PHY 308 Acoustics

Speed of sound waves, harmonics sound waves, waves in 3- D, intensities, interference, beats. Standing sound
waves, harmonics analysis and synthesis, wave packets and dispersion, Doppler effects, musical acoustics and
musical instruments, acoustics of buildings, ultrasonic generation and practical application, concept of resonance,
echo and its applications.

Pitch and Frequency

A sound wave, like any other wave, is introduced into a medium by a
vibrating object. The vibrating object is the source of the disturbance that
moves through the medium. The vibrating object
that creates the disturbance could be the vocal cords of
a person, the vibrating string and sound board of a
guitar or violin, the vibrating tines of a tuning fork, or the
vibrating diaphragm of a radio speaker. Regardless of what vibrating object
is creating the sound wave, the particles of the medium through which the
sound moves is vibrating in a back and forth motion at a given frequency.
The frequency of a wave refers to how often the particles of the medium
vibrate when a wave passes through the medium. The frequency of a wave is
measured as the number of complete back-and-forth vibrations of a particle
of the medium per unit of time. If a particle of air undergoes
1000 longitudinal vibrations in 2 seconds, then the frequency of the wave
would be 500 vibrations per second. A commonly used unit for frequency is
the Hertz (abbreviated Hz), where

1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second

As a sound wave moves through a medium, each particle of the medium

vibrates at the same frequency. This is sensible since each particle vibrates
due to the motion of its nearest neighbor. The first particle of the medium
begins vibrating, at say 500 Hz, and begins to set the second particle into
vibrational motion at the same frequency of 500 Hz. The second particle
begins vibrating at 500 Hz and thus sets the third particle of the medium into
vibrational motion at 500 Hz. The process continues throughout the medium;
each particle vibrates at the same frequency. And of course the frequency at
which each particle vibrates is the same as the frequency of the original
source of the sound wave. Subsequently, a guitar string vibrating at 500 Hz
will set the air particles in the room vibrating at the same frequency of 500
Hz, which carries a sound signal to the ear of a listener, which is detected as
a 500 Hz sound wave.

The back-and-forth vibrational motion of the particles of the medium would

not be the only observable phenomenon occurring at a given frequency.
Since a sound wave is a pressure wave, a detector could be used to detect
oscillations in pressure from a high pressure to a low pressure and back to a
high pressure. As the compressions (high pressure) and rarefactions (low
pressure) move through the medium, they would reach the detector at a
given frequency. For example, a compression would reach the detector 500
times per second if the frequency of the wave were 500 Hz. Similarly, a
rarefaction would reach the detector 500 times per second if the frequency
of the wave were 500 Hz. The frequency of a sound wave not only refers to
the number of back-and-forth vibrations of the particles per unit of time, but
also refers to the number of compressions or rarefactions that pass a given
point per unit of time. A detector could be used to detect the frequency of
these pressure oscillations over a given period of time. The typical output
provided by such a detector is a pressure-time plot as shown below.

Since a pressure-time plot shows the fluctuations in pressure over time,

the period of the sound wave can be found by measuring the time between
successive high pressure points (corresponding to the compressions) or the
time between successive low pressure points (corresponding to the
rarefactions). The frequency is simply the reciprocal of the period. For this
reason, a sound wave with a high frequency would correspond to a pressure
time plot with a small period - that is, a plot corresponding to a small amount
of time between successive high pressure points. Conversely, a sound wave
with a low frequency would correspond to a pressure time plot with a large
period - that is, a plot corresponding to a large amount of time between
successive high pressure points. The diagram below shows two pressure-
time plots, one corresponding to a high frequency and the other to a low
frequency.
Frequency, Pitch and Human Perception
The ears of a human (and other animals) are sensitive detectors capable of
detecting the fluctuations in air pressure that impinge upon the eardrum.
The mechanics of the ear's detection ability will be discussed later in this
lesson. For now, it is sufficient to say that the human ear is capable of
detecting sound waves with a wide range of frequencies, ranging between
approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Any sound with a frequency below the
audible range of hearing (i.e., less than 20 Hz) is known as
an infrasound and any sound with a frequency above the audible range of
hearing (i.e., more than 20 000 Hz) is known as an ultrasound. Humans are
not alone in their ability to detect a wide range of frequencies. Dogs can
detect frequencies as low as approximately 50 Hz and as high as 45 000 Hz.
Cats can detect frequencies as low as approximately 45 Hz and as high as 85
000 Hz. Bats, being nocturnal creature, must rely on sound echolocation for
navigation and hunting. Bats can detect frequencies as high as 120 000 Hz.
Dolphins can detect frequencies as high as 200 000 Hz. While dogs, cats,
bats, and dolphins have an unusual ability to detect ultrasound, an elephant
possesses the unusual ability to detect infrasound, having an audible range
from approximately 5 Hz to approximately 10 000 Hz.

