Reading project

on
“Fundamentals of
Electromagnetism and
Waves”

Supervisor:
Dr. Ritupan Sarmah Submitted by:
Assistant Professor Gayatri Das
Dept. of Physics Undergrad student
Tezpur University 23ms140
@IISER Kolkata
Introduction
The purpose of this write up is to summarise the knowledge gained from
the summer reading project. The reading project was to develop an insight
into the pre-requisites for delving into the learning of Quantum Mechanics.
This was achieved through four in-depth reading-sessions that covered
from vector calculus to maxwell’s equations, further leading to wave
equations and electromagnetic waves. Many topics including divergence,
gradient, curl, physical significance of maxwell’s equations, superposition
principle, etc, have been covered. Besides, using computer programming,
Lissajous figures for two waves with different values of wave frequencies
and phases have been explored.

Summary of readings
Reading 1*: It included a brief discussion about SHM, and
solving of differential equations.
*Reading 2*: This aimed at learning and visualizing the
maxwell’s equations. Key points include –
ρ
(1)⃗
∇ .⃗
E=
ε 0

This equation refers to the fact that the divergence of

electric field at a point is dependent on the charge
density at that point.
∂⃗
B
(2) ⃗
∇×⃗
E+ =0
∂t

It indicates that time varying magnetic field around a

point produces curl of an electric field around it.
(3) ⃗
∇ .⃗
B =0

It says that no magnetic monopoles can exist, there’s

always a counterpart present to a magnetic pole that
nullifies the divergence of magnetic field through a
point because of the latter.
∂⃗
E
(4) ⃗
∇×⃗
B =u0 J⃗ +u0 ε 0
∂t

This describes that it’s possible for the creation of a

magnetic field by a time variant electric field.
*Reading 3*: It focuses on learning vector calculus and learning
the physical meanings of gradient, divergence and curl. Key
concepts include –
(1) A vector is a quantity that has
- magnitude
- direction
- follows the rules of vector addition.
(2) Gradient of a scalar field at a point gives the direction in which the
change in the scalar field is the most.
(3) Divergence of a vector field at a point gives the notion of how the field
spreads out of or into the point.
(4) Curl of a vector field at a point gives the rotation of the field at that point.
*Reading 4*: This gave an insight into several important
concepts related to electromagnetic waves, including, wave
equation, superposition of waves, intensity, Lissajous figures,
and modes of EM waves, etc.
Key points include –
(1) An equation of the form
2
2 1 ∂ψ
∇ ψ= 2 2
C ∂t

Is called a wave equation.

(2) Intensity of a wave gives the power dissipated by the wave per unit
area.
(3) Modes of propagation of EM waves vary depending on the conditions
whether they are in free space or are restricted by wave guides.
(4) Lissajous figures are those curves obtained by superposition of two
perpendicular waves.

Analysis
Inferences from the reading project:

1)Vector calculus:
 All measurable quantities are categorised into either vectors or scalars.
Though, in case of current, it seems to have some sort of direction, it isn’t
 a vector quantity as it doesn’t fit the notion of following laws of vector
addition.
 Gradient can be found only for scalar quantities, just like divergence and
curl only for vector quantities. Curl of a vector is confined to a particular
plane.
 Divergence theorem: The divergence theorem is given by:
∫⃗
∇ ⋅⃗v ⅆV = ∫ ⃗v ⋅ ⅆ ⃗s
 Stoke’s theorem: It is of the form:
∫ (⃗
∇ × v⃗ ) . ⅆ ⃗s =∫ v⃗ ⋅ ⅆ l⃗
 Divergence of a curl:
⃗
∇ ⋅ (⃗
∇ × ⃗v ) =0

Mathematical proof:
 Physical Significance: Divergence of a curl is zero because curl of a vector
field is rotation of the field and the rotation is confined to a particular
plane, so there’s no possibility of the vector field to diverge out of or,
into the plane.
 Laplacian of the magnitude of position vector : The Laplacian of the
magnitude of position vector, r is
∇ 2 ( r )=4 π r 2 δ 3 ( r⃗ )

There is the presence of a 4 π r 2 term because we know Laplacian of r is the

divergence of the gradient of r. And as gradient of r is r^ , which is the unit radius
vector that always originates from the origin and is in the direction of the
radius vector r⃗ (that is also the position vector). So, when it diverges out and
spreads in all direction, the divergence will be in a spherical fashion and hence
the information of the divergence of the unit radius vector at a point seem to
be associated with the surface of the sphere with centre at the origin and
radius same as the distance of the point from the origin. And as the surface
area of a sphere is 4 π r 2 , there occurs this term on the Laplacian of r.
 2 1
() 3
Also, for 1/r, it is ∇ r =−4 π δ ( ⃗r )

Likewise, it’s because the gradient of 1/r is −^r /r 2 and

∇
2
( 1r )= ⃗∇ ⋅ ⃗∇ ( r )=⃗∇ ⋅ ( −^r r )
2

So, as the divergence is related to the surface area of the sphere as in the case
−^r
before, the 1/r 2 in 2 cancels out the r in 4 π r and as there’s a negative sign
2 2
r
involved, the term associated with the Laplacian of 1/r becomes −4 π .

2)Maxwell’s equations: There are four maxwell’s equations given by –

ρ
(A)⃗
∇ .⃗
E=
ε 0

∂⃗
B
(B) ⃗
∇×⃗
E+ =0
∂t

(C) ⃗
∇ .⃗
B =0

∂⃗
E
(D) ⃗
∇×⃗
B =u0 J⃗ + μ0 ε 0
∂t

The Ampere’s law is given by

⃗
∇×⃗
B =u0 J⃗

But when we find the divergence of the above equation, we end up with
the equation in the below given form:

⃗
∇ .( ⃗ B ) =u0 ( ⃗
∇×⃗ ∇ . ⃗J )

0= u0 ( ⃗
∇ . ⃗J )

But the divergence of current density vector through the surface of a source
charge, which from the continuity equation, ¿), we know refers to the decrease
of charge density inside it. And as charge could be moved from one place to
 ∂ρ
another and in accordance with the law of conservation of charges, ∂t cannot
always be zero. There was thus, found to be something wrong with the
ampere’s law. This resulted in Maxwell using the continuity equation and
∂⃗
E
discovering the correcting term, displacement current, given by (μ0 ε 0 ).
∂t

3)Wave equation: An equation of the form

2
2 1 ∂ψ
∇ ψ= 2 2
C ∂t

is called a wave equation, where c= velocity of the wave.

4)Electromagnetic waves:
These waves are represented by-
⃗
1 ∂2 E
∇ ⃗
2
E= 2 2
c ∂t
2
1 ∂ B⃗
∇ ⃗
2
B= 2 2
C ∂t
2 1
Where c = u ε .
√ o 0
Or even by the form of
i ( kx−ωt+ ϕ)
E=E0 ⅇ
i ( kx−ωt+ ϕ)
B=B0 ⅇ

Superposition of waves:
Given 2 waves:

ψ₁ = E₁*e^ [i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t + φ₁)]

ψ₂ = E₂*e^ [i*(k₂*x - ω₂*t)]

A/c Superposition principle:

ψ = ψ₁ + ψ₂, where ψ is the new wave resulting from the superposition of
waves ψ₁ and ψ₂.
ψ = = E₁*e^ [i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t + φ₁)] + E₂*e^ [i*(k₂*x - ω₂*t)]

ψ*= conjugate of the complex wave ψ

And ψ₁* = conjugate of the complex wave ψ₁
=> ψ₁*= E₁*e^ [-i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t + φ₁)]

Similarly,
ψ₂* = E₂*e^[-i(k₂*x - ω₂*t)]

|ψ|² = ψ ψ*
= [E₁*e^ {i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t + φ₁)}+ E₂*e^{i(k₂*x - ω₂*t)}] [E₁*e^{-i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t +
φ₁)} + E₂*e^(-i*(k₂*x - ω₂*t)}]
= E₁²+ E₂²+ E₁*E₂*e^[i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t + φ₁)]*e^[-i*(k₂*x - ω₂*t)] +
E₁*E₂*e^[i*(k₂*x - ω₂*t)]*e^[-i*(k₁*x - ω₁*t + φ₁)]

