PHYSICAL SCIENCE

UNIT 1: MATTER
(Week 1)
Lesson 1: The Cosmic Origin of the Elements Part 1
It All Started in the Big Bang, and The Formation of Light Elements

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how light elements are
formed in the Big Bang Theory.

What is the Big Bang Theory?

 Explains the primordial creation and expansion of space in the beginning of
time.
 The most accepted wide theory that the vast universe grew out of something
where all matter and energy where compressed to infinite density and heated
to trillions of degrees.

1. A second after the explosion, the universe was filled with quarks that combined to
form protons and neutrons.
2. Moments later, protons and neutron combined and matter began to take form, light
elements hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium was formed through the process
called Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.

What is Big Bang Nucleosynthesis?

 The process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons primarily protons
and neutrons.

The Big Bang predicts that the early universe was a very hot place, too hot that even the
particles proton and neutron are destroyed during collision. Since it is defined that Big Bang is
the expansion of space, we should understand that as the universe expands, it cools.

One second after the explosion the temperature slowly decreases to a point that is enough
for the protons and neutrons to combine and that is where the Big Bang nuclear synthesis started.
As defined earlier, nuclear synthesis occurs when protons and neutrons combine.
Neutron + proton= deuteron
 Deuteron an isotope of hydrogen is formed
Remember: the identity of an atom comes from the number of protons in its nucleus.
(H- 1proton, He- 2protons, Li-3protons, Be-4protons, so on) this means that no elements or
atoms have the same number of protons. Looking at the periodic table, the elements are
arranged according to the increasing number of protons called atomic number.

When, deuteron+1 neutron= triton is formed

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 But it is still hydrogen since it has only 1 proton regardless of the number of neutrons in
it.
(insert picture)
The figure above shows that hydrogen has three isotopes, they all have the same number of
proton but differ in the number of neutrons, which what we call isotopes.

1 deuteron+1deuteron=Helium (2 protons and 2 neutrons) or when triton+1proton=He

He+ triton=Li (3protons and 4 neutrons)
This shows that there are many ways to form atom through the collision of isotopes.

PRACTICE!
1. He (2-p, 2 n) + He (2-p, 2 n) =

Now since Li and Be are heavier, it requires a lot of energies to form that is the reason
why there are only a portion of this elements in the universe compared to H and He. The
universe is said to contain a 75% H and 25% He. 2-p, 2 n)

Light from distant galaxies are from glowing elements which emits spectra of a particular
frequencies primarily H and He. Since the universe continues to expand, minutes after the
explosion, the temperature continues to drops making the particles unable to combine due to the
insufficient amount of energies. Particles bounces back during collision are formed. That is how
this light elements are formed in the early universe through the process of what we call big bang
nucleosynthesis.
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Lesson 2: The Cosmic Origin of the Elements Part 2

The Form Heavy Elements

In your previous lesson, you have learned how the light elements such as H, He, Li, and
Be are formed through the process called Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.

The continuous expansion of the universe decreases the temperature which is needed for
collision of particles. But since the temperature of the universe cools down, protons and neutrons
can no longer form another element. The question now is,

How do the heavier elements form after the big bang?

Ca in your bones, K in Bananas, NaCl in salt. Since heat is needed to form another
element, where do you think does particles get heat in order for this elements to be formed?

In this lesson, we will learn about how does elements heavier than beryllium are formed
during the star formation and evolution through the process called Stellar Nuclear Synthesis.

Objective: At the end of this lesson the students should be able to explain the formation of
heavier elements during star formation and evolution.

Fomation of heavier elements happens million years after the explosion. That is the time
when a vast cloud of gas and dust called nebula starts to collapse due to the action of gravity. In
the geologic blink of an eye a hundred thousand years, gravity pulled the clouds together creating
a protostar. (insert picture). In the center where molecules crush together pressure and
temperature rise up incredibly then the new born star becomes hot enough for nuclear fusion to
occur starting the process called Stellar Nuclear Synthesis.

Stellar Nuclear Synthesis

 Is the process by which elements are formed within the stars as a result of nuclear
fusion.
Nuclear Fusion
 Is the process by which multiple nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus.

Since the stars are composed primarily of hydrogen, the first fusion process occurs at the
hydrogen core of the stars such as the sun with the temperature of less than 15 million Kelvin.
In the process known as the main branch proton-proton chain deuteron an isotope of
hydrogen forms He3 when fused with a proton which is known as the Diotherium burning. This
immediately consumes all the deuteron produced in the early universe.
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This nuclear fusion produces tremendous amount of light, heat and radioactive energy (the
gamma ray)
The heat that we get from the sun is the result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen to form He.
Since He is heavier than Hydrogen, and as more and more hydrogen is burned into He, the core
of the star becomes comprised with a helium as hydrogen is depleted the star now have a very
dense helium core and a hydrogen shell due to this process, the temperature and density of a core
of the star increases to 100 million kelvin. The stars thermal pressure causes it to push out the
gas and causes the star to become a red giant. Because of this increase temperature, several
nuclear fusion processes will occur in red giant aside from hydrogen fusion.

Types of Nuclear Fusion

1. Triple Alpha Process
o Alpha particle refer to helium-4
o This reaction involves three He-4 atoms in the following steps.
 He-4( 4p, 2n) +He-4( 4p, 2n)= Be (8p,4n)
 Be-8(8p,4n)+He-4(4p,2n)=C12(12p,6n)
2. Carbon Fusion Cycle or CNO Cycle
o This process uses C12 as a catalyst that facilitate the production of He 4.
o This Cycle is involved in the repeated proton capture and Beta plus decay
 (insert picture of nuclear symbol)
 Remember that each element has a unique number of protons and that the
table of elements is arranged base on the increasing number of protons.

Alpha Fusion processes continue in the core via Alpha Ladder. More and more particles
are fused to create heavier elements all the way to iron making the core and the star itself more
massive.
 The C12 produce in the triple fusion process will also react with He producing the
element O
 C12(12mass number,6p)+He4(4mass number, 2p)= O(16mass number, 8p)
 To determine what element is formed in the reaction, we simply consider the
atomic number
 The Alpha ladder reacts continues oxygen reacts with He.
 O(16mass number,8p)+ He4( 4mass number,2p)= Ne(20 mass number, 10p)
PRACTICE!
1. Ne+He4=
2. Mg+He4=
3. Si+He4=
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Alpha Fusion continue in the core via the alpha ladder. These Alpha particles create
heavier elements all the way to iron making the core the star. If these are the only elements that
are formed in the star, what about the element heavier than iron?

The star keeps growing. As it accumulates mass up to the point where the star will
eventually be unable to generate energy to push against gravity due to the formation of heavier
elements thus causing it to collapse on itself. It then undergoes planetary nebula for a medium
size star like our sun or supernova for massive stars.

Supernova releases tremendous amount of energy enough to synthesize elements heavier

than iron. Therefore, element heavier than iron are formed during supernova explosion. This
process is done through the r-process that involves rapid capture of neutrons by the atom other
heavy elements are also synthesized through s-process (slow capture of neutron) involving slow
neutron capture in red giants.

After the explosion, the stars like ours become a white dwarf and later on become a black
dwarf like a stone lost in space. While massive stars either become a neutron star or a black
whole.
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Lesson 3: Alchemy to Chemistry

Objective: At the end of the lesson, learners describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks
on the atom and the elements.

What comes in your mind when you hear the word alchemy? Have you seen or heard
about the k-drama alchemy of souls? Or have you heard in fantasy stories, about charlatans in
fancy robes promises to turn lead into gold?

We often misinterpret alchemy into mystical misers or magic. But real alchemists are
actually skilled experimentalists, backed by theories of matter. They played a huge role in the
development of knowledge.

Does chemist today spend a lot of time trying to turn lead into gold? They don’t, but in
part, they are inheritors of a wealth of knowledge created by alchemist.

Let’s define alchemy as a way of thinking philosophically about stuff by changing it.
Alchemist had different social norms, or ideas about how someone creating knowledge should
act. They also publish books but encoded their philosophies in complicated allegories or stories
wherein the characters and actions stand for something other than what they appear. They use
code words called Decknamen. Their books where illustrated but many of the images were
symbols masking their true meanings. They don’t have exact scientific method.

A lot of alchemical books focused on transmutation, or changing metals into other

metals. In theory, Aristotle states that transmutation mimicked a natural process: metals were
compounds, formed deep in the earth when different quantities of sulfur and mercury were
crushed together.

At the heart of alchemy was the quest to turn ordinary metals into gold. Despite the
hopelessness of that goal, alchemist still made a lot of discoveries that formed the foundation of
modern chemistry and medicine. Through the years alchemy faded and the chemistry that we
know today emerged.
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Lesson 4: The Structure of the Atom Part 1

Discovery of Subatomic Particles

Let us recall again what is atom. Atom is the building blocks of matter, and matter is
anything that occupies space and has mass. It is the smallest distinguishable particle according to
its properties and characteristics. It came from the word “atomos” meaning indivisible. This is
because atom is are the smallest stable unit of matter and we cannot further divide it into smaller
parts.

However, William Crookes who invented the crookes tube in 1869. He was a british
physicist who discovered that an atom or each atom is made up of the same 3 subatomic
particles. He discovered this when he applied a high voltage on the 2 different electrodes, which
is the cathode or the negatively charged electrode and the anode which is the positively charged
electrode. He discovered that during the voltage application, electrodes are emitted from the
cathode and proceed to the anode. With further investigation he found out that all of the atoms
are individually made up of the same subatomic particles which are the electron, proton, and
neutron.

These subatomic particles make every type of atom distinct because every atom has its
own number of proton, electrons, and neutrons. Scientist later on created different types model of
atom. (insert picture) as seen in the picture, nucleus is in the center composed of protons and
neutrons. The orbital path around the nucleus is the orbital path of the electrons that surrounds
the nucleus. But in reality it is infinite.

Properties and Characteristics of Atom

Electron- was discovered by Joseph John Thompson a British physicist who used the same
experimental device of William Crookes the crookes tube. He found out that the cathode or the
negative electrodes were over 1000 times lighter than a hydrogen atom. He also clarified that
the mass of all the cathode rays remained the same despite having different sources of atom. He
concluded that the cathode rays were very tiny and it’s negatively charged particle. He initially
called this as corpuscles which we now call as electrons. The mass of the electrons is
9.110x10^(-28)g. The exact size of an electron is still wasn’t figure out but it could be estimated
to be approximately less than 10^(-12) cm in diameter. It is around 1800 times smaller than
neutrons and protons

Protons- Eugene Goldstein a German physicist was the first to discover that protons exist. He
performed an experiment in 1886 with modifies cathode-ray tube constructed from a metal disk
with holes. He saw the positive rays behind the cathodes as well as the stream of electrons
released by the cathode. As the cathode rays knocked electrons out of neutral gaseous atoms,
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positive charges were produced. Different particles were formed when different gases were used.
When hydrogen gas was used, all of the positive charges were multiples of the value received.
However, it was Joseph John Thompson who discovered the proton’s existence. He measured the
proton’s mass to be about 1837 times that of an electron, showing that it is a particle. Its relative
charge is (+1) is the same magnitude as the electron’s charge but has the opposite symbol. The
proton has a mass that is just simply smaller than that of hydrogen atom. A proton’s relative
mass is 1amu, while its real mass is 1.67310(-24)g.

Neutron- discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. This particle has a relative mass of about 1
amu and has neither a positive nor negative charge. It has a mass of 1,67510(-24)g, which is
slightly greater than a proton.

These subatomic particles composed of an atom. They are indivisible from each other since
they are electrically attracted to each other by their distinctive charges. These subatomic particles
are made up all atoms. Yet we have various distinct atoms. This is because every atom has a
distinct number of subatomic particles, which affects its properties and characteristics.
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Lesson 5: The Development of Atomic Theory

These days, most people including us are aware of what an atom is, and accepted that
they make up the things around us. But, how does this atom develop? Or what is the atomic
theory of an atom?

In this lesson we will be dealing with the history of the development of atom.

Democritus (460-370 BCE) is a Greek Philosopher who first propose that matter is
comprised of fundamental indivisible particles, which he called “atomos”. Though this marks the
first time matter was viewed in this way, it was more of a philosophy than real science and no
supporting evidence was for a long time.

Then John Dalton came along and provided the first empirical evidence that atoms exist.
He proposed that compounds consist of different types of atoms, and that chemical reactions
involve the rearrangement of those atoms to give new combinations. This idea explained certain
observations. For example, when a sample of water was split into hydrogen and oxygen, the
result was always 1/9 hydrogen and 8/9 oxygen by mass. In atomic theory, this makes sense, if
we understand that water is made up of tiny molecules that always have the same amount of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Then how much water there is, it will always have the same ration
of hydrogen to oxygen by number of atoms and also by mass. It also explained the way a certain
elements combine to form different compounds. If carbon reacts completely with either a certain
mass of oxygen or precisely double that mass of oxygen that probably means every single carbon
atom is bonding to either exactly one or exactly two carbon atoms. This was the first solid
evidence that atoms exist. However, we soon discovered that Dalton’s atoms were not the
fundamental, indivisible unit of matter that Democritus envisioned. JJ Thompson showed that the
atom must consist of smaller particles when he discovered the electron. He proposed his plud
pudding model.

Ernest Rutherford took it further with his gold foil experiment. He fired positively
charged alpha particles which are very tiny, at a thin foil gold. He was shocked that almost all of
them passed right through to the detector on the other side, but around 1/8000 scattered wildly
and with high energy in random directions. This suggested that the positive charges in the atom
are highly condensed in the center of the atom which was given the name “nucleus” and that the
negatively charged electrons were far away, making the atom 99.95% empty space. That’s why
alpha particles typically pass right through. But if they are just perfectly aligned to strike the
nucleus, the huge repulsion between the positive charges makes them fly violently in a different
direction. So, we arrived at a model that looks like this (insert picture).
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Lesson 6: Polarity of Molecules

The word molecules have their infinite and beautiful variety. In order to
breakdown and understand it more, we classify and categorize them. One of the most
important of those classifications is whether a molecule is polar or non-polar.

Let’s demonstrate this two, imagine you squeeze a whole butter with your bear hands,
after which you wash your hands with just pure water. What do you think will happen? Will you
totally wash off the butter in your hand? No right? Why do you think so? It is because water is a
polar molecule, and the various chemicals that make up butter are non-polar.

So, what makes a molecule polar?

First, there is asymmetrical electron distribution around the molecule. You can’t have a
molecule made up of entirely of the same element because those atoms will all have the same
electronegativity, and thus the electron distribution will be completely symmetrical.

 Electronegativity – is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons.

Type of Bond

Electronegativity increases from left

to right because there are more protons in
Pure Covalent Polar covalent Ionic the atoms, and more protons mean more
(Zero) (low) (High)
attraction. But covalent character decreases
when ionic character increases. This is
because as the crowd of electrons gets
bigger, they start to shield each other from the effects of protons. Let’s just say that if a bunch of
other electrons are into that thing, they’re less interested. So, for polarity to occur in a
molecule, you have to have two different elements at a minimum, and the difference
between their electronegativity has to be 0.5 or greater. The result is primarily negative
charge on the more electronegative part of the molecule and a partially positive charge on the
less electronegative side. Now in extreme cases, like if the electronegativity is greater than 1.6,
then we end up with two ions in the same molecule. Another requirement for polarity: you
got to have geometrical asymmetry. In order for a molecule to be polar, there has to be a
dipole moment, which is a separation of the charge around the molecule into a more
positive area and a more negative area.

Water and its useful little dipole moment can dissolve more compounds than any other
chemical on Earth. Dish soap thus able to dissolve the fatty parts of the butter catastrophe,
because they are consist of polar and non-polar which we call Hybrid Molecule.
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Lesson 7: Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

In this lesson, we will be dealing with intermolecular forces of attraction. But in order to
understand it more let us have a short demonstration. Have you heard about the inter barangay
basketball league, this is called inter barangay because lots of different barangays are involved.

Now, when we say intermolecular this means that there are different molecule involve.
So what are intermolecular forces of attraction? These are the forces that causes molecules to
be attracted to each other.

Different types of forces of attraction

1. London Dispersion Forces

 Let’s say that you have two neutral atoms, since they are neutral how do they
attract?
 Because electrons always move, sometimes their charges become unstable and
most of the electrons reach the other side of an atom that results the other side to
be slightly positive and the other side to be slightly negatively charge which we
refer as instantaneous dipole. This phenomenon is not permanent. However, if
this happens, other molecules also move and create instantaneous dipole, causing
to have an attraction. This force is what we call London Dispersion Forces.
 This force is the weakest type of intermolecular force because they are not
permanent. Their strength of force depends on their electrons.

2. Dipole- Dipole Forces

 Polarity is needed in this force because only polar molecules experience dipole-
dipole forces.
 For example oxygen, being non-polar molecules their electrons is evenly
distributed. While in water being a polar molecule, their electrons are not evenly
distributed. They have slightly positive and slightly negative side; therefore, it has
a dipole. That is why only polar molecule experience dipole-dipole forces.
 To simply put it, the opposite charges of this molecule attracts.

Hydrogen bonding

 Is a special type of dipole-dipole force this is the strongest form of this force.
 Basically hydrogen bonding is a bonding of hydrogen and other highly electro negative
atom specifically nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine. (ammonia or NH3) composed of 3 hydrogen
and 1 nitrogen. Since this is a polar molecule, it has slightly negative side and slightly
positive charge, which causes attraction which what we call hydrogen bonding.
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Lesson 8: Structure, Properties, and Uses of Materials

If we look around us, we could observe that everything is made up of different materials.
Some common materials include; metal, plastic, wood, rubber, and glass. Each of these
materials has its own unique properties that make it useful for different purposes.

 Metal is usually strong and durable.

 Plastic- often lightweight and flexible

Scientist and Engineers use these materials to create all sorts of amazing things.

Activity:

List at least 5 things that can be made of from these materials. (Metal, Plastic,
Wood, Rubber and Glass,)

Now let take a look of these different materials where they come from and how they are use.

Wood- is a natural material that comes from trees which grow in forest and plantation. It
is a versatile material that is used for thousands of years to build houses, furniture etc. It has
properties that make them suitable for different uses.

Metals – came from minerals found in earth’s crust. They are strong, durable and can be
shape and manipulated in a variety of ways. There are different types of metals depending on its
uses. Metals are used in many products, from cars, airplanes to electronics and medical devices.
They are valued for their strength, conductivity, and the ability to withstand extreme
temperatures and pressures. Some common metals include iron, aluminum, copper and gold.

Ceramics- a type of material made from clay which is a mixture of minerals and organic
materials. The clay is molded and shape and fires to create hard durable material. This is used in
many products, from dishes and tiles, to electronic components and false teeth.

Glass- is made from silica which is a naturally occurring mineral. To create glass, silica
is melted at high temperatures then cooled rapidly to form a hard, transparent material. This is
used in many products from windows and mirrors to eyeglasses and smartphone screens. It also
has the ability to transmit light. Also used in camera lenses as well as for fiber optic cables which
transmit information using light waves.

Fabric- a type of material made from fibers that are woven or knitted. It can come from
natural sources such as cotton or wool or silk, or from synthetic sources like polyester or nylon.
Fabric is used in many products, form clothing, bedding, and car seats. It is valued for its
softness, comfort, and versatility. It has different properties for different uses. For example,
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cotton is breathable and absorbent making it ideal for clothing and bedding. Polyester is durable
and resistant to wrinkles making it suitable for outdoor wear and sports wear.

Plastic- is a synthetic or man-made material made from fossil fuels like oil and natural
gas. Plastic can be molded and shaped into a wide range of forms and used for a variety of
applications. Plastics are used in many products, from food packaging and disposable cups to car
parts and electronic. They are valued for their durability, versatility, and low cost. However,
plastics can take a long time to biodegrade and can have negative impacts on the environment
due to the energy intensive production process and incorrect disposal of plastic waste. This is
why it’s important to reduce our use of single-use plastics and reuse and recycle as much as
possible.

Understanding the unique properties of each material is crucial in choosing the right
material for the right object. Whether wood for furniture, glass for smartphone screens or fabric
for clothing. Each material has its own strengths and weaknesses. By selecting the right material
we can create products that are not only functional and long lasting but also sustainable and eco-
friendly.
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Lesson 9: Biomolecules

I want you to think of your favorite food. What is it? We all have different food
preferences, but do you know that food is a source of large molecules that are needed for life
called biomolecules also known as macromolecules.

These biomolecules are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids. In

different types of food, you might find higher amounts of these biomolecules. For example, who
among you here loves peanut butter? Well, peanut butter can be high in both proteins and lipids.

In this lesson, we will be discussing these different types of biomolecules and their
importance to the structure and function of cells, and therefore, also to the entire organism
because organisms consist of cells.

Before we continue, let use first have a vocabulary. We have the word monomer, it is a
building block. If we have some large substance, the parts that make up that substance are called
monomers.

Types of Biomolecules

Carbohydrates- food sources such as bread, pasta, fruit, and vegetables tend to be high in
carbohydrates. The monomer of a carbohydrate is the monosaccharide. One example of a
monosaccharide is the sugar glucose. Glucose is very importance because it is used in cellular
respiration to make an ATP, an energy currency.

If two monosaccharides are combined, such as glucose you can get disaccharide.

+ =

For example, when you put two glucose sugar together, you’ll get the disaccharide maltose.

If you join a lot of monosaccharide together, you can make a polysaccharide.

There different types of carbohydrates; Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Lactose, and

Sucrose.

How are carbohydrates important to an organism and the structure and function of its cells?
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Well some living organisms have cell walls that are made of carbohydrates such as plants
(cellulose) and fungi. We also mentioned that glucose is used to make ATP that makes
carbohydrates a fast source of energy for cells. this means that carbs is a major source of energy.

This energy can be stored in polysaccharide form such as starch for plants, or glycogen
for animals.

Lipids- include fats and oils (butter, or olive oil). This means that there lots of types of
lipids. There are triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids. