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Basic Electronics
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Vacuum Tubes:
• Function: Vacuum tubes, also known as valves (in British English), were commonly used in
older models of radios, televisions and amplifiers. They control the flow of electrical
current.
• Construction: Vacuum tubes consist of a glass bulb with an anode, cathode and one or
more grids for control purposes.
• Working Principle: The cathode heats up (similar to a light bulb), causing it to emit
electrons through a process called thermoemission. These electrons flow toward the
positively charged anode, allowing electrical current to pass through.
• Applications: Vacuum tubes were used as switches, amplifiers and displays (such as
cathode ray tubes).
• Advantages and Disadvantages:
• Advantages: Vacuum tubes can handle high power, have good linearity and are less
sensitive to radiation.
• Disadvantages: They are bulky, consume more power and generate heat. Tubes have
largely been replaced by more modern technologies.
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Semiconductor Devices:
• Function: Semiconductor devices are widely used in modern electronics. They
include transistors, diodes, integrated circuits (ICs) and more.
• Composition: Semiconductor devices are made of silicon or germanium oxide
layers with specific thickness.
• Working Principle: Semiconductors operate based on the behavior of
electrons in a crystalline lattice. They can be used as switches, amplifiers and
memory elements.
• Advantages and Disadvantages:
• Advantages: Semiconductors are shock-proof, smaller in size, consume less
power and are cheaper than vacuum tubes.
• Disadvantages: They are sensitive to temperature variations and radiation.
• Vacuum tubes rely on thermionic emission, while semiconductor devices utilize
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the behavior of electrons in crystalline materials.

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Difference between Vacuum tube and Semiconductor

Both vacuum tubes and semiconductor device perform almost the same function. The most
significant difference between a vacuum tube and a semiconductor is that a vacuum tube is
used in high-power applications while a transistor is used in low-power applications.
Basis of Vacuum Tube Semiconductor
Difference
Definition An electronic device that uses a sealed glass tube Electronic device used for regulation of electronic signals
and vacuum inside it to control the flow of current is called a semiconductor.
in a circuit is called vacuum tube.
Construction A vacuum tube consists of a cathode, an anode A semiconductor consists of 2 or 3 layers of
sealed in an air tight glass tube. Inside the tube, semiconductor materials that are sandwiched to form
vacuum is created. two PN junctions. Each layer has a connection wire called
terminal.
Charge carriers In vacuum tube, electrons are the only charge In semiconductor, two type of charge carriers exist
carriers that are responsible for conduction. namely electrons and holes.
Emission and flow In vacuum tube, the electrons are emitted by the In semiconductor, the charge carrier are emitted by
of charge carriers heating of cathode and flow towards the anode. emitter and flows towards the collector.
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Principle Vacuum tube works on the principle of thermionic semiconductor works on the principle of solid state
emission, i.e. a heated metal cathode produces the physics, i.e. charge carriers are produced by the
charge carriers i.e. electrons. semiconductor effects.

Power consumption Vacuum tubes consume large amount power. The power consumption for semiconductor is less.

Wastage of power In vacuum tube, a lot power is wasted in the In semiconductor, the wastage of power in the form of
form of heat. heat is less.

Physical size Vacuum tubes are large in size. The size of semiconductor is comparatively smaller.

Portability The devices that use vacuum tube are less The devices that use semiconductor are easily
portable. portable.
Voltage Vacuum tubes require high voltage power Semiconductor require low voltage power supplies.
supplies.

Mechanical strength As vacuum tubes use glass tube, hence their Semiconductor are mechanically stronger than
mechanical strength is less. vacuum tubes.
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Efficiency Vacuum tubes are comparatively less efficient. Semiconductor devices have very high efficiency
compared to vacuum tubes.
Voltage gain For vacuum tubes, the voltage gain is low. Semiconductor devices have high voltage gain.

Input impedance Vacuum tubes have high input impedance. Semiconductor have low input impedance.

Effect of temperature The change in temperature slightly affects the The change in the temperature greatly affects the
performance of a vacuum tube. performance of the semiconductor.

Suitability for Vacuum tubes are not much suitable for small signal Semiconductors are greatly suitable for
small signal circuits due to high power loss. small signal circuit as they are highly
circuits efficient than vacuum tubes.

