- Experiment No.

-J_

~i:~. ~-dcntificatification Testing and Application of Rcssistor, Inductor and

'I .1citor, P-N Junction Diode, Zener Diode, BJT, LOR & LED.

Appara tus Rrqu ircd:

NAME SPECIF'l8CATION QUANTITY

Ress istor Carbon 1
Inductor 1
(' \
Capacitor ~,': 1
J
1
P-N Junction Diode Silicon V ""'>.
Zener Diode 1
BJT N-P-N, P-N-P 1
LDR 1
/4. \ Ji
'/

') '
LED
-
'

1. RESSISTANCE
(
The electrical resistance of an electrical element is the opposition to the flow of electric current
4

through that element; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance. Ressistance is more in series
tha~ parallel combination .tfts SI u1 t is ohm • An object of unifonn cross section has a resistance
. nal to tts
proport10 ' ' . \ and/1ength and mverse
,, res1st1V1ty . 1·~o its
. \ 1y proport1ona . I area. All
. cross-sectiona

materials show si>me resis~~e, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
\j
-'

where eis the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of the
conductor measured in square metres [m2], a (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in
siemens per meter (S·m- 1), and p (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called _specific electrical
resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (O·m). The resistivity and conductivity are
proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the
~e._O"':'!P} '1 th-. ~r~ .R--~~:",Bv,ry ~ Q..on~'vt~ ~
~J-m>ud ~ ., -;!:_ . R,'-c; ~ £Hv,', V' Y l ' \ ~ t ~ ~ ~ r j
~l~l--t .to "'f.,P"~ -e.\eu~)C::. CC,l'C"rf.-t\4-~ tVc.r R•ts~,1--w ~> ~~4-\f~
 Picture
-,rui:·) Irr:: ) - -1of\) 11 r_) -
/ I "--, s-..
Ill■~ 1A o Ill
/ / 'o64d s,i.
~ ~OR Band
Color
Symbol

Orange I 3
Tesling: By colour codin
digital ·
mu1ttmeter .
.
g we get res sistance value and test it by
Yellow
Green I '5
Blue I 6
Violet I 7
Gray I 8

10 White
□ 9
:t5'11i
Gold
Silver
•
~
0.1
0.01 :t10'11i
:t20'11i
Hone

PtWII-N
"-cann1t1..
hm tt11 d1aut

A) Types of Ressistor: Carbon

Ressistor, Rheostat, pot, Stud, etc ,

B) Observation :

Colour Colour Value of Range MM Error

1 5 Ressistor readin
Colour

Code

C) Calculation: Tolerance=

Upper Range =
Lower Range =

D) Application:
1. Fuse
2. Circuit breaker
3. Potential devider
 4· CulTCnt
devider

2. Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as condenser is a passive two-terminal electrical compon
ent used to
st0re
energy in an electric field. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the nd
co uctors,
a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect
on one plate
and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field.
An ideal capacitor
is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This
is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

A) Types of capacito r:

Cer:am ie Po,-,
I . C
' lm T■
-•>F ~ .- lum
Eleet:ro lyt:i ~
I
\

,- ... . . . . 1. 8 ■ 1
~ , 1J HL l1 . i . ) .
. ,,,,~,
• I 1 •

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized 1:iy a' co~;tan'/capacitance C, defined

as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Q
0 = -V Farad ~
·1
The work done in establishing the e1! tric field, and hence the amoun! of energy stored,
is given by:
ts . ,
C=QN / '
reveals that capacitance increases eA
with area and decreases with separation C
d
B) Testing : some digital multimeter providing this facility other wise by analog multimeter
we can check the dielectric ressistance initially it will be high because dielectr
ic is an
insulator after holding for a moment it will decrease due to dipoles generated .
 D) r,icturc:

+
E) Application :
• Ca ·t .
paci ors are widely used in electro nic circuits for blocki.ng d.tree t current while
~llowi ng alternating current to pass,
• m fi lter networks,
• for smoothing the output of power supplies,
• in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequ_encies,
• in electri c power transmission systems for stabilizing voltag
e and power flow

3. INDUCTOR
· d
An m .'
uctor (also choke, coil or reactor) .
is a passive two-terminal electnca1comp onent that stores
· • . ' · -.
energy m its magnetic field. Any conductor has inductance. • · 11
An mductor 1s typica Y made of a wire
,,,➔ . >
or other conductor wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic
field.
~r. ~ ~ ___. . ,

·,;; : "~
When the current flowing through an ind1~ctor clianges, creatin . .
g a time-varying magnetic field mside
the coil, a voltage is induced, accord ing to F~da y's law of
electromagnetic induction, which by
Lenz's law opposes the change in current tliat created it. An "ideal
inductor" has inductance, but no
• -<i)
resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate or radiate energy
.
··' .,.. ~
lrlM
(~ ~ t\ fi 'U/.t #'
> '\ . "\, .,
A) Types of inductor: """'•'·
\ ~

1. Air core inductor 2. Radio frequency inductor 3. Ferromagnetic

core inductor
4. Laminated core inductor 5. Ferr:te--core inductor 6. Toroidal core
inductor
 B) Symbol:
Th I ·
. e re ationship between the time-vary ing voltage ·d
v(t) across an m uct?rWI'th indu
. •
ctance Land the
time-varying current i(t) passing throu gh it is descr
ibed by the differential equation.

v(t) = Ldi(t)
dt :

u- -- .--....-·······
1 1I l 1
-= -+
Leq £ -+ ·· ·+ 1
1 L2 n

v- -...- -....-··· ····

. . .
The current through indu ctors m sene s stays the same· , but the vo Itage acros s each inductor can be
different. The sum of the potential differences (volt ti d th •
age) is equal to the total voltage. To m err
total inductance:

~ · · · · · · ·~

Leq
L1

= L1 + Li + ···+ Lf
L2

<r
r t,?
l\
tn )r

Jt~-~~·
C) Stored energy · ~ ~ -~
.
The energy (measured in joules, fo~ stor~d by an
inductor is equal to the amount of work requ ired
to establish the current throug!i the induc
4":~
fie ldT
. hi'

q,~.I
.
tor, and therefore the magnetic .
~. s 1s given b·
Y•
1. 2
~ Estored = 2LI

v·
where L is inductance and I is the current through
the inductor.

D) Testing of inductor: Inductors are measured with

an INDUCTANCE METER but the
value of some inductors is very small and some Indu
ctance Meters do not give an accurate
reading. You can test this component for continuity
between the ends of the winding and also
make sure there is no continuity between the wind
ings and the core.
E) Application:
1. Inductors are used extensively in analog circu
its and signal processing.
2. Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other
components form tuned circuits which
can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencie
s.
 7 ,tS ¥tt

. rs remove
ac1to
. . • with filter ca P tput.
3. Use of large · d supplies which in conJun ctaon . t curren t ou
. an uctors an power
' . frOm the d1rec . and
residual hums kn mains hum or other fluctuations • d. recepu on
. own as the . ·t used an ra 10
4. Smaller inductor;capaci.tor combinations provide tuned c1rcu1 s
for instanc e. supplies.
broadcasting, e power
S. An inductor · d • h d-mod
is use as the energy storage device in some switc e here they are used to
6. Inductors ar I d fault current
e a so employed in electrical transmission systems, w
depress voltages from lightning strikes and to limit switching curren ts an

4. P-n Junction Diode

he mo st common fu nction of a
· a d'wde 1s
In electro mes, · minal electronic compo nent. T . • )
a two-ter
. , fi rward directi . •
on
· to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode s O
d"JOde IS
. . n). This
· the opposite direction (the reverse directio
· current m · um·directional behavw. r
whil e bl ocking
. and is
. ation, .
. used to convert alternating current to direct . luding extraction
current, me
. called rectific
is
of rectifiers.
of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers-these diodes ar~ forms

polarity.
Forward bias: positive terminals and negative terminals co~ected as per
Reve~se bias: terminals connected in opposite .
polanty.
k
- - -1D L-~ -
1ignll diode

I __!. m J1-k_
A) Testing: A diode can tested with a Digital power diode
multimeter must be done on the "DIODE"
setting connect the probes as pe~ polarity. Any
value display is confirmation of perfect diode. diode symbol

~
"' ~ d. .
more in reverse 1rectton.
Another method is to check ressistance ,in forward direction it is less and
'ii
B) Application: _I
~
I. As a switch .
2. As a rectifier.

5. Zener diodes

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage.

They are designed to 'breakdc~ ~' i11 a ,. ~:::.:.,le and
non-destructive way so ih, · .ij"' ..n be useti
 In reverse t0 . . I
The d'
iagram maint
h0 ain a fixed voltage across their temun
. a s.. .
to limit th s ws how they are connected, with a resisto r tn senes
e current.

Zener diode .
s are rated by their breakdown voltage and maxim .
um power.
• The · ·
minimum voltage available is 2.4V.
• Powe ·
r ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.

A) Testing:
• Pl~cing the multimeter on the diode setting. This is usually indica
casing. ted by a small diode symbol on the

• Measure the forward-biased voltage on the Zener diode. A Zener

is made from silicon, so an
undamaged one will read 0.5 to 0.7 V when it is forward-
biased. •· ·
• Measure the reverse-biased voltage on the Zener diode by
t'"- +Vs
switching the multimeter probes. You should get a reading Resistor to
indicating infinite resistance or no curre ;r.t limit current
fl w. Input
• A~ch the posit ive~~-ofthe 9-V batte~ o one side of ---- ..i+ vz
the voltage
r~sistor and connect the o end of the esistor to the cathode .
Zener fixed
side of the Zener diode, so that 1 · 1 e reverse-biased. Then
Diode output
wire the remaining diode terminal ~ the negative side of the voltage
battery. /.. ~ OV o-- +-- --o OV
• Place the multimeter on a DC o/.'ltage setting. MeasUJe
the
voltage across the diode by p~cing a multimeter lead on each
terminal. It should read approximately
5.6 volts, though the value niay be as low as 5.32 or as high
as 5.88 volts. Note that the voltage
between the battery and gro~d remains at 9 V.

