Research

— a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information-data to increase

understanding of a phenomenon we are interested in or concerned about; an indispensable
component of academic and industry practices

Data
— a collection of unorganized and unrefined facts that contain raw materials that do not carry
any specific meaning or are insufficient for decision-making that doesn’t depend on information

● Example: a student’s test core

Information
— about how to understand facts in a context that is sufficient for decision-making and depends
on data; a group of data that collectively carries a logical meaning which comprises processed,
organized, data presented in a meaningful context

● Example: The Average score of a class is the information derived from the given data

Positivism
— a good deal of research in the natural sciences that has been driven by this perspective

PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEW IN RESEARCH:

1. Positivists
— with appropriate measurement tools, scientists can objectively uncover absolute,
undeniable truths about cause-and-effect relationships within the physical world and
human experience

2. Post-Positivist
— point out that our observations cannot always be relied upon as they can also be
subjected to error; critical realists who are critical of the reality that they study

● “We cannot be positive in our claims of knowledge when studying behavior and
actions of humans”
● “Everything should be quantified to produce meaningful concrete results”

3. Constructivist
— not only acknowledge that they bring certain biases to their research endeavors but
also try to be as upfront as possible about these biases; the emphasis on subjectivity
and bias rather than objectivity applies to the phenomena that constructivist researchers
study as well

● Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences

 ● Experience expressed through words can paint a better picture of a certain
phenomena

4. Transformative
— often begins with one of these issues as the focal point of the study: specifically
issues that need to be addressed that peak to important social issues of the day
(empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and alienation)
● Research Inquiry should be intertwined with politics and the political change agenda
● Research should be conducted to increase the quality of life and produce better
societies

5. Pragmatic
— dealing with something is based on practical rather than theoretical considerations; a
pragmatic person has a practical approach to dealing with situations

● We need to look at many possibilities for collecting and analyzing data

● Use of quantitative and qualitative data in expressing

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Testing Hypothesis Exploring ideas and formulating a theory or

hypothesis

Math and Statistical analysis Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing, and

interpreting

Expressed in numbers, graphs, and tables Expressed in words

Many respondents Few respondents

Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions

Key terms: testing, measurement, objectivity, Key terms: understanding, context,

replicability complexity, subjectivity

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN RESEARCH:

1. Method
— historical, descriptive, experimental

● What data will be gathered?

2. Technique
— survey interview, doodling

● How data will be gathered?

 3. Approach
— quantitative, qualitative, or mixed

● How data will be processed?

Qualitative Research
— socially obstructed by individuals in interaction with their world or an attempt to understand
the world as lived which encompasses studies about how an individual considers a particular
experience and how he or she reflects on it

● Ethnography

METHODS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

1. Interviews
— asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents

2. Focus groups
— discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used
for further research

3. Ethnography
— participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely
observe culture and behavior

4. Literature Review
— survey of published works by other authors

Mixed Methods Research

— combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research to answer the research question
to help gain a more complete picture than a standalone quantitative or qualitative study as it
integrates the benefits of both methods

● Often used in the behavioral, health, and social sciences, especially in multidisciplinary
settings and complex situational or societal research

MIXED METHODS DESIGNS:

1. Convergent Parallel
— collecting qualitative and quantitative data at the same time and analyzing them
separately, then comparing results to draw overall conclusions
 2. Explanatory Sequential
— quantitative data collection and analysis occurs first, followed by qualitative data
collection and analysis; if data will explain and contextualize quantitative findings

Quantitative Research
— the aim is to find out the relationship between one variable and another; the systematic
empirical investigation of an observed phenomenon through the use of statistical, mathematical,
or computational methods which can be experimental or non-experimental

● Independent Variable (the cause)

● Dependent Variable (the effect)

CHARACTERISTICS:

● Clearly defined research question

● Generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal
relationships
● Gathered using structured research instruments
● The researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires
● The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population
● Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures,
or other non-textual forms
● Can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability

ADVANTAGES:

● It can be used when large quantities of data need to be collected

● The result is usually numerical (quantifiable) and hence considered ore, “objective”
● Generalizable to a larger population
● Can provide a clear and quantitative measure to be used for grants and proposals
● It can be tested and checked
● Straightforward and less open to error and subjectivity

DISADVANTAGES:

● Results need to be calculated and analyzed through the use of Excel, Access, or data
analysis software (such as SPSS), which may not always be available
● The larger the sample, the more time it takes to analyze the data and analyze results
● The larger the sample, the more time it takes to collect data
● Quantitative data ignores a very important human element
● Tests can be intentionally manipulative
● More expensive than other forms of testing
PROCESS:

1. Make observations about something unknown, unexplained, or new

2. Investigate current theories or trends surrounding the problem or issue
3. Formulate a hypothesis to explain your observations
4. Predict outcomes based on your hypothesis and formulate a plan to test your predictions
5. Collect and process your data using one or more of the methods
6. If your prediction is confirmed, verify your results, draw your conclusions, and present
your findings. If it is disconfirmed, form a new hypothesis based on what you have
learned and start the process over

METHODS:

1. Survey
— list of closed or multiple choice questions that are distributed to a sample (online, in
person, or over the phone)

2. Experiments
— a situation in which different types of variables are controlled and manipulated to
establish cause-and-effect relationships

3. Observations
— observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’tbe controlled

TYPES:

1. Non-experimental Research
— establishes the association or connection between variables without the manipulation
of variables

A. Survey Research or Descriptive Research

— The most common method used for quantitative research is in the form of a
questionnaire or interview

● Question Example 1: “How many hours do senior high students spend playing
online games?”
● Question Example 2: “How many malnourished students failed in the
achievement test?”
● Question Example 3: ‘How healthy is the food served during lunchtime in public
schools?”
● Title Example: “Factors Affecting the Academic Performance of Senior High
School Students”
B. Correlational Research
— determine the relationship between two variables; positive correlation, negative
correlation, or no correlation

● Example Variables: Sex and Mathematical, Social Media and Academic

Performance, Age and Leadership style, Age and Language Comprehension,
Occupation and Lifespan, Parental Involvement and Children’s Academic
Achievement
● Example Title 1: “The relationship between playing online games and the Grade
Point Average”
● Example Title 2: “The Relationship Between Employee Job Satisfaction and
Productivity in the Workplace”
● Example Title 3: “The Relationship Between Social Media Usage and
Self-Esteem Among Adolescents”
● Example Title 4: “The Correlation Between Air Quality Index and Respiratory
Health in Urban Areas”

C. Comparative Research
— comparisons are based on description data, showing that a difference exists but does
not imply causation

2. Experimental Research
— establishes causality and is often used when an intervention is being studied with the
manipulation of variables

A. True Experimental
— the researcher has control over the experiment; manipulation, randomization, control

● The Experimental Group; receives the intervention (e.g.pre-test, intervention,

post-test)
● Control Group; remains unmanipulated (pre-test, no intervention, post-test)
● Title Example: “Independent Video Learning Tool: Its Effect on Academic
Performances of Senior High School”

B. Quasi Experimental
— participants are not randomly assigned and attempt to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship by using criteria other than randomization

● Title Example 1: “The Effect of Gender on Algebra Achievement in High School

Students of XYZ Country - A Quasi-experimental Study”
● Title Example 2: “The Effect of Remedial Programs on Beginners”
● Title Example 3: “Assessing Effectiveness of New Method of Teaching Literature
to Elementary Teachers”
CHECKLIST OF QUESTIONS FOR DESIGNING A SURVEY METHOD BY CRESWELL
(2010):

● Is the purpose of the survey design stated?

● Are the reasons for choosing the design mentioned?
● Is the nature of the survey (cross-sectional vs longitudinal) identified
● Is the population and its size mentioned
● How many people will be in the sample? On what basis was the size chosen?
● What will be the producer for sampling (random or nonrandom)?
● What instrument will be used in the survey? Who developed the questionnaire?
● What procedure will be used to pilot-test the survey?
● What is the timeline for administering the survey
● What are the variables in the study?

TYPES OF SURVEY OR DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:

1. Cross-Sectional Study
— collects data from a population or subset population through observation, survey, or
interview at a specific point in time

2. Longitudinal Study
— collects data through observation, survey, or interview of the same subjects over
some time and can last up to several years

Extraneous Variables (cofounding variables)

— unwanted variable that influences the outcome of the experiment in an undesirable way or
adds error to an experiment; not intentionally studied but can affect the results

Example: Sleep Deprivation + Driving Ability

● Road Conditions
● Weather
● Years of Driving Ability

Example: Wearing a White Lab Coat + Scientific Reasoning

● Respondents Major
● Respondents Interest in Science
● Time of the Testing
● Gender
BASIC PARTS OF A RESEARCH TITLE:

1. Research Goal or Result

— the target of your study or expected result and what you want to investigate, examine,
describe, explain, and explore

● Keywords: Effect, Impact, Assess, Evaluate, Develop, Link Correlate,

Relationship, Innovate, Factors (Affecting)

2. Research Variables

● Independent Variables; Volcanic Smog, Online Classes, Mobile Games, Anxiety

and Depression, Cyberbullying, Temperature
● Dependent Variables; Students, Teachers, Employees, Youth, Skills, Learning,
Academic Performances, Social Skills

3. Research Locale
— the place where the study will be conducted

● Examples: School, Barangay, City, Country

GOOD RESEARCH TITLE SHOULD:

1. Contain as few words as possible: many journals limit titles to 12 words (Limit your
words)
2. Be easy to understand
3. Describe the contents of the paper accurately and specifically
4. Avoid abbreviations, formulas, and jargon
5. Do not include any verb
6. Do not contain low-impact words such as “Some notes on…”, “Observations on…”,
“Investigation on…”, “Study of…”, and “Effect of…”
7. Not be flashy as in the newspaper (e.g., “Agroforestry can stop deforestation”)
8. Report the subject of the research rather than the results
9. It should be TImely, Trailblazing and Trending

SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS:

1. Own Experience and Interest

— identify your interests and formulate a problem that reflects them; familiarity with your
territory and terminology

2. Colleagues
— brainstorming with friends about problems they have encountered may help clarify
research ideas
 3. Critical Friends
— experts are good sources of research problems

4. Literature
— previous studies and research findings in which gaps were identified

Research Problem
— a clear statement of an inquiry or gap that needs to be addressed through a systematic
approach

GUIDELINES IN MAKING A RESEARCH PROBLEM:

1. Create a research problem that is SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic,

and Time-bound)
2. Formulate a research problem that reflects the significance of seeking solutions and
answers
3. Do not state your research problem or questions that are answerable by yes or no
4. Research can be stated in a declarative or interrogative manner
5. Make sure that the quantitative research problem is answerable by an appropriate
statistical method
6. Formulate a research problem that is aligned with your research topic

QUANTITATIVE QUESTIONING:
— answerable by YES or NO and is QUANTIFIABLE and BEING MEASURED

● Example Question 1: Is there a significant relationship between the level of bullying and
acts of juvenile delinquency
● Example Question 2: Can the level of bullying be significantly related to the acts of
juvenile delinquency?
● Example Question 3: Does the level of bullying are significantly related to the acts of
juvenile delinquency?

TIPS ON HOW TO CONSTRUCT RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

1. Gumawa kayo ng nararapat na PROFILE ng mga RESPONDENTS niyo (Demographic

Profile)
2. Alamin niyo kung paano imemeasure si IV at yung “LEVEL sa IV
3. Gumawa kayo ng area or way para sa Dependent Variable (yung ginamit niyong scaling
sa second question ay same lang na gagamitin for this question)
4. Construct the “relationship” or “differences” of the DP and DV (Laging -compare ang DP
sa DV kasi siya ang affected)
5. Construct the relationship or differences between the IV and DV (Last Question is for
answering the Gap)
EXAMPLE:

The Relationship of Reading Habits to the Reading Comprehension of Grade 12 in OLFU

STATEMENT EXAMPLE

What is the profile of the respondents in What is the profile of the respondents in
terms of ____? terms of?
a) Age
b) Gender
c) GWA English (With Consent) (Data Privacy
Act)

What is the level of IV of the Respondents? What is the level of reading habits of the
respondents?
Scaling: (Low-Average-High),
(Poor-Average-Good), (Very
Low-Low-Moderate-High-Very High)
Types: Likert Scale, ANOVA, T-test,
Chi-Square Test

What is the level of DV of the Respondents in What is the level of Reading Comprehension
terms of? (Minimum of 5) of the respondents in terms of?
a) Vocabulary Tests
b) Summarizing Tests (Story Telling)
c) Spelling
d) Outlining
e) Assessment (Decoding)

Is there a significant relationship between the Is there a significant relationship between the
(DP) and (DV) of the Respondents? (Optional Demographic Profile and the Reading
to put the sub-categories) Comprehension of the Respondents?

Is there a significant relationship between the Is there a significant relationship between the
IV and DV of the respondents? Reading Habits and Reading Comprehension
of the respondents?