The sensation of a frequency is commonly referred to as the pitch of a

sound. A high pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and
a low pitch sound corresponds to a low frequency sound wave. Amazingly,
many people, especially those who have been musically trained, are capable
of detecting a difference in frequency between two separate sounds that is
as little as 2 Hz. When two sounds with a frequency difference of greater
than 7 Hz are played simultaneously, most people are capable of detecting
the presence of a complex wave pattern resulting from
the interference and superposition of the two sound waves. Certain sound
waves when played (and heard) simultaneously will produce a particularly
pleasant sensation when heard, are said to be consonant. Such sound
waves form the basis of intervals in music. For example, any two sounds
whose frequencies make a 2:1 ratio are said to be separated by
an octave and result in a particularly pleasing sensation when heard. That
is, two sound waves sound good when played together if one sound has
twice the frequency of the other. Similarly two sounds with a frequency ratio
of 5:4 are said to be separated by an interval of a third; such sound waves
also sound good when played together. Examples of other sound wave
intervals and their respective frequency ratios are listed in the table below.

Interval Frequency Ratio Examples

Octave 2:1 512 Hz and 256 Hz
Third 5:4 320 Hz and 256 Hz
Fourth 4:3 342 Hz and 256 Hz
Fifth 3:2 384 Hz and 256 Hz

The ability of humans to perceive pitch is associated with the frequency of

the sound wave that impinges upon the ear. Because sound waves traveling
through air are longitudinal waves that produce high- and low-pressure
disturbances of the particles of the air at a given frequency, the ear has an
ability to detect such frequencies and associate them with the pitch of the
sound. But pitch is not the only property of a sound wave detectable by the
human ear.

Check Your Understanding

1. Two musical notes that have a frequency ratio of 2:1 are said to be
separated by an octave. A musical note that is separated by an octave
from middle C (256 Hz) has a frequency of; (a) 128 Hz, (b) 254 Hz, (c)
258 Hz (d) 345 Hz (e) none of the above

Intensity and the Decibel Scale

Sound waves are introduced into a medium by the vibration of an object. For
example, a vibrating guitar string forces surrounding air molecules to be
compressed and expanded, creating a pressure
disturbance consisting of an alternating pattern
of compressions and rarefactions. The
disturbance then travels from particle to particle
through the medium, transporting energy as it
moves. The energy that is carried by the disturbance was originally imparted
to the medium by the vibrating string. The amount of energy that is
transferred to the medium is dependent upon the amplitude of vibrations of
the guitar string. If more energy is put into the plucking of the string (that is,
more work is done to displace the string a greater amount from its rest
position), then the string vibrates with a greater amplitude. The greater
amplitude of vibration of the guitar string thus imparts more energy to the
medium, causing air particles to be displaced a greater distance from their
rest position. Subsequently, the amplitude of vibration of the particles of the
medium is increased, corresponding to an increased amount of energy being
carried by the particles.

Sound Intensity and Distance

The amount of energy that is transported past a given area of the medium
per unit of time is known as the intensity of the sound wave. The greater
the amplitude of vibrations of the particles of the medium, the greater the
rate at which energy is transported through it, and the more intense that the
sound wave is. Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time
ratio is equivalent to the quantity power, intensity is simply the power/area.

