Basic Principles of Orthogonality, Single vs Multi-Carrier Systems, OFDM Block Diagram, OFDM

Signal Mathematical Representation, Pilot Insertion, and Channel Estimation

1. Introduction to Orthogonality

Orthogonality is a fundamental concept in communication systems, particularly in technologies like

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). It refers to the property that ensures minimal
interference between signals occupying the same bandwidth. Two signals are said to be orthogonal if
their inner product over a given time period is zero. In the context of communication, orthogonality
allows multiple signals to coexist without causing interference, which is crucial in densely populated
frequency bands. This is achieved by designing the signals in such a way that their peaks occur at times
when the other signals have zeros, ensuring that they do not overlap destructively. Orthogonality is a
key principle behind multi-carrier systems like OFDM. In a traditional single-carrier system, the entire
bandwidth is allocated to one carrier signal, which makes the system more prone to inter-symbol
interference (ISI) and degradation in frequency-selective channels. However, in multi-carrier systems
like OFDM, the bandwidth is divided into multiple orthogonal subcarriers, each carrying a portion of
the data. This division allows for more efficient use of the bandwidth and makes the system more robust
against multipath fading and ISI.

2. Single Carrier vs Multi-Carrier Systems

Communication systems can be broadly classified into single-carrier and multi-carrier systems based
on how they transmit data over the frequency spectrum.

2.1 Single-Carrier Systems

In a single-carrier system, the entire bandwidth is occupied by one carrier frequency. This carrier is
modulated with the data signal using techniques such as amplitude, frequency, or phase modulation.
Single-carrier systems have been widely used in earlier generations of wireless communication due to
their simplicity.

However, single-carrier systems have certain drawbacks, particularly in channels with multipath fading,
which introduces ISI. In a frequency-selective channel, different frequency components of the signal
experience varying levels of attenuation, leading to significant distortion. To combat this, equalization
techniques are employed, but as the bandwidth increases, the complexity of equalization becomes more
challenging.

2.2 Multi-Carrier Systems

Multi-carrier systems, such as OFDM, address the limitations of single-carrier systems by dividing the
available bandwidth into multiple subcarriers. Each subcarrier is modulated with a portion of the data
stream, allowing the system to operate efficiently in frequency-selective channels.
The key advantage of multi-carrier systems lies in their ability to transform a frequency-selective
channel into a collection of flat-fading subchannels. Each subcarrier experiences a flat channel
response, simplifying equalization and reducing the effects of ISI. Additionally, multi-carrier systems
provide better spectral efficiency, improved resilience to multipath fading, and the ability to handle high
data rates.

Fig 1. Single Vs Multiple carrier

3. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

OFDM is a popular multi-carrier modulation technique that has been widely adopted in modern wireless
communication systems, including Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), LTE (Long-Term Evolution), and 5G. The
core idea behind OFDM is to divide the available bandwidth into multiple orthogonal subcarriers, with
each subcarrier transmitting a portion of the data stream.
 Fig 2. OFDM

3.1 OFDM Block Diagram

An OFDM system consists of various components that work together to generate, transmit, and receive
the OFDM signal. Below is an overview of the basic OFDM block diagram:

The key components in the OFDM block diagram are as follows:

Input Data: This represents the digital information to be transmitted. The data stream is typically in the
form of bits.

Serial to Parallel Converter: The input bit stream is converted into multiple parallel data streams. Each
parallel stream will be modulated onto a separate subcarrier.

Modulation: Each parallel data stream is modulated using a digital modulation scheme such as QPSK
(Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) or 16-QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).

IFFT (Inverse Fast Fourier Transform): The IFFT operation is applied to the modulated data to generate
the OFDM symbol. The IFFT converts the data from the frequency domain to the time domain. The
IFFT is a key process in OFDM, as it ensures that the subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.

Cyclic Prefix: A cyclic prefix is added to the OFDM symbol to protect against ISI caused by multipath
propagation. The cyclic prefix is a copy of the last part of the OFDM symbol, appended to the beginning
of the symbol. It acts as a buffer to absorb delay spread and allows the system to operate in a frequency-
selective channel.
Transmitted OFDM Signal: After adding the cyclic prefix, the OFDM symbol is transmitted over the
channel.

Remove Cyclic Prefix: At the receiver, the cyclic prefix is removed before processing the received
signal.

FFT (Fast Fourier Transform): The FFT operation is applied to the received signal to convert it back to
the frequency domain. This process recovers the data modulated onto the subcarriers.

Demodulation: The demodulated data is recovered using the appropriate digital demodulation scheme
(e.g., QPSK, 16-QAM).

Parallel to Serial Converter: The parallel data streams are converted back into a single serial data stream.

Output Data: The recovered digital data is the output of the receiver.

Channel Estimation and Correction: The channel estimation block helps to estimate the effect of the
channel (such as fading or distortion) on the transmitted signal. The estimated channel response is used
to correct the received signal.

3.2 OFDM Signal Mathematical Representation

The mathematical representation of an OFDM signal is based on the concept of dividing the available
bandwidth into multiple orthogonal subcarriers. Each subcarrier is modulated with a portion of the data
stream using a modulation scheme such as QPSK or QAM.

Consider an OFDM symbol with N subcarriers. The transmitted OFDM signal can be represented as a
summation of modulated subcarriers:

The key property of OFDM is the orthogonality of the subcarriers. The subcarrier frequencies are
chosen such that, This ensures that the subcarriers are spaced by Δf, which is the reciprocal of the
symbol duration, making them orthogonal. At the receiver, the demodulation process involves applying
the FFT to the received signal, recovering the data symbols on each subcarrier.

3.3 Pilot Insertion in OFDM

Pilot tones are inserted into the OFDM signal to aid in channel estimation and synchronization. Pilots
are known symbols that are transmitted at specific subcarriers, allowing the receiver to estimate the
channel response and correct for any distortions.

3.3.1 Why Pilots are Needed

In a wireless communication channel, the signal is often subject to fading, noise, and other distortions.
These impairments affect the received signal, making it difficult to recover the transmitted data
accurately. To overcome this, pilot symbols are inserted into the OFDM signal at known positions,
allowing the receiver to estimate the channel and correct for any distortions.

3.3.2 Pilot Insertion Strategies

Pilots can be inserted in various ways, including:

Block-type Pilot Insertion: In this method, pilots are inserted into all subcarriers of specific OFDM
symbols. This method is effective when the channel is relatively static and does not change significantly
over time.

Comb-type Pilot Insertion: In comb-type pilot insertion, pilots are inserted into a subset of subcarriers
in every OFDM symbol. This method is more suitable for time-varying channels, as it provides
continuous channel estimation over time.

Scattered Pilots: Scattered pilots are inserted into random subcarriers across different symbols,
providing flexibility in channel estimation.

3.4 Channel Estimation in OFDM

Channel estimation is a critical step in OFDM systems, as it allows the receiver to estimate the channel
response and correct for any distortions introduced by the channel. Accurate channel estimation ensures
that the received signal is properly equalized and that the data is recovered with minimal errors.

3.4.1 Types of Channel Estimation

There are several techniques for channel estimation in OFDM systems, including:

Pilot-Based Channel Estimation: In this method, the channel response is estimated using the known
pilot symbols. The receiver compares the received pilot symbols with the known transmitted pilots and
estimates the channel response.

Blind Channel Estimation: Blind channel estimation techniques do not rely on pilot symbols. Instead,
they use statistical properties of the received signal to estimate the channel. While blind estimation
methods can be more efficient in terms of bandwidth usage, they are generally more complex and less
accurate than pilot-based methods.

Semi-Blind Channel Estimation: This method combines pilot-based and blind estimation techniques to
strike a balance between accuracy and efficiency.

3.4.2 Channel Estimation Process

The channel estimation process typically involves the following steps:

Pilot Detection: The receiver identifies the pilot symbols in the received OFDM signal.

Channel Estimation: The receiver uses the known pilot symbols to estimate the channel response. This
can be done using various techniques, such as least squares (LS) or minimum mean square error
(MMSE) estimation.

Interpolation: Since pilots are inserted at specific subcarriers, the channel response for the remaining
subcarriers is interpolated based on the estimated pilot subcarriers. This step is necessary to estimate
the channel response for all subcarriers.

Channel Equalization: Once the channel response is estimated, the received OFDM signal is equalized
to remove the effects of the channel. This involves dividing the received symbols by the estimated
channel response for each subcarrier.

The principles of orthogonality, the differences between single-carrier and multi-carrier systems, and
the detailed workings of OFDM form the backbone of modern communication systems. OFDM's ability
to divide the bandwidth into orthogonal subcarriers provides significant advantages in terms of spectral
efficiency, robustness against multipath fading, and ease of equalization.

Fig 3. CP concept

The block diagram of an OFDM system highlights the key components involved in generating and
processing the OFDM signal, while the mathematical representation emphasizes the importance of
orthogonality between subcarriers. Pilot insertion and channel estimation are crucial for ensuring that
the transmitted signal can be accurately recovered despite the distortions introduced by the wireless
channel. Overall, OFDM is a highly efficient and versatile modulation scheme that continues to play a
central role in wireless communication technologies like LTE, Wi-Fi, and 5G. Its ability to handle high
data rates, provide robustness in frequency-selective channels, and support efficient bandwidth usage
makes it a key enabler of modern wireless networks.