Life span Vacuum tubes have shorter life span upto thousand Semiconductors have relatively longer life
hours. span of many years.

Fabrication in Vacuum tubes cannot be integrated with other Semiconductors can be integrated to form
ICs elements to form ICs. ICs.
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Switching time The switching time of vacuum tube is more i.e. The switching time of Semiconductors
vacuum tube does not work instantly when the device is less, it starts working instantly
switched ON because it requires some time for the when switched ON.
cathode to get hot.

Replacement A user of the device can easily replace the vacuum The replacement of Semiconductor is
tube. relatively more difficult as it is soldered at
the circuit board.
Cost The cost of vacuum tube is high Semiconductors are low cost device.
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• Semiconductor
• A semiconductor is a material that has a resistivity somewhere between that of a good
conductor and that of an insulator. But the resistivity (or conductivity) of semiconductor
changes considerably when even minute amounts of certain other substances called the
impurities are added to them.
• Most semiconductor materials used in electronics industry have negative temperature
coefficients. Examples of semiconductor materials include silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and indium arsenide (InAs).
• Pure semiconductor material is known as intrinsic material or intrinsic semiconductor. Before
intrinsic material can be used in the manufacture of a device, impurity atoms must be added
to improve its conductivity. The process of adding the atoms is termed doping.
• Two different types of doping are possible: donor doping and acceptor doping. Donor doping
generates free electrons in the conduction band. Acceptor doping produces valence-band
holes or a shortage of valence electrons in the material.
• After doping, the semiconductor material is known as extrinsic material or extrinsic
semiconductor.
• Donor-doped semiconductor is known as n-type semiconductor and acceptor-doped
semiconductor is known as p-type semiconductor.
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• Typical donor atoms (also known as pentavalent atoms) are antimony, phosphorus and
arsenic. Typical acceptor atoms (also known as trivalent atoms) are boron, aluminum and
gallium.
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A Silicon Atom
• If we look at an isolated silicon atom, it contains four electrons in its valence
shell. When atoms combine to form a solid crystal, each atom positions itself
between four other silicon atoms in such a way that the valence shells overlap
from one atom to another. This causes each individual valence electron to be
shared by two atoms as shown in figure . By sharing the electrons between four
adjacent atoms, each individual silicon atom appears to have eight electrons in
its valence shell. This sharing of valence electrons is called covalent bonding.
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Lattice showing covalent bonding

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• Conduction Electrons and Holes

• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat (thermal)
energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the
conduction band, becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also called
conduction electrons. This is illustrated in the energy diagram of Figure
Energy

Conduction Free
band electron

Energy gap Heat

energy
Valence Hole
band
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Electron-hole pair
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• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence band
within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole. For every electron raised to the
conduction band by external energy, there is one hole left in the valence band, creating
what is called an electron-hole pair. Recombination occurs when a conduction-band
electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
• Electron and Hole Current
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, the thermally generated
free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move randomly in the crystal
structure, are now easily attracted toward the positive end. This movement of free
electrons is one type of current in a semiconductive material and is called electron
current.
• Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the holes created by the free
electrons exist. Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms
and are not free to move randomly in the crystal structure as the free electrons.
• However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little change in its energy
level, thus leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has moved
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from one place to another in the crystal structure. This is called hole current.
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• Extrinsic Semiconductor
• In its pure state, silicon is an insulator because the covalent bonding rigidly holds
all of the electrons leaving no free (easily loosened) electrons to conduct current.
If, however, an atom of a different element (i.e. an impurity) is introduced that
has five electrons in its valence shell (i.e. pentavalent atoms), a surplus electron
will be present as shown in Figure.
• These free electrons become available for use as charge carriers and they can be
made to move through the lattice by applying an external potential difference to
the materials. The resulting semiconductor after pentavalent atoms have been
added is known as n-type semiconductor.
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Figure :Free negative charge carriers (electrons) produced by introducing

a pentavalent impurity
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• Similarly, if the impurity element introduced into the pure silicon has three
electrons (trivalent atoms) in its valence shell, the absence of the fourth electron
needed for proper covalent bonding will produce a number of gaps into which
electrons can fit as shown in Figure. These gaps are referred to as holes.
• Current will flow when an external potential difference is applied to the material.
The resulting semiconductor after trivalent atoms have been added is known as
p-type semiconductor.
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Figure Holes produced by introducing a trivalent impurity

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• Majority and Minority Carriers

• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal
to the number of holes in the valence band.
• In an n-type semiconductor, most of the current carriers are electrons (the n in "n-type
semiconductor" stands for the negative charge on an electron). The electrons are
therefore, called the majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor.
• There are also a few holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally
generated. These holes are not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity
atoms. Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.
• In a p-type semiconductor, most of the current carriers are holes. The holes are
therefore, called the majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor. Holes can be thought
of as positive charges because the absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on
that atom.
• There are also a few free electrons that are created when electron-hole pairs are
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thermally generated. These free electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms. Electrons in a p-type material are called minority carriers.
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• Why Semiconductors?
• The devices (such as diodes, transistors, etc.) manufactured from
semiconductors have many advantages such as
• compact size,
• low cost,
• light weight,
• rugged construction,
• more resistive to shocks and vibrations,
• instantaneous operation (no heating required),
• low operating voltage,
• high operating efficiency (no heat loss) and long life with essentially no ageing
effect if operated with permissible limits of temperature and frequency.
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DIODES
• The term ''diode'' refers to a two-electrode or two-terminal device. Put simply, a
diode is a one-way device, offering a low resistance when forward-biased and
behaving almost as an open switch when reverse biased.

Figure : A pn-junction diode

A semiconductor junction diode is shown in Figure. The connection to the p-type material is
referred to as the anode while that to the n-type material is called the cathode. With no externally
applied potential, electrons from the n-type material will cross into the p-type region and fill some
of the vacant holes. This action will result in the production of a region either side of the junction
in which there are no free charge carriers. This zone is known as the depletion region.
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Figure : Diode circuit symbol

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• Figure shows a junction diode in which the anode is made positive with respect
to the cathode. This is forward-biased condition in which the diode freely passes
current. It also shows a diode with the cathode made positive with respect to
the anode.
• This is reverse-biased condition in which the diode passes a negligible amount of
current.
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• I-V Characteristics
• The I-V characteristic of a practical pn-junction diode can be best explained by
considering three different regions of operation.
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Figure : The I-V characteristics of a practical silicon junction

diode
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The forward-bias region

• The forward region of operation is entered when the terminal voltage V is
positive. In the forward region, the I-V relationship is closely approximated by
I = IS (eV/nVT –1) –––– (i)
where IS = A constant for a given diode at a given temperature known as
saturation current or scale current.

where K = Boltzmann's constant

T = the absolute temperature in kelvins
q = the magnitude of electronic charge
n = a constant depends on the material and the
physical structure of the diode.
For appreciable current i in the forward direction, specially for I >> IS, equation (i)
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can be approximated as
I ~̶ IS eV/nVT .......................... (ii)
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• Let I1 be the current flowing through the diode when voltage across its terminal is V1 and I2 be
the current flowing through the diode when voltage across its terminal is V2.
• Then, from equation (ii), we can write
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• A glance at the I-V characteristics in the forward region reveals that the current is
negligibly small for V smaller than about 0.5 V. This value is usually referred to as
the cut-in voltage. But for a ''fully-conducting'' diode, the voltage drop lies in a
narrow range, approximately 0.6 V to 0.8 V.
ii. The reverse-bias region:
• The reverse-bias region of operation is entered when the diode voltage V is made
negative. Equation (i) predicts that if V is negative and a few times larger than VT
(25 mV) in magnitude, the exponential term becomes negligibly small compared
to unity and the diode current becomes
I – IS
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• JUNCTION CAPACITANCE
• The junction capacitance CJ is very much like an ordinary capacitor. It is determined by
the spacing between the positive charge on the p-side of the junction and the negative
charge on the n-side as CJ = Area × κε0/ W, where Area= junction area, κ = 11.7 = silicon
dielectric constant, ε0 = permittivity of empty space (8.85 x 10–14F/cm2 ) and W =
separation of positive plate from negative plate.
• However, a difference from ordinary capacitors is that the plate separation W changes
as the voltage across the junction changes: the larger the reverse bias voltage, the bigger
W becomes because reverse bias pulls the positive charges and negative charges apart.
• On the other hand, forward bias increases CJ by pushing the charges together. PSpice
includes these changes in CJ with bias, but in hand calculations we ignore it.
• The junction capacitance of a diode is a voltage-variable capacitance.
• It plays a role in devices called varactors, which are useful in radios and filtering circuits.
• When we express the junction capacitance in terms of the depletion region width, we
arrive at a familiar form for the capacitance.
• Temperature affects diode behavior due to changes in electron populations, bandgap
energies and doping levels. Whether a diode’s characteristics exhibit a positive or
negative temperature coefficient depends on these intricate interactions.
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• VARACTOR DIODE
• Special diodes that are fabricated to be used as voltage-variable capacitors are
known as varactor diodes or simply varactors. Varactor diode is a reverse-biased
diode and its mode of operation depends on the capacitance that exist at the pn-
junction. It is also called varicap or VVC (voltage variable capacitor) or tuning
diode.
• The pn-junction capacitance (transition capacitance) is given by
• CT = e
• where e = permittivity of the semiconductor
• A = the pn–junction area
• wd = depletion width
• The symbol for a varactor diode is shown below.
Figure : Symbol of a varicap diode
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• Working principle:
• As the reverse-bias potential increases the width of the depletion region
increases, which in turn reduces the transition capacitance. The characteristics of
a typical commercially available varicap are shown below.
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Figure : Varicap characteristics: C(pF) versus VR

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• Applications of varactor diode:

i. FM modulators
ii. Automatic frequency control (AFC)
In radio equipment, Automatic Frequency Control (AFC), also called Automatic
Fine Tuning (AFT), is a method or circuit to automatically keep a resonant
circuit tuned to the frequency of an incoming radio signal. primary goal is to
address frequency drift issues.
iii. Automatic frequency tuning (AFT)
• AFT is primarily used in radio receivers to ensure that the receiver stays tuned to
the frequency of the desired station.
iv. Band pass filter.
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Effects of Temperature
• Everyone knows that temperature affects every semiconductor device you can think of, and diodes are no
exception. From the below graph, we can see that the temperature has marked effects on pn junction diode and
Zener diode.
• PN Junction diode
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• ZENER DIODE
• Zener diode is a special type of diode that is designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region. An ordinary diode operated in this region will usually be
destroyed due to excessive current. This is not the case for the Zener diode.
• The circuit symbol for Zener diode and its conduction direction is shown below.

The I-V characteristics of a Zener diode is shown below

I

V
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Figure (a) I-V curve for an ideal Zener diode (b) I-V curve for a practical Zener
diode
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• VZ: Zener breakdown voltage

• IZT: Test current for measuring VZ
• IZK: Reverse current near the knee of the characteristic, the minimum reverse
current to sustain breakdown
• IZM: Maximum Zener current, limited by the maximum power dissipation
• In the analysis of problems, the Zener diode model to be employed for the “on”
state will be as shown in Figure (a). For the “off” state as defined by a voltage
less than VZ but greater than 0 V with the polarity indicated in Figure (b) the
Zener equivalent is the open circuit that appears in the same figure.
Vz +
Vz

(Vz>V>0V)
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"off"
(a) (b)
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• BREAKDOWN IN DIODES
• Breakdown is the phenomenon due to which high current flows in the diode.
When breakdown occurs, current increases sharply and the voltage across the
device (pn-junction) remains practically constant. Breakdown mechanism is of
three types:
1. Thermal Breakdown
• When reverse biasing voltage in ordinary diode is increased to a breakdown
value, a heavy current flows through the device. Usually, this breakdown
voltage is high, greater than 25 or 50 V. This very high current produces high
heat in the device which damages the diode permanently. Thermal breakdown
is an irreversible process.
2. Zener Breakdown
• In a heavily doped pn-junction diode with a very narrow depletion region, the
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electric field strength (volts/width) produced by a reverse bias voltage can be

very high.
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• The high intensity electric field causes electrons to break away from their atoms,
thus converting the depletion region from an insulating material into a conductor.
This effect is called Zener effect or Zener breakdown. This is ionization by electric
field and it usually occurs with reverse bias voltage less than 5 V i.e. VZ < 5V. Zener
breakdown is a reversible process.
• 3. Avalanche Breakdown
• In a highly doped pn-junction diode with depletion region too wide for Zener
effect, increase in voltage across the diode increases the velocity of the minority
carriers responsible for reverse saturation current IS. Eventually, their velocity
and associated kinetic energy will be sufficient to release additional carriers
through collisions with other stable atomic structure. This is ionization by
collision. These additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to the point
where a high avalanche current (IZ) is established. This effect is called avalanche
effect or avalanche breakdown. It usually occurs with reverse bias voltage levels
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above 5 V i.e., VZ > 5V. Avalanche breakdown is a reversible process.