Typical units for expressing the intensity of a sound wave are Watts/meter 2.

As a sound wave carries its energy through a two-dimensional or three-

dimensional medium, the intensity of the sound wave decreases with
increasing distance from the source. The decrease in
intensity with increasing distance is explained by the fact
that the wave is spreading out over a circular (2
dimensions) or spherical (3 dimensions) surface and thus
the energy of the sound wave is being distributed over a
greater surface area. The diagram at the right shows that
the sound wave in a 2-dimensional medium is spreading
out in space over a circular pattern. Since energy is
conserved and the area through which this energy is
transported is increasing, the intensity (being a quantity
that is measured on a per area basis) must decrease.

The mathematical relationship between intensity and distance is sometimes

referred to as an inverse square relationship. The intensity varies
inversely with the square of the distance from the source. So if the distance
from the source is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then the intensity is
quartered (decreased by a factor of 4). Similarly, if the distance from the
source is quadrupled, then the intensity is decreased by a factor of 16.
Applied to the diagram at the right, the intensity at point B is one-fourth the
intensity as point A and the intensity at point C is one-sixteenth the intensity
at point A. Since the intensity-distance relationship is an inverse relationship,
an increase in one quantity corresponds to a decrease in the other quantity.
And since the intensity-distance relationship is an inverse square
relationship, whatever factor by which the distance is increased, the
intensity is decreased by a factor equal to the square of the distance change
factor. The sample data in the table below illustrate the inverse square
relationship between power and distance.

Distance Intensity
1m 160 units
2m 40 units
3m 17.8 units
4m 10 units

The Threshold of Hearing and the Decibel Scale

Humans are equipped with very sensitive ears capable of detecting sound
waves of extremely low intensity. The faintest sound that the typical human
ear can detect has an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2. This intensity corresponds to
a pressure wave in which a compression of the particles of the medium
increases the air pressure in that compressional region by a mere 0.3
billionth of an atmosphere. A sound with an intensity of 1*10 -
12
W/m2 corresponds to a sound that will displace particles of air by a mere
one-billionth of a centimeter. The human ear can detect such a sound. WOW!
This faintest sound that a human ear can detect is known as the threshold
of hearing (TOH). The most intense sound that the ear can safely detect
without suffering any physical damage is more than one billion times more
intense than the threshold of hearing.

Since the range of intensities that the human ear can detect is so large, the
scale that is frequently used by physicists to measure intensity is a scale
based on powers of 10. This type of scale is sometimes referred to as a
logarithmic scale. The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale.
The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0 decibels (abbreviated
0 dB); this sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10 -12 W/m2. A sound that is
10 times more intense ( 1*10 -11 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 10 dB. A
sound that is 10*10 or 100 times more intense (1*10 -10 W/m2) is assigned a
sound level of 20 db. A sound that is 10*10*10 or 1000 times more intense
(1*10-9 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 30 db. A sound that is 10*10*10*10
or 10000 times more intense (1*10-8 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 40
db. Observe that this scale is based on powers of 10. If one sound is
10x times more intense than another sound, then it has a sound level that is
10*x more decibels than the less intense sound. The table below lists some
common sounds with an estimate of their intensity and decibel level.

# of Times
Source Intensity Intensity Level
Greater Than TOH
Threshold of Hearing (TOH) 1*10-12 W/m2 0 dB 100
Rustling Leaves 1*10-11 W/m2 10 dB 101
Whisper 1*10-10 W/m2 20 dB 102
Normal Conversation 1*10-6 W/m2 60 dB 106
Busy Street Traffic 1*10-5 W/m2 70 dB 107
Vacuum Cleaner 1*10-4 W/m2 80 dB 108
Large Orchestra 6.3*10-3 W/m2 98 dB 109.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 1*10-2 W/m2 100 dB 1010
Front Rows of Rock Concert 1*10-1 W/m2 110 dB 1011
Threshold of Pain 1*101 W/m2 130 dB 1013
Military Jet Takeoff 1*102 W/m2 140 dB 1014
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 1*104 W/m2 160 dB 1016

The Speed of Sound

A sound wave is a pressure disturbance that travels through a medium by
means of particle-to-particle interaction. As one particle becomes disturbed,
it exerts a force on the next adjacent particle, thus disturbing that particle
from rest and transporting the energy through the medium. Like any wave,
the speed of a sound wave refers to how fast the
disturbance is passed from particle to particle.
While frequency refers to the number of vibrations that
an individual particle makes per unit of time, speed
refers to the distance that the disturbance travels per unit of time. Always be
cautious to distinguish between the two often-confused quantities of speed
(how fast...) and frequency (how often...).

Since the speed of a wave is defined as the distance that a point on a wave
(such as a compression or a rarefaction) travels per unit of time, it is often
expressed in units of meters/second (abbreviated m/s). In equation form, this
is

speed = distance/time

The faster a sound wave travels, the more distance it will cover in the same
period of time. If a sound wave were observed to travel a distance of 700
meters in 2 seconds, then the speed of the wave would be 350 m/s. A slower
wave would cover less distance - perhaps 660 meters - in the same time
period of 2 seconds and thus have a speed of 330 m/s. Faster waves cover
more distance in the same period of time.
Factors Affecting Wave Speed
The speed of any wave depends upon the properties of the medium through
which the wave is traveling. Typically there are two essential types of
properties that affect wave speed - inertial properties and elastic
properties. Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency
of a material to maintain its shape and not deform whenever a force or
stress is applied to it. A material such as steel will experience a very small
deformation of shape (and dimension) when a stress is applied to it. Steel is
a rigid material with a high elasticity. On the other hand, a material such as a
rubber band is highly flexible; when a force is applied to stretch the rubber
band, it deforms or changes its shape readily. A small stress on the rubber
band causes a large deformation. Steel is considered to be a stiff or rigid
material, whereas a rubber band is considered a flexible material. At the
particle level, a stiff or rigid material is characterized by atoms and/or
molecules with strong attractions for each other. When a force is applied in
an attempt to stretch or deform the material, its strong particle interactions
prevent this deformation and help the material maintain its shape. Rigid
materials such as steel are considered to have a high elasticity. (Elastic
modulus is the technical term). The phase of matter has a tremendous
impact upon the elastic properties of the medium. In general, solids have the
strongest interactions between particles, followed by liquids and then gases.
For this reason, longitudinal sound waves travel faster in solids than they do
in liquids than they do in gases. Even though the inertial factor may favor
gases, the elastic factor has a greater influence on the speed (v) of a wave,
thus yielding this general pattern:

vsolids > vliquids > vgases

Inertial properties are those properties related to the material's tendency to

be sluggish to changes in its state of motion. The density of a medium is an
example of an inertial property. The greater the inertia (i.e., mass density)
of individual particles of the medium, the less responsive they will be to the
interactions between neighboring particles and the slower that the wave will
be. As stated above, sound waves travel faster in solids than they do in
liquids than they do in gases. However, within a single phase of matter, the
inertial property of density tends to be the property that has a greatest
impact upon the speed of sound. A sound wave will travel faster in a less
dense material than a more dense material. Thus, a sound wave will travel
nearly three times faster in Helium than it will in air. This is mostly due to the
lower mass of Helium particles as compared to air particles.
The Speed of Sound in Air
The speed of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties of the air,
mostly the temperature, and to a lesser degree, the humidity. Humidity is
the result of water vapor being present in air. Like any liquid, water has a
tendency to evaporate. As it does, particles of gaseous water become mixed
in the air. This additional matter will affect the mass density of the air (an
inertial property). The temperature will affect the strength of the particle
interactions (an elastic property). At normal atmospheric pressure, the
temperature dependence of the speed of a sound wave through dry air is
approximated by the following equation:

v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)•T

where T is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius. Using this equation
to determine the speed of a sound wave in air at a temperature of 20
degrees Celsius yields the following solution.

v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)•T

v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)•(20 C)

v = 331 m/s + 12 m/s

v = 343 m/s

(The above equation relating the speed of a sound wave in air to the
temperature provides reasonably accurate speed values for temperatures
between 0 and 100 Celsius. The equation itself does not have any theoretical
basis; it is simply the result of inspecting temperature-speed data for this
temperature range. Other equations do exist that are based upon theoretical
reasoning and provide accurate data for all temperatures. Nonetheless, the
equation above will be sufficient for our use as introductory Physics
students.)