Review of Related Literature

— an analysis and synthesis of articles related to the research topic being studied; to identify a
research problem of interest, to discover what are known and unknown about a certain topic,
and to improve his research questions or hypothesis

● Process: Searching relevant articles, reading and analyzing research reports, writing the
description of the existing information on a topic in an ethical manner based on
standards
TYPES OF LITERATURE:

1. Research Literature
— based on research findings

● Journal Articles
● Literature Reviews
● Abstracts of Research Studies

2. Non-research references
— literature that is not based on research findings

● Literary or artistic works

● Opinion articles
● Brochures
● Magazines
● Anecdotes

SOURCES OF RESEARCH LITERATURE:

1. Primary Source
— description of studies written by the researchers

● Researchers published in a journal

● Abstract prepared by the researcher(s)
● Dissertations
● Thesis
● Undergraduate Researchers
● Presentation done by a teacher

2. Secondary Source
— description of studies written by someone else, other than the researchers who
conducted them

● Literature Review
● Abstract prepared by a reviewer
● Presentation of research done by someone else other than the researcher

Citation
— both a signpost and an acknowledgment that can appear in different formats: within a text, at
the bottom of the page, or at the end of the paper
PROPERLY CITING SOURCES:

1. Implicit

● Statement_(Author, Year)

2. Explicit

● Author_(Year)_Verb_Statement
● Verb_Author_(Year)_Statement

Plagiarism (Latin; kidnapper)

— a discrete offense, a specific failure to give credit to a particular source or the use of
another’s work, words, or ideas without attribution that is considered a form of theft, a breach of
honesty in the academic community whether done intentionally or by accident

TYPES OF PLAGIARISM:

1. Plagiarism of Words
— the use of the author’s exact words without calling him or her

2. Plagiarism of Structure
— the author cited the source but just paraphrased another’s words by changing
sentence construction or word choice

3. Plagiarism of Authorship
— turning in a replication of another’s work; the worst type of plagiarism

● Submitting a paper that you got off the internet or from a friend and presenting it
as your own

4. Plagiarism of Self
— the use of one’s previous work for a separate assignment or requirement; although
the ideas and words are owned by the author, receiving two credits for a single output is
considered cheating

PENALTIES OF STUDENT AND TEACHERS:

1. Level 1 - Student
— such student shall not be given any mark or credit for the plagiarized script and shall
be asked to submit a revised script within a stipulated period not exceeding 6 months

● Similarities above 10 to 40%

 2. Level 2 - Student
— such student shall not be given any mark or credit for the plagiarized script and shall
be asked to submit a revised script after 1 year but not exceeding 18 months

3. Level 3 - Student
— such student shall not be given any mark or credit for the plagiarized script and his or
her registration for that course is to be cancelled

4. Level 1 - Faculty, Staff, Researcher of HE

— shall be asked to withdraw the manuscript submitted for publication and shall not be
allowed to publish any work for a minimum of one year

● Similarities above 10 to 40%

5. Level 2 - Faculty, Staff, and Researcher of HEI

— shall be asked to withdraw the manuscript submitted for publication and shall not be
allowed to publish any work for a minimum of two years and shall be denied a right to
one annual increment and shall not be allowed to be a supervisor to any UG, PG,
Master’s, M. Phil., Ph.D students or scholar for two years

● Similarities above 40% to 60%

6. Level 3 - Faculty, Staff, Researcher of HEI

— shall be asked to withdraw the manuscript submitted for publication and shall not be
allowed to publish any work for a minimum period of three years and shall be denied a
right to two successive annual increments and shall not be allowed to be a supervisor to
any UG, PG, Master’s, M. Phil., Ph.D students or scholar for three years

The Ghost Writer

— making a copy of another work’s word for word and verbatim to this without being of citing the
original document

The Photocopy Writer

— to make copies of a significant portion of other writings from one and single source without
modification and acknowledgment to the source used

The Potluck Paper Writer

— the attempt to copy from several other sources with a few changes made to paragraphs and
sentences retaining most of the original phrasing

The Self-Stealer Writer

— borrows ideas generously from own previous works and common threat to all above not
putting the source
ANTI-PLAGIARISM SOFTWARE:

● Turnitin
● URKUND
● EVE
● i-Thencate
● Cross Check
● Wcopy-Find
● Word-CHECK

HOW TO PREVENT PLAGIARISM:

1. Develop a topic based on previously written material but ensure that you also write
something new and original.
2. Although you can rely on experts’ opinions regarding a certain topic ensure that you are
making a contribution by improving upon those opinions
3. Do not fail to give credit where and when it is due
4. The researcher should follow a certain documentation format like the American
Psychological Association