B) Application: 1. As a voltage stabiliser in shunt mode

2. Surge Suppressors .i.e. for device protection

6. BJT
A transistor is a semiconductor device and it is composed of semic
onductor material with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
 . a circuit. A
Thl"tt '"' hl·o h o . they are u1cd in
1,,.....,1...
,~ -
~ f tt11nt1tto,~. •h,ch have ~l1)lht d11Tcrenc~ in how
tt ,.,..~,q<lt h.A.,
ti current at the base
A sma
tnm,naJ~ lahd<'d ba\e, tolle<for, and t ntlUct. . h a rnuch larger
lc,m,~ Ith~ &.t. 0 I or sw1tc
. n~·ing ht-twt-<'TI tht 4~ a.nd t~ emitter) can contro h terTTlinals are
t'l1l'lt'll1 ~.N-n th . transistor, t e d
la c t'<'lll«tor and emitter terminal~. For a ticld..eflcct een source an
ht-l('J IZ•tt~ lflurc d . I a current betw
e, an drain, and a Yolrage at the gate can contro
drain.

.The lea . es of transistor

ds arc labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E) in different typ

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol h FE••

To-9 ~ cPt<.nlc)

-©C ,. . .
m
E
a Uk• ZN 3906

C
• - ©E NPN U k4o2N3904
a) Testing a tranfoto~

Transi stors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a

T0218
r0220 •t
circu,'t If you suspect that a transistor
. may be damaged there are two easy ways to test 1 :

b) Testing with a multimeter

Use a mu] tlmeter

· .
or a simple
"'
.
tester (battery, resistor
" I'
and LED) to check each pair of leads for
.
conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a 1ow
~

\.
resistance range.

~
Test each pair ofleads both ways (six tests in total):
~- ,. #.I
The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
~- ·•.
• The bas~collect~r (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
• The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a
PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

Testing:

Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current and
measureR t~e collector current so as tc display the transistor's DC current gain hFE,

·~---·- ----r---~------------...J
I -:::n =
 LDR:

LDR
tha t (lig ht De pendent Resistor) as the
name states is a special type of res,s .t
Wor ks or
a 0 n the photoconductivi
ty principle means that resistance
cco changes
Int rdin. g to th e Intensit.
y of light. Its resistance decreases with .
an increase .tn the
f ens,ty of Ii 9ht • It works on the principle
of photoconductivity whenever the ltgh . t
a 11 son Its ph otoc
onductive material, it absorbs its energy
hotoconduct" and the electrons of tha t
P
b tve material m. the valence
band get excited and go to the conduc .
and and th . tion
.
us increasing t he conductivity as per the .
increase in ligh t intensity.

'"'
)

LDR Testing : In any circuit we can use

it as a switch. In lighted area its
act as infinite ressistance and block con
ductivity.

LDR Applications)
• '~ /t
The phot_oresistor is generally used in
detecting the presence and intensity of
ligh t V
• Used in automatic lights tha t switch on
and off according to light
• Simple Smoke Detector Alarm, Clock
with automatic ligh t
• Opt ical circu it design
• Photo pro xim ity switch
• Laser-based security systems

• Solar Stre et Lamps

• cam era ligh t meters
• Clock radios
• Can be used · D . LDR and LED
in Ynam,c Compressors1 some compressors use
connected to the signal source to crea te changes in signal gain.

7. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

a) Circuit symbol:
_---IIJ
l./1:t-----
LED is a type of diode ,which is used to emit light when it is connected with power supply in
forward bias. ·
•
'
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow.

b) Testing an LED
A +
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! _
1k
-r
It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass 1
through and burn it out. ,. 9V
. ,?f I
.
.Ao _,...

LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for
quick testing purposes a Ik'2 resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your
supply voltage is 12V or less. ,
#6-

Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

c) Application:

a) As an indicator
b) In decoration
c) In torch • · ,.
d) As a bulb
e) In electronics

f<,0 cJ__f; .>--·

f~~ o1't .,,..
ObJective question r
a) What is ressistance?
b) How it depends on material?
c) What is dielel ~rk'>
d) What is diffP.re.ul!e in capacitor and inductor?
e) Define dioo.- ·s a switch?
ij Deffap, tra~~ ;st, r as an .. 1r,plifier?