Using Wave Speed to Determine Distances

At normal atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius, a
sound wave will travel at approximately 343 m/s; this is approximately equal
to 750 miles/hour. While this speed may seem fast by human standards (the
fastest humans can sprint at approximately 11 m/s and highway speeds are
approximately 30 m/s), the speed of a sound wave is slow in comparison to
the speed of a light wave. Light travels through air at a speed of
approximately 300 000 000 m/s; this is nearly 900 000 times the speed of
sound. For this reason, humans can observe a detectable time delay
between the thunder and the lightning during a storm. The arrival of the light
wave from the location of the lightning strike occurs in so little time that it is
essentially negligible. Yet the arrival of the sound wave from the location of
the lightning strike occurs much later. The time delay between the arrival of
the light wave (lightning) and the arrival of the sound wave (thunder) allows
a person to approximate his/her distance from the storm location. For
instance if the thunder is heard 3 seconds after the lightning is seen, then
sound (whose speed is approximated as 345 m/s) has traveled a distance of

distance = v • t = 345 m/s • 3 s = 1035 m

If this value is converted to miles (divide by 1600 m/1 mi), then the storm is
a distance of 0.65 miles away.

Another phenomenon related to the perception of time delays between two

events is an echo. A person can often perceive a time delay between the
production of a sound and the arrival of a reflection of that sound off a
distant barrier. If you have ever made a holler within a canyon, perhaps you
have heard an echo of your holler off a distant canyon wall. The time delay
between the holler and the echo corresponds to the time for the holler to
travel the round-trip distance to the canyon wall and back. A measurement
of this time would allow a person to estimate the one-way distance to the
canyon wall. For instance if an echo is heard 1.40 seconds after making
the holler, then the distance to the canyon wall can be found as follows:

distance = v • t = 345 m/s • 0.70 s = 242 m

The canyon wall is 242 meters away. You might have noticed that the time of
0.70 seconds is used in the equation. Since the time delay corresponds to
the time for the holler to travel the round-trip distance to the canyon wall
and back, the one-way distance to the canyon wall corresponds to one-half
the time delay.

While an echo is of relatively minimal importance to humans, echolocation is

an essential trick of the trade for bats. Being a nocturnal creature, bats must
use sound waves to navigate and hunt. They produce short bursts of
ultrasonic sound waves that reflect off objects in their surroundings and
return. Their detection of the time delay between the sending and receiving
of the pulses allows a bat to approximate the distance to surrounding
objects. Some bats, known as Doppler bats, are capable of detecting the
speed and direction of any moving objects by monitoring the changes in
frequency of the reflected pulses. These bats are utilizing the physics of the
Doppler effect discussed in an earlier unit (and also to be discussed later in
Lesson 3). This method of echolocation enables a bat to navigate and to
hunt.
The Wave Equation Revisited
Like any wave, a sound wave has a speed that is mathematically related to
the frequency and the wavelength of the wave. As discussed in a previous
unit, the mathematical relationship between speed, frequency and
wavelength is given by the following equation.

Speed = Wavelength • Frequency

Using the symbols v, λ, and f, the equation can be rewritten as

v=f•λ

The above equation is useful for solving mathematical problems related to

the speed, frequency and wavelength relationship. However, one important
misconception could be conveyed by the equation.
Even though wave speed is calculated using the
frequency and the wavelength, the wave speed
is not dependent upon these quantities. An
alteration in wavelength does not affect (i.e.,
change) wave speed. Rather, an alteration in
wavelength affects the frequency in an inverse manner. A doubling of the
wavelength results in a halving of the frequency; yet the wave speed is not
changed. The speed of a sound wave depends on the properties of the
medium through which it moves and the only way to change the speed is to
change the properties of the medium.

