is introduced from adjacent, parallel cables. For example, a signal
sent on one wire pair causes interference on a wire pair that is within a separate
twisted pair cable bundle.

Power over Power over Ethernet is a networking feature defined by the IEEE 802.3af and 802.3at
Ethernet standards. It describes any of several standard or ad-hoc systems that pass electric
(PoE) power along with data on twisted pair Ethernet cabling. Keep in mind the following:

 PoE technology is used on twisted-pair Ethernet cabling (CAT 5 or higher).

 Power is usually supplied by a PoE-enabled Ethernet switch.
 PoE is commonly used to power network devices that are located where physical
access to a power outlet may not be available. For example, a PoE-enabled
surveillance camera mounted on a tall pole can be powered via its Ethernet
cabling.
 You can use a PoE injector to add PoE capability to regular non-PoE network links.
 PoE injectors can be used to upgrade existing LAN installations to PoE and
provide a solution where fewer PoE ports are required.
 To upgrade a network connection to PoE, patch it through the PoE injector. Power
injection is controlled and automatic.

Attenuation Attenuation is the loss of signal strength from one end of a cable to the other. This is also
known as dB loss .

 The longer the cable, the more attenuation. For this reason, it is important to never
exceed the maximum cable length defined by the networking architecture.
 Cables at a higher temperature experience more attenuation than cables at a lower
temperature.
 A repeater regenerates the signal and removes the effects of attenuation.

Impedance Impedance is the measure of resistance within the transmission medium.

 Impedance is measured in ohms (Ω).

 All cables must have the same impedance rating. The impedance rating for the
cable must match the impedance of the transmitting device.
 Impedance is mostly a factor in coaxial cables used for networking. Be sure to
choose cables with the correct rating (50 or 75 ohm) based on the network type.
 Never mix cables that have different ratings.
 When signals move from a cable with one impedance rating to a cable with
another rating, some of the signal is reflected back to the transmitter, distorting the
signal (known as an echo). With video (cable TV), impedance mismatch is
manifested as ghosting of the image.
 Cable distance does not affect the impedance of the cable.

Throughput Throughput is the rate that signals are processed and delivered over a communication
channel. Some facts about throughput include the following:

 Each circuit module has a specified link bandwidth and estimated throughput.
Larger number designations usually mean more bandwidth.
 Most modern wireless access points can be configured to run in the 5-gigahertz
mode, 2.4-gigahertz mode, or mixed mode. The access point supports both
standards, meaning that one radio runs 5-gigahertz, and the other runs 2.4-
gigahertz. Be aware that:
o Support for both modes is convenient because it supports a wide range of
devices.
o It also presents a problem because you can't use a 2.4-gigahertz radio for
your 5-gigahertz communications.
o You can turn the 2.4-gigahertz off and use that extra radio and antenna for
your 5-gigahertz clients and increase throughput using MIMO.
 Another factor is the antenna used to transmit the signal. Just as there are
differences between access points, there are also differences between antennas.
o If you buy an access point with a high-quality antenna and you have a high-
quality wireless network card, you're going to get better range and better
throughput.
o If, you purchase inexpensive equipment with a low-quality antenna, then
throughput is impacted and your range is reduced.

Short An electrical short occurs when electrical signals take a path other than the intended
path.

 In the case of twisted pair wiring, a short means that a signal sent on one wire
arrives on a different wire.
 Shorts occur when two wires touch. This can be caused by worn wire jackets,
crushed wires, or a metal object piercing two or more wires.

Open circuit An open circuit is when a cut in the wire prevents the original signal from reaching the
end of the wire. An open circuit is different from a short in that the signal stops. Electricity
cannot flow because the path is disconnected.
Miswired cable A miswired cable is caused by incorrect wire positions on both connectors. Several wiring
problems might exist:

 A reverse connection is a cable wired using one standard on one end and another
standard on the other end.
o This creates a crossover cable.
o While this condition might be intentional, it can cause problems when a
crossover cable is used instead of a straight-through cable.
o This will reverse the transmit and receive match up; the transmit pins on one
end maps to the transmit pins on the other end when they should map to the
receive pins on the other end.
 Wiremapping is matching a wire with a pin on one end with the same pin on the
other end. For example, an error in the wiremapping results when the wire at pin 1
connects to pin 4.
 A split pair condition is a single wire in two different pairs reversed at both ends.
o For example, if instead of the solid green wire, the solid brown wire is
matched with the green/white wire in pins 1 and 2.
o With a split pair configuration, the cable might still work (especially if it is
short), but it could introduce crosstalk.
o When you follow the T568A/B standards for making drop cables, one pair is
split to meet the standards. In this case, a common split pair error is placing
all wire pairs in order in the connector instead of splitting the pair according
to the standard.
o When you connect cables using a punch down block, pairs are not split.