= E₁² + E₂² + E₁E₂*[e^ {i*(k₁*x - k₂*x + ω₂*t - ω₁*t + φ₁)} + e^ {i*(k₂*x -k₁*x + ω₁*t
- ω₂*t - φ₁)}]
= E₁² + E₂² + E₁E₂*[e^{i*(k₁ - k₂)x + (ω₂ - ω₁)t + φ₁)} + e^{-i*(k₁ - k₂)x +(ω₂ - ω₁)t +
φ₁}]

= E₁² + E₂² + 2E₁E₂*cos {(k₁ - k₂) *x + (ω₂ - ω₁) *t + φ₁}

Modes of electromagnetic waves: Modes of propagation of the

electromagnetic waves vary in free space and in waveguides. It’s because while
in free space, they are free to spread out in all directions, they have restrictions
in their propagations through a waveguide. The different modes of EM waves
include –
 Modes of EM waves

in free space in waveguides

Plane waves:
Hybrid electromagnetic modes:
Both electric field and magnetic Tranverse mode: One or both of
Both electric field and magnetic
field are perpendicular to each the electric or magnetic field is
field associated with the wave
other and also to the direction in the transverse direction
have longitudinal components.
of propagation of the wave

TEM: Both electric field and

magnetic field are in transverse
direction

TE: Only electric field is

completely in transverse
direction

TM: Only magnetic field is in

the transverse direction
completely.

Because of restriction on propagation of waves through a wave guide and also

because of the possibility of reflection and absorption of the electric and
magnetic field components of EM waves by the material of a waveguide,
through them when the waves travel, there seem to be present longitudinal
components of both electric and magnetic fields.
Graph showing variation of amplitude with wt for a sine wave:

5) Lissajous figures:
* Two perpendicular waves with same amplitude, same frequency and a phase
difference of pi/2, gives the Lissajous figure as an ellipse.
* Given, two perpendicular waves of the form
x=A*sin(w1*t-k1*m1+phase1)
y=B*sin(w2*t-k2*m2+phase2)

Some examples of the different Lissajous figure obtained for different values of
frequencies and phase differences and other parameters of the waves involved:
(a) A=B
w1≠w2
phase1=pi/2; phase2=0
 k1=k2
m1=m2

(b) A=B
w1=w2
phase1=pi/2; phase2=0
k1=k2
m 1=m2
(c) A=B
w1=w2
phase1=phase2
k1=k2; m1=m2
(d) A≠B
w1≠w2
phase1=phase2=pi/2
k1=k2
m1=m2

(e) A=B
w1=pi/4; w2=2*pi/4
phase1=phase2
m1=m2
k1=k2
(f) A≠B
w1=w2
phase1=0
phase2=pi/2

k1≠k2

m1≠m2
 Personal
insight
Engaging with the readings for this project has significantly deepened my
understanding of key physical principles, particularly in the areas of
electromagnetism and waves. It has taught me the thrill one gets in
visualizing physics. I was particularly intrigued by how Maxwell’s equations
provide a unified framework for understanding electric and magnetic fields,
which was a new perspective for me.
The exploration of vector calculus was both challenging and enlightening. The
concepts of gradient, divergence, and curl were initially abstract, but applying
them to physical scenarios helped clarify their importance in analysing field
behaviours.
One surprising finding was the significance of Lissajous figures. I had not
realized how these figures illustrate complex wave interactions, and this has
sparked an interest in exploring wave behaviour in more detail. Creating
codes for getting a better understanding of these curves was very
informative.
Overall, this project has not only broadened my theoretical knowledge, but
also helped me in improving my problem-solving skills.
 Conclusion
This reading project has provided a thorough exploration of several
fundamental concepts in vector calculus and electromagnetism. We saw
the use of vector calculus in the formulation of Maxwell’s equations.
Maxwell’s equations further described the interesting interaction between
electric and magnetic fields and elucidated the power of these equations
to explain wide spectrum of electromagnetic effects, ranging from mere
circuits to wave propagation. The readings collectively enhanced the
understanding of different topics ranging from simple harmonic motion to
advanced electromagnetism.

Reference
(1) Introduction to electrodynamics, by Griffiths
(2) Classical Electrodynamics, by J D Jackson
(3) Schaum’s outlines, VECTOR ANALYSIS
(4) The Feynman lectures on physics.