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LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

• LEDs are optoelectronic devices which emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of visible
(usually red, orange, yellow or green) or invisible (infrared) light when its internal
diode junction is stimulated by a forward electric current/voltage (power).
• The operation of LED is based on the phenomenon of electroluminance.
Electroluminance is the emission of light from a semiconductor under the
influence of an electric field.
• LEDs are broadly divided into two categories:
i.Surface-emitting LEDs
ii. Edge-emitting LEDs
Light emitting diodes are available in variousAnode the figure below.
formats with the round types being most
popular. The symbol for a LED is shown in
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Cathode

Figure : Symbol of a LED

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• Application of LEDs:
i. LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems.
ii. They are used in solid-state video displays.
iii. They are used in the field of optical fibre communication system.
iv. They are used for numeric displays in hand-held or pocket
calculators
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Resistor
• A resistor has been defined as a physical device that limits or regulates the flow
of electric current in an electronic circuit.
• Passive device or component is a device that exhibits no gain and no directional
function and no need of external power. Resistors, capacitors and inductors are
passive components.
• Passive components are classified into two groups: Those which dissipate energy
(e.g. resistors) and those which store energy (e.g. capacitors, inductors).
• A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element.
• In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages.
• Resistance may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes
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(or restricts) the flow of electricity through it. The SI unit of resistance is ohm ().
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• Resistance in Series
• When the resistors are joined end-on-end, they are said to be connected in series. Let R1, R2,
and R3 be the resistances of conductors connected in series.
R1 R2 R3

Figure : Series combination of resistance

The sum of the voltage drops on conductors is equal to the voltage applied.
V = V1 + V2 +V3 = I1 R1 + I2 R2 + I3 R3
As same amount of current flows through each conductors,
I1 = I2 = I3 = I (say)
 V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
Let R be the equivalent resistance that draws current I with same voltage applied. This will make V = IR.
or, IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
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 R = R1 + R2 + R3
For n conductors connected in series, R = R1 + R2 + R3 ….. + Rn
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• Resistance in Parallel
• Consider the parallel combination of conductors having resistances R1, R2, and R3
as shown in the Figure.
I1 R1

I I

Figure Resistance in parallel

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Integrated Circuit (IC) and its use

• The invention of the integrated circuit made technologies of the Information Age
feasible.
• ICs are now used extensively in all walks of life, from cars to amusement park
rides.
• Basic IC types Analog versus digital circuits Analog or linear, circuits typically use
only a few components and are thus some of the simplest types of Ics.
• An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip or simply a chip, is a
remarkable assembly of electronic components.
• An IC is a compact unit where miniaturized active devices (such
as transistors and diodes) and passive devices (like capacitors and resistors) are
meticulously interconnected.
• These components are fabricated onto a thin substrate made of semiconductor
material, typically silicon.
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• The resulting circuit forms a small monolithic “chip,” which can be as tiny as a
few square centimeters or even just a few square millimeters.
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Origins and Development:

• The journey of ICs began with the invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B.
Shockley and his team at Bell Laboratories.
• Shockley’s team discovered that electrons could form a barrier at the surface of certain
crystals, allowing them to control the flow of electricity through the crystal.
• This breakthrough led to the creation of the transistor, which replaced bulky vacuum
tubes and paved the way for solid-state electronics.
• Engineers soon extended these principles to create other essential components
like resistors and capacitors.
• The study of creating electronic devices using solid materials became known as solid-
state electronics.
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• Applications and Significance:

• ICs are the backbone of modern technology, found in almost every electronic device:
• Computers
• Televisions
• Mobile phones
• Toys
• so on
• They serve various functions:
• Amplification
• Oscillation
• Timing
• Memory storage
• Their advantages include durability, reliability, compactness and cost-effectiveness
compared to vacuum tubes.
• ICs are the unsung heroes behind the scenes, making our digital lives possible
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one tiny chip at a time

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Transistor
• Invented in 1948 by J. Bardeen, W. H. Brattain, and William Shockley of Bell Telephone
Laboratories, USA; transistor is the fundamental building block of electronic devices and
is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems thanks to the transistor’s low cost, flexibility
and reliability.
• A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit.
• A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor’s terminals controls the current
through another pair of terminals.
• Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known
as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors are now produced in
integrated circuits (IC).
• A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced
microprocessor as of 2017 can use as many as 9 billion transistors.
• Transistors are basically classified into two types: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and
Field Effect Transistors (FET). Each type is further classified as illustrated by the tree
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diagram that follows.