Incorrect An incorrect termination occurs when an incompatible or incorrect connector is used. This
termination can result in reduced performance or complete connection loss.
Bad connector A bad connector is a damaged connector that is causing connectivity issues. For
example, a broken locking tab on an RJ45 connector can cause intermittent connection
problems. Another common connector issue is when there is a bent or damaged pin,
especially on female RJ45 connections and the center wire of a coaxial cables.
Transceiver Well-manufactured network devices have interfaces that can be tailored to different cable
mismatch types, protocols, and speeds. This is done by connecting a hot swappable transceiver to
the interface. When connecting one network device to another, you must use matching
transceivers. For twisted pair cabling, a mismatch in speed is a common issue.
Troubleshooting fiber optic wiring is more complex than troubleshooting copper network wiring. To function properly, fiber
optic cabling must be created, installed, and maintained very carefully.

This lesson covers the topic of fiber optic performance factors.

Fiber Optic Performance Factors

Several important factors that can affect fiber optic performance are listed in the following table.

Issue Description
Connectors For light to pass through a fiber optic connector, the fiber within the jack must line up
perfectly with the fiber in the connector. Several issues can occur when you are working
with fiber optic connectors.

 Using the wrong connector will result in misaligned fibers, disrupting the light signal
even if the connector is successfully locked into the jack.
 Dirty cables and connectors can also impede or disrupt the light signal. It's important
that the cables and connectors are kept clean. Several cleaning methods can be
used with fiber optic connectors:
o For connectors where the ferrule protrudes out of the connector, such as the
FC connector, you can wipe the end of the ferrule with a lint-free cloth that
has a small amount of denatured alcohol applied. Immediately wipe the
ferrule dry with a dry lint-free cloth.
o For fiber optic connectors where the end of the ferrule is less accessible, you
must use a specialized cleaning tool. Some cleaning tools allow you to plug
the fiber optic cable into the tool and clean it by pumping the tool's handle.
o To clean the jacks on fiber optic network interfaces, you can purchase a
specialized fiber optic cleaning stick to remove foreign material.

Polishing Whenever a connector is installed on the end of fiber optic cable, a degree of signal loss
occurs. This is called insertion loss.

Additionally, some of the light that is lost is reflected directly back into the cable, toward the
source. This is called back-reflection, or optical return loss (ORL). It can corrupt the data
being transmitted and even damage the transmitter.

For a connector to work properly, there must be as little insertion loss and ORL as
possible. The better the polish on the connector, the better the light will pass through
without reflection.

Fiber optic equipment manufacturers rate connectors using the following polish grading
designations.

 Physical contact (PC) polishing is usually used with single-mode fiber. The ends of
the fiber are polished with a slight curvature so that when the cable end is inserted
into the connector, only the cores of the fiber touch each other.
 Super physical contact (SPC) and ultra physical contact (UPC) polishing use a
higher grade of polish and have more of a curvature than PC polishing. This further
reduces ORL reflections.
 Angled physical contact (APC) polishing is used to reduce back reflection as much
as possible.
o An APC connector has an eight-degree angle cut into the ferrule.
o The angle cut prevents reflected light from traveling back into the fiber.
o Any reflected light is bounced into the cable cladding instead.
o You can use angle-polished connectors only with other angle-polished
connectors.
o Using an angle-polished connector with a non-angle-polished connector
causes excessive insertion loss.

APC connectors are colored green to prevent them from being mixed with non-APC
connectors.
Damaged and Several issues can occur when you are working with fiber optic cabling.
mismatched
cables  Fiber optic cabling is much less forgiving of physical abuse than copper wiring. The
fiber core is fragile and can be easily damaged by rough handling. For example,
bending a fiber cable at too tight of a radius will break the core.
 Wavelength mismatch causes serious issues with fiber optic cables. You cannot mix
and match types of cable.
o For example, if you connect single-mode fiber to multi-mode fiber, you will
introduce a catastrophic signal loss of up to 99%.
o Even connecting cables of the same type that have different core diameters
can cause a loss of up to 50% of the signal strength.

Media adapters Many network switches and routers allow you to insert a transceiver such as a gigabit
and transceivers interface converter (GBIC) in an empty slot to convert the interface from copper wiring to
 fiber optic. Other devices use a small form-factor pluggable (SFP) transceiver to
accomplish the same goal.

Several issues can occur when using these and other fiber optic media adapters:

 Some GBIC/SFP modules use multimode fiber; others use single-mode. Make sure
that you use the correct type of fiber optic cable and connector required by the
specific adapter.
 Media adapter modules malfunction on occasion. If you have lost connectivity on
one of these links, ensure that the adapter module is working correctly.