Exercise
1. An automatic focus camera is able to focus on objects by use of an
ultrasonic sound wave. The camera sends out sound waves that reflect
off distant objects and return to the camera. A sensor detects the time
it takes for the waves to return and then determines the distance an
object is from the camera. If a sound wave (speed = 340 m/s) returns
to the camera 0.150 seconds after leaving the camera, how far away is
the object?

Answer = 25.5 m

The speed of the sound wave is 340 m/s. The distance can be found using d
= v • t resulting in an answer of 25.5 m. Use 0.075 seconds for the time
since 0.150 seconds refers to the round-trip distance.
 2. On a hot summer day, a pesky little mosquito produced its warning
sound near your ear. The sound is produced by the beating of its wings
at a rate of about 600 wing beats per second.
a. What is the frequency in Hertz of the sound wave?
b. Assuming the sound wave moves with a velocity of 350 m/s,
what is the wavelength of the wave?

Part a Answer: 600 Hz (given)

Part b Answer: 0.583 meters

Let = wavelength. Use v = f • λ where v = 350 m/s and f = 600 Hz.

Rearrange the equation to the form of λ = v / f. Substitute and solve.

3. Doubling the frequency of a wave source doubles the speed of

the waves. True/False

4. Playing middle C on the piano keyboard produces a sound with a

frequency of 256 Hz. Assuming the speed of sound in air is 345
m/s, determine the wavelength of the sound corresponding to
the note of middle C.

Answer: 1.35 meters (rounded)

Let λ = wavelength. Use v = f • λ where v = 345 m/s and f = 256 Hz.

Rearrange the equation to the form of λ = v / f. Substitute and solve.

5. Most people can detect frequencies as high as 20 000 Hz.

Assuming the speed of sound in air is 345 m/s, determine the
wavelength of the sound corresponding to this upper range of
audible hearing.

Answer: 0.0173 meters (rounded)

Let λ = wavelength. Use v = f • λ where v = 345 m/s and f = 20 000

Hz. Rearrange the equation to the form of λ = v / f. Substitute and
solve.

6. An elephant produces a 10 Hz sound wave. Assuming the speed

of sound in air is 345 m/s, determine the wavelength of this
infrasonic sound wave.

Answer: 34.5 meters

 Let λ = wavelength. Use v = f • λ where v = 345 m/s and f = 10 Hz.
Rearrange the equation to the form of λ = v / f. Substitute and solve.

7. Determine the speed of sound on a cold winter day (T=3 degrees

C).

Answer: 332.8 m/s

The speed of sound in air is dependent upon the temperature of air.

The dependence is expressed by the equation:
v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C) • T
where T is the temperature in Celsius. Substitute and solve.
v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C) • 3 C
v = 331 m/s + 1.8 m/s
v = 332.8 m/s

8. Miles Tugo is camping in Glacier National Park. In the midst of a glacier

canyon, he makes a loud holler. He hears an echo 1.22 seconds later.
The air temperature is 20 degrees C. How far away are the canyon
walls?

Answer = 209 m

The speed of the sound wave at this temperature is 343 m/s (using the
equation described in the Tutorial). The distance can be found using d
= v • t resulting in an answer of 343 m. Use 0.61 second for the time
since 1.22 seconds refers to the round-trip distance.

9. Two sound waves are traveling through a container of unknown

gas. Wave A has a wavelength of 1.2 m. Wave B has a
wavelength of 3.6 m. The velocity of wave B must be __________
the velocity of wave A.

(a.) one-ninth (b) one-third, (c) the same as (d) three times
larger than
The speed of a wave does not depend upon its wavelength, but
rather upon the properties of the medium. The medium has not
changed, so neither has the speed.

10. Two sound waves are traveling through a container of

unknown gas. Wave A has a wavelength of 1.2 m. Wave B has a
wavelength of 3.6 m. The frequency of wave B must be
__________ the frequency of wave

(a) one-ninth (b) one-third, (c) the same as (d) three times
larger than Since Wave B has three times the wavelength of
Wave A, it must have one-third the frequency. Frequency and
wavelength are inversely related.