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Classification of Transistor
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Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-layer semiconductor device which
is able to amplify a signal and consists of either two n- and one p-type layers of
material or two p- and one n-type layers of material.
• The former is called an npn transistor and the later is called a pnp transistor. It is
called bipolar because the conduction takes place due to both electrons as well
as holes.
• There are three terminals in the BJT namely the base, the collector and the
emitter. C E

B
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E C
npn pnp
Figure :Circuit symbols for BJTs
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Construction and Operation of npn BJT E B C

Metal
contact

n P n
Emitter (E) Base Collector Collector (C)
Emitter
region region region

Emitter-base Base (B) Collector-base (b)

junction junction
(a)

Figure (a) Simplified sketch of an npn transistor (b) Cross-section of an npn transistor
• As can be seen from Figure (a), the BJT is formed from two back-to-back pn junctions: (i) base-emitter junction
(ii) base-collector junction. In practice, most of the BJTs are asymmetrically constructed as shown in Figure (b).
• The figure shows that base-collector junction and base-emitter junction have very differently sized surface contact
areas. That is, area of base-collector junction is greater than that of base- emitter junction.
• Emitter region is doped heaviest, collector region is doped moderately and base region is doped very lightly.
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• For normal operation (as an amplifier), base-emitter junction is forward biased and base-collector junction is
reverse biased. This mode of operation is called active mode of operation.
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• The forward bias at base-emitter junction reduces its barrier potential (depletion layer
is diminished). As a result, electrons from E-region flow into B-region (The electrons are
said to be emitted into the base region; hence the name ''emitter'').
• Holes also flow from p-type B-region into n-type E-region. But because the base is much
lightly doped than the emitter, large number of electrons that couldn't recombine with
the holes of the base region tend to accumulate in the base region.
• These electrons behave like minority charge carriers for reverse-biased base-collector
junction. Hence, they flow into collector region as minority carrier current.
• The reverse-biased condition at the base-collector junction causes the base-collector
depletion layer (region) to penetrate deeper into the base region. Thus, the thin base
region becomes more thinner.
• As a result, the electrons emitted from E-region into B-region immediately approach
the base-collector junction where large positive collector reverse biased voltage is
present, causing almost all these electrons to cross the base-collector junction and flow
into collector region as collector current.
• Due to both of these phenomena, more than 99% of emitter current becomes collector
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current. Very few electrons only succeed recombining with the holes of the base
forming base current - it is only 1% or less of the emitter current.
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• Beta () and Alpha ()

• The beta () of transistor is defined as the ratio of the dc collector current to the
dc base current.
=

• The beta is also known as the ''current gain'' because a small base current
produces a much larger collector current. For low-power transistor (under 1 W),
the current gain is typically 100 to 300. High-power transistors (over 1 W) usually
have current gains of 20 to 100.
• The alpha () of a transistor is defined as the ratio of the dc collector current to
the dc emitter current.

• Since the collector current almost equals the emitter current, the alpha is slightly
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less than 1. For instance, in a low-power transistor, the alpha is typically greater
than 0.99. Even in a high-power transistor, the alpha is typically greater than 0.95.
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FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
• The field-effect transistor is a semiconductor device which depends for its operation
on the control of current by an electric field. There are two types of field-effect
transistor: junction field-effect transistor (JFET) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MOSFET).
• The FET enjoys several advantages over the conventional transistor:
i. Its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a
''unipolar'' (one type of carrier) device. The vacuum tube is another example of a
unipolar device. The conventional transistor is a ''bipolar'' device.
ii. It is relatively immune to radiation.
iii. It exhibits a high input resistance, typically many megaohms.
iv. It is less noisy than a tube or a bipolar transistor.
v. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current
vi. It has thermal stability.
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• The main disadvantage of the FET is its relatively small gain-bandwidth product in
comparison with that which can be obtained with a conventional transistor.
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MOSFET
A Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-effect Transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET or MOS
FET) is a field-effect transistor (FET with an insulated gate) where the voltage
determines the conductivity of the device.
MOSFET is used for
1. Switching applications an in electronics device.
2. It is used in some amplifying circuits.
3. It is used in chopper circuits
4. It used as a high-frequency amplifier.
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D D
D D