Signal loss Light signals being transmitted through a fiber optic cable experience attenuation, or signal
loss, as they pass through the cable due to:

 Reflection - A measurable amount of light is reflected when it hits the ends of the
cable.
o Much of a cable's reflection loss occurs at each cable connection.
o When the light hits the boundary between the core and the cladding, it is
reflected back into the core.
o There is minor loss to the signal when this occurs, but it contributes to overall
signal loss.
 Refraction - If the light hits the boundary between the core and the cladding at too
steep of an angle, the light is refracted into the cladding instead of reflected back
into the core, causing signal loss.
o Some fiber optic cables are doped with impurities near the edge of the fiber
so that the signals are bent instead of reflected back to the center of the core.
o The loss due to this refraction is minor when compared with the benefits of
confining the light to the center of the core.
 Scattering - Impurities in the fiber core can cause light to scatter.
o Some of the light continues down the fiber.
o The light that is scattered backwards contributes to the signal loss.
 Absorption - Impurities in the fiber can also absorb the light, converting it to another
form of energy, such as heat. This is a major cause of signal loss.

Several physical cable attributes can contribute to signal loss:

 Cable length - While higher quality cables carry light signals further, the longer the
cable, the more signal absorption and the greater the signal loss.
 Connectors - Every connector causes some level of signal loss, mostly due to
reflection. While patch cables at each end of a run are to be expected, minimize any
other connections.
 Splices - There are tools that you can use to splice a cut fiber optic cable. However,
the signal loss from a splice is comparable to the signal loss from a connector.
 Bends - Micro bends in the cable due to things such as temperature change or
manufacturing anomalies can cause signal loss.
o While you have little control over micro bends, even macro bends that can't
be detected by the human eye can contribute to signal loss.
o The straighter the fiber optic cable, the less the signal loss.

You can estimate how much signal loss (measured in dB) you should reasonably expect in
a given run of fiber optic cabling.

 Signal loss is calculated by summing the average loss of all the components used in
the cable run to generate an estimate of the total attenuation that will be
experienced end-to-end.
 This estimate is called a loss budget .
 When calculating a loss budget for a segment of fiber optic cable, use the following
guidelines.
o Connectors: 0.3 dB loss each.
o Splices: 0.3 dB loss each.
o Multi-mode cabling:
 3 dB loss per 1000 meters when using an 850 nm light source.
 1 dB loss per 1000 meters when using a 1300 nm light source.
o Single-mode cabling:
 0.5 dB loss per 1000 meters when using a 1310 nm light source.
 0.4 dB loss per 1000 meters when using a 1550 nm light source.

The total attenuation should be no more than 3 dB less than the total power at the
transmission source. This is called the link-loss margin.

 For example, if the total power output at the transmission source of a cable run is 15
dB, then the total attenuation over the cable run should not exceed 12 dB.
 This ensures that the cable will continue to function as its components (such as the
LED light transmitters and connectors) degrade with age and use.
Troubleshooting physical connectivity problems is much easier if you use the appropriate troubleshooting tool.

This lesson covers the topic of troubleshooting tools.

Troubleshooting Tools
The table below lists and describes some of the most common troubleshooting tools.

Tool Description
Loopback plug A loopback plug, or loopback adapter, reflects a signal from the transmit port on a device to
the receive port on the same device. Use the loopback plug to verify that a device can both
send and receive signals.

 There are loopback plugs for both copper and fiber connections.
 A failure in the loopback test indicates a faulty network card.
 A successful loopback test means the problem is in the network cabling or another
connectivity device.

You can purchase pre-made loopback plugs, or you can make an inexpensive one by cutting
the end of a cable and manually connecting the transmit wires to the receive wires. To do
this, connect the wire from pin 1 to the wire at pin 3, and the wire at pin 2 to the wire at pin 6.
Smartjack A smartjack is an intelligent loopback device installed at the demarcation point for a WAN
service. Key points are:

 Technicians at the central office can send diagnostic commands to the smartjack to
test connectivity and performance between the central office and the demarc.
 When you contact a WAN service provider for assistance, the provider might execute
a test using the smartjack.
 A successful test indicates that the problem is within the customer premises
equipment (CPE).

Known good One valuable troubleshooting method is to keep a set of components that you know are in
spares proper functioning order. If you suspect a problem in a component, swap it with the known
good component. If the problem is not resolved, troubleshoot other components. Examples of
using this strategy include the following:

 Change the drop cable that connects a computer to the network.

 Replace a NIC with a verified working NIC.
 Move a device from one switch port to another.

Cable tester A cable tester (line tester) verifies that the cable can carry a signal from one end to the other
and that all wires are in the correct positions.

 High-end cable testers can check for various miswire conditions such as wire
mapping, reversals, split pairs, shorts, or open circuits.
 You can use a cable tester to quickly identify a crossover and a straight-through cable.
 Most testers have a single unit that tests both ends of the cable at once.
 Many testers come with a second unit that can be plugged into one end of a long
cable run to test the entire cable.

Time-domain A time-domain reflectometer is a special device that sends electrical pulses on a wire to
reflectometer discover information about the cable. The TDR measures impedance discontinuities (the
(TDR) echo received on wire in response to a signal on the same wire). The results of this test can
be used to identify several variables:

 Estimated wire length.

 Cable impedance.
 The location of splices and connectors on the wire.
 The location of shorts and open circuits.

Optical time- An optical time-domain reflector performs the same function as a TDR, but is used for fiber
domain optic cables. An OTDR sends light pulses into the fiber cable and measures the light that is
reflectometer scattered or reflected back to the device. The information is then used to identify specifics
(OTDR) about the cable:

 The location of a break.

 Estimated cable length.
 Signal attenuation (loss) over the length of the cable.

Cable certifier A cable certifier is a multi-function tool that verifies that a cable or an installation meets the
requirements for a specific architecture implementation. For example, you would use a
certifier to verify that a specific drop cable meets the specifications for 1000BaseT
networking.

 A certifier is very important for Cat 6 cable used with bandwidths at or above 1000
 Mbps. Slight errors in connectors or wires can cause the network to function at 100
Mbps instead of the desired 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps).
 Certifiers can also validate the bandwidth capabilities of network interface cards and
switches. Many can detect the duplex settings of network devices.
 Most certifiers include features of a toner probe, TDR, and cable tester.
 Certifiers are very expensive and are typically used by organizations that specialize in
wiring installations.

The following image shows some outputs you might see when using a cable certifier:

Toner probe A toner probe is composed of two devices used together to trace the end of a wire from a
known endpoint to the termination point in the wiring closet. To use a toner probe:

 Connect the tone generator to one end of the wire. It will send a signal on the wire.
 In the wiring closet, touch the probe to wires or place the probe close to wires. A
sound at the probe indicates that the generated tone has been detected and the wire
that you are touching is the termination point for the wire you are tracing.

Multimeter A multimeter is a device used to test various electrical properties. A multimeter can measure
several parameters:

 AC and DC voltage
 Current (amps)
 Resistance (ohms)
 Capacitance
 Frequency

Voltage event A voltage event recorder tracks voltage conditions on a power line. Basic recorders track only
recorder undervoltage or overvoltage conditions. More advanced devices track conditions over time
and create a graph, saving data from a program running on a computer.

Some UPS systems include a simple voltage event recorder. Use a voltage event recorder to
identify periods of low or high voltage that can adversely affect network components.
Environmental An environmental monitor does what its name implies, it monitors the environmental
monitor conditions of a specific area or device.

 Monitors are often used to track the conditions within server rooms, such as
temperature, humidity, water, smoke, motion, and air flow.
 Typically, computers (especially servers) have an internal monitor that measures fan
speed and CPU temperature.
 Many monitors sound an alarm if a specified temperature or other environmental
condition is reached.

Wire stripper, Wire strippers remove the protective sheath of a cable in order to expose the conductive
snips, and wire.
crimpers
 Wire strippers are rated to specific gauge (cable width) ranges.
 Most wire strippers are combination tools. They can strip, cut, and crimp cables.
 Almost all wire strippers have multiple holes or can be adjusted for specific cable
sizes.

A crimping tool is used to attach connectors to wires. Some crimpers are designed for power
connections. A special crimper is used to attach RJ45 connectors to twisted pair cables.

Snips are cutting tools used to cut cables or wires to a specific length or to remove damaged
sections. A diagonal cutter is an example of a snip tool.

Whenever possible, use a wire stripper instead of snips to strip a cable. Wire strippers are
specifically designed to cut only the protective sheath without cutting the internal wire.
Speed test A speed test website is an online tool that is used to test the bandwidth of the internet
website connection. There are countless speed test websites available, all of them provide essentially
the same information:

 Connection latency (ping)

  Download speed
 Upload speed

Fusion splicer A fusion splicer is a tool that uses heat to join two optical fibers together. It fuses them
together end-to-end. This is done in situations when the cable is broken or too short for the
purpose it's being used for.

The fusion splicer ensures that the two cables are fused together in an accurate and precise
way to eliminate (as much as possible) any light being scattered or reflected back by the
splice. The source of heat used by the fusion splicer is usually an electric arc, but could also
be a laser, a gas flame, or a tungsten filament through which current is passed.
Tap splicer A tap splicer is a vinyl plastic wire termination device with a sharp metal insert that cuts
through the plastic insulating jackets of two wires and crimps them together. You use it to
make quick splices or connections using two or more pieces of wire within the recommended
range of the tap splice.