AERODYNAMICS 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The main part of the material presented herein is taken from J., D., Anderson “Fundamental of Aerodynamics” CURRAO
WHEN DID WE START FLYING

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 GREEK MITHOLOGY

Jacob Peter Gowy: The Flight of Icarus (1635–1637) Artus Quellinus the Elder: Mercury
Icarus flies too close to the sun, melting The god Mercury with the
the glue of his wings. flying shoes

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 LEONARDO DA VINCI

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519)

His flying machine was inspired by bat  An artist, a scientist, an engineer, an.. observer
wings. Later ideas contemplated a flapping His inventions as well as art masterpieces were based on
machine. profound studies of nature.

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 OTTO LILIENTHAL

Longest glide flight covered 250 meters

Otto ‘Flying man’ von Lilienthal (1878 – 1896)

 Engineering approach
He accurately documented every flight. His gliders were
inspired by the bird wings.

He was the main inspiration for the Orville brothers. He

died flying after more than 2000 successful flights.

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 WRIGHT BROTHERS

Their Bicycle shop in Dayton (Ohio)

Orville (1871 – 1948) Wilbur (1867-1912)

 Enthusiast Engineers:
They were very interested in mechanisms and
engineering (Bicycles, Printing machines, Motors )

The first gliders

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THE FIRST SUSTAINED FLIGHT

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 WHAT MADE THEM SUCCESSFULL
 Historical time:
Post industrial revolution in U.S. (1820-1840)
First Car in 1886
First steamboat in 1802

 Experience:
Mainly from Otto, but also from the failures of
previous famous scientists

 Scientific Method:
Development of the first wind-tunnel

 Innovative control technique The tunnel developed by the Wright brothers

It was inspired by the flight of birds

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TESTED WING AEROFOILS
Wing Velocity V Wing

Airfoil section

Lift

Wind Velocity V

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TESTED PROPELLERS

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IMPROVED CONTROL SYSTEM

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 FUNDAMENTAL
AERODYNAMIC VARIABLES

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 FUNDAMENTAL VARIABLES
Thermodynamic variables Information about the kinetic energy
YOU NEED TO KNOW 2 OF THEM: of the fluid:
YOU NEED TO KNOW VELOCITY (𝑢)
Pressure (𝑝) Density (𝜌)
Temperature (𝑇) For example, in the form of:
Total pressure (𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑢 /2) or
You can get the third one using the Total temperature (𝑇 = 𝑇 +
state gas equation: 𝑢 /2𝐶𝑝) or Mass flow (𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑢) …
Indicative of the
number of air 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 Indicative of the
molecules “pushing” a
number of particles in Indicative of the kinetic
surface. Thus, Indicative of the a finite volume energy of the flow
transmitting their chaotic motion of the
momentum to a body. particles or their
internal energy

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 THERMODYNAMICS PROPERTIES
Temperature [K] Infinitesimal force
increasing the kinetic exerted by the particle
energy of the single
particles, thus their chaotic 𝑑𝐹⃗
motion (speed is in every
direction) and also the 𝑛 unit normal
chance of collision vector to a
molecules-molecules and 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
Cold air Hot air surface
molecules body surface

Infinitesimal area
Density[kg/m3]
It is an indication of the Pressure [Pa] is then the force distribution.
amount of particles that The sum of this infinitesimal forces gives
are present in a volume. you the total force acting on the surface
Dense air Rarefied air
You can intuitively see that all of them are 𝑑𝐹⃗ = − 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 𝑛
related. Physically, this is expressed with
the gas state equation 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

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 VELOCITY AND SPEED
Velocity is a vector field
Definition of vector field: a vector field is 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

i.e., in every point you have information about the

fluid element speed (or magnitude/length of the
vector) and direction.
𝑦
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦)

Here at the location (x,y) 𝑥

You have two information

𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑉
𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑉
𝑣 |𝑉| Speed V = 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣

𝑢 Velocity Direction unit vector always

tangent to the streamline
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 BODY-FLUID INTERACTION 1/2 streamline
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦)
Length of the A 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉
profile 𝑦 streamline
segment 𝑠(𝑥)
𝑥 B 𝑉

Particle A is “dragging” forward, is thus

exerting a force in the direction of the
flow but proportional to 𝑑𝑉
Shear stress 𝝉(s). It is the result of the
Pressure p(s). Remember that this is a
“rubbing” or friction on the surface. It is
scalar not a vector. Pressure is a result
almost fully dependent on the flow velocity
of both the thermodynamic properties
𝜏𝑡⃗ and weakly on the temperature. Always
of the gas and the velocity of the air. −𝑝𝑛 tangent to the surface
𝑠 𝑑𝑉
.. The Bernoulli equation will clarify this 𝜏=𝜇
relationship, let’s that in general high 𝑑𝑦
velocity determines a lower pressure. Viscosity is a constant of proportionality.
It is a function of temperature
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BODY-FLUID INTERACTION 2/2

Freestream static pressure

Hydrostatic pressure

Flow at rest case Shear stress

Moving flow case

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AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND
MOMENTS

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 RESULTANT AERODYNAMIC FORCES 1/2
Because of the presence of a distribution of pressure and shear stress
on the profile p(s) and 𝜏(s), in the most general case you have
𝑅 or resulting force
Translation:
This is due to the presence of a resultant force, that is the sum
𝑉 of all the infinitesimally small forces acting on the profile
induced by pressure and shear stress.

In this case you can move R where you want, as long as

orientation and magnitude are the same

𝑀 or moment
Rotation around the center of gravity (which is the
𝑉 geometrical center if wing density is uniform)
Again, this is due to the presence of pressure and
shear stress acting on the wing profile resulting in a
moment.

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RESULTANT AERODYNAMIC FORCES 2/2
It is more practical to decide an application point for the force. So, in general
we have that with respect to that point we have a moment and a force

𝑅
𝑀 When we fix a reference point, R does not change. R is still
a sum of forces, but the moment can generally change
𝑉
because

𝑑(𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝑑(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) × 𝑎𝑟𝑚

And the arm is the distance between dA and the reference

point.

We will see that there is a smart way to choose this point,

𝑉 For now, let’s say that in general you can reassume all the
aerodynamic forces and moments with respect to a point.

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ANGLE OF ATTACK AND PITCH
L.E. 𝑅
Leading edge

𝛼
T.E.
𝑉 Trailing edge

Angle of attack (AOA)

chord
Positive for increasing
+𝑀
pitch and thus lift
Positive sense is for
increasing pitch (i.e.,
increasing lift)

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 LIFT AND DRAG 1/2
𝑁: Normal Lift (𝐿)
𝑅
component Force in the
perpendicular to 𝑉 𝑅

𝛼 Drag (𝐷)
𝛼 Force in the direction
𝑉 of 𝑉
𝑉
𝑀
𝐴⃗: Axial 𝑀
component These components are what we are
interested in:
These components are simpler
and more logic in terms of  How much force is generated in the
calculations vertical direction? Lift
 How much is the resistance of the profile
to the freestream flow?

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 LIFT AND DRAG 2/2
𝑁 𝛼
𝑁
𝑅
𝑅 𝐿
𝐿

𝛼 𝐷
𝛼 𝐷
𝑉
𝑉 𝛼

𝑀
𝐴
𝐴
Note that the angle between N and L,
and D and A is the angle of attack
(AOA or 𝛼) so

𝐿 = 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝐷 = 𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

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 CALCULATION 1/5
Let’s assume that the hard job has already been done for you, i.e., you already know the
pressure p(s) and shear 𝜏(s) distribution on the airfoil or a section of the wing and you
want to calculate lift and drag: 𝜃(𝑠)
Convention: +𝜃 is
𝑦
clockwise
𝑝(𝑠)
+
𝑠
𝜃(𝑠)
𝑥
𝜏(𝑠)
T.E.
L.E.

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 CALCULATION 2/5
It is convenient however to separate the contribution from top (suction side)
and lower (pressure side)
𝜃(𝑠 )
+𝜽
𝑦
𝑝(𝑠 )
𝑠 Upper side
𝜃(𝑠 )
(suction side)
𝑥
𝑦 𝜏(𝑠 )

𝑥
𝑠 Lower side
𝜏(𝑠 ) 𝜃(𝑠 ) (pressure side)
𝑝(𝑠 )

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 CALCULATION 3/5
Now let’s consider the d(force) in the axial and normal direction applied to
an infinitesimal segment ds

𝜃
𝑑𝑁 = −𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑦
𝑝
𝑝
𝑠 𝜃
𝜃
𝑥 𝑑𝐴 = −𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠

𝜏 𝜏

𝑑𝑠

Tangent line to the

profile at s(x)

Upper side contribution Lower side contribution

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 CALCULATION 4/5
Now let’s calculate the moment induced by the force 𝑑𝑁 and 𝑑𝐴 acting on a
segment 𝑑𝑠 with respect to the leading edge L.E.

𝑑𝑁 = −𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 Moment sign

𝑑𝐴 = −𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 convention

𝑠
L.E. 𝑦
𝑥
Upper side contribution

Lower side contribution

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 CALCULATION 5/5

The dash sign indicates that these forces and

moments are calculated for a 2D wing, or a
profile with a depth = 1

More in general, 𝑑𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑑𝑠 × 𝑙

For a 2D case (only profile) we get
these formulas →

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AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS 1/2

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 DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITIES
Can we guess what L,D,N,A, and M if the shape of the profile is the same?
We first need to categorize similar profiles, so as to scale the aerodynamic forces and moments

Dynamic pressure 1
(It is fundamentally the kinetic 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉
2
energy of the flow)

Reference Surface

SPHERE

WING

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 DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITIES
Can we guess what L,D,N,A, and M if the shape of the profile is the same?
We first need to categorize similar profiles, so as to scale the aerodynamic forces and moments

 Dynamic pressure 1
(It is fundamentally the kinetic 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉
2
energy of the flow)

 Reference Surface

SPHERE

WING

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