G G
G G

S S
S S
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure : (a) n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET (b) p-channel enhancement- D S

type MOSFET (c) n-channel depletion-type MOSFET (d) p-channel depletion-
type MOSFET

G G

S D
(a) (b)
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Figure : (a) Simplified circuit symbol of NMOS.

(b) Simplified circuit symbol of PMOS
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1. The Enhancement-Type MOSFET

• Physical structure
• The physical structure of the n-channel enhancement-type is shown below. The
transistor is fabricated on a p-type substrate, which is a single-crystal silicon
wafer that provides physical support for the device.
• Two heavily doped n-type regions, as indicated by n+ are created in the substrate
as source and drain. A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) of thickness, tox (typically
2-50 nm), which is an excellent electrical insulator, is grown on the face of
substrate as shown in Figure that follows.
• Metal is deposited on top of the oxide layer to form the gate electrode of the
device. Metal contacts are also made to the source region, the drain region and
the substrate (body).
• Thus, four terminals are brought out: the gate terminal (G), the source terminal
(S), the drain terminal (D) and the substrate or body terminal (B).
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Figure : Physical structure of the enhancement-type NMOS transistor: (a) perspective view
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Figure : Physical structure of the enhancement-type NMOS

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transistor: (b) cross section

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Operation
i. Operation with no gate voltage
• With no bias voltage applied to the gate, two back-to-back diodes exist in series+
between drain and source. One diode is formed by the pn-junction between the n
drain region and the p-type substrate, and +the other diode is formed by the pn- junction
between the p-type substrate and the n source region. These back-to-back diodes
prevent current conduction from drain to source when a voltage VDS is applied.
ii. Creating a channel for current flow
• The source and the drain are grounded and a positive voltage is applied to the gate
(since the source is grounded, the gate voltage appears in effect between gate and
source and thus is denoted VGS). This VGS will induce n-type channel as shown in the
Figure 3.32 that follows. The value of VGS at which a sufficient number of mobile
electrons accumulate in the channel region to form a conducting channel (that is, a
channel is just induced) is called the threshold voltage and is denoted by Vt.
iii. Applying a small VDS
• Having induced a channel, we now apply a positive voltage VDS between drain and
source. A small VDS causes a current ID to flow through the induced n-channel. Note the
graph shown below which depicts that the MOSFET is operating as a linear resistance
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whose value is controlled by VGS. Hence, for the MOSFET to conduct, a channel has to
be induced. Then, increasing VGS above Vt enhances the channel, hence, the names
enhancement-mode operation and enhancement-type MOSFET.
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Figure An NMOS transistor with VGS > Vt and with small VDS applied
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Figure : The ID -VDS characteristics of the MOSFET when the voltage applied between drain and source, VDS is kept small
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• iv. Operation as VDS is increased

• First we held VGS constant at a value greater than Vt and increase VDS. The voltage
VDS appears as a voltage drop across the length of the channel.
• Now, the channel will take the tapered form shown in Figure, being deepest at
the source end and shallowest at the drain end. As VDS is increased, the channel
becomes more tapered and its resistance increases correspondingly. Thus, the ID-
VDS curve does not continue as a straight line but bends as shown in Figure .
• Eventually when VDS is increased to the value that reduces the voltage between
gate and channel at the drain end to Vt – that is, VGD = Vt or VGS – VDS = Vt or VDS =
VGS – Vt – the channel depth at the drain end decreases to almost zero, and the
channel is said to be pinched off.
• Increasing VDS further will produce no effect on the channel shape , and the
current through the channel remains constant i.e. drain current saturates.
• The MOSFET is then said to have entered into saturation region. The voltage at
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which saturation occurs is denoted by VDSsat. The region for VDS < VDSsat is called
the triode region, marking the resemblance of operation of vacuum tubes in old
days.
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Figure : Operation of the enhancement NMOS transistor as VDS is increased

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Figure : The drain current ID versus the drain-to-source voltage VDS for an enhancement-type NMOS transistor operated with VGS > Vt
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Figure : Sketching the transfer characteristics for an n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET from the drain characteristics
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• The Depletion-Type MOSFET

Figure : Physical structure of the n-channel depletion-type MOSFET

• The structure of the depletion-type MOSFET is similar to that of the enhancement-type
MOSFET with one important difference. The depletion MOSFET has a physically implanted
channel.
• Thus, an n-channel depletion type MOSFET has an n-type silicon region connecting the n+
source and the n+ drain regions at the top of the p-type substrate.
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• Thus, if a voltage VDS is applied between drain and source, a current ID flows for VGS = 0. In
other words, there is no need to induce a channel, unlike the case of the enhancement
MOSFET.
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• The channel depth and hence, its conductivity can be controlled by VGS in exactly
the same manner as in the enhancement-type device. Applying a positive VGS
enhances the channel by attracting more electrons into it.
• Here, however, we also can apply a negative VGS, which causes electrons to be
repelled from the channel, and thus, the channel becomes shallower and its
conductivity decreases.
• The negative VGS is said to deplete the channel of its charge carriers, and this mode
of operation (negative VGS) is called depletion mode. As the magnitude of VGS is
increased in the negative direction, a value is reached at which the channel is
completely depleted of charge carriers and ID is reduced to zero even though VDS
may be still applied.
• This negative value of VGS is the threshold voltage of the n-channel depletion-type
MOSFET and is called pinch-off voltage, Vp.
• Hence, a depletion-type MOSFET can be operated in the enhancement mode by
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applying a positive VGS and in the depletion mode by applying a negative VGS.
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Figure : Drain and transfer characteristics for an n-channel depletion-type MOSFET

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• The application of a positive gate-to-source voltage enhances the level of free

carriers in the channel compared to that encountered with VGS = 0 V.
• For this reason, the region of positive gate voltages on the drain or transfer
characteristics is often referred to as the “enhancement region”, with the region
between cutoff and the saturation level of IDSS referred to as the “depletion
region”.
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Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)

• It consists of a slab of n-type silicon with p-type regions diffused on its two sides. The
n region is the channel, and the p-type regions are electrically connected together and
form the gate.
• Current flow between two of the device terminals is established by a voltage applied
to the third terminal (gate terminal).
• The operation of the device depends upon the reverse biasing applied between the
gate and the channel.
• It is a unipolar transistor, in which current is conducted by charge carriers flowing
through one type of semiconductor only.
• It is characterized by very high input impedance and therefore is implemented in the
input stage of an integrated-circuit op-amp.
• Since gate to channel junction is almost always reverse biased, very small leakage
current (of the order of 10-9 A) will flow in the gate terminal, giving very high input
impedance.
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Figure : Basic structure of n-channel JFET

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• Operation of n-channel JFET with vDS small

• Consider the n-channel JFET with small vDS applied. With vGS = 0, the application of
a voltage vDS causes current to flow from the drain to the source.
• When a negative vGS is applied, the depletion region of the gate-channel junction
widens and the channel becomes correspondingly narrower; thus the channel
resistance increases and the current ID (for a given vDS) decreases. Because vDS is
small, the channel is almost of uniform width.
• The JFET is simply operating as a linear resistance rDS whose value is controlled by
vGS. That means the JFET is operating as a voltage controlled resistance.
• If we keep increasing vGS in the negative direction, a value is reached at which the
depletion region occupies the entire channel.
• At this value of vGS the channel is completely depleted of charge carriers
(electrons); the channel has in effect disappeared.
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• This value of vGS is called the pinch off voltage(Vp) or the threshold voltage of the
device, Vt.
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Operation with vDS increased

Now consider the case where vGS is constant at a value greater than Vt, and vDS is
increased. Since vDS appears as a voltage drop across the length of the channel, the
voltage increases as we move along the channel from source to drain.
It follows that the reverse-bias voltage between gate and channel varies at different
points along the channel and is highest at the drain end. Thus a channel acquires a
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tapered shape and the ID-vDS characteristic becomes nonlinear.

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a) physical operation of JFET at pinch off region b) iD-vDS characteristic with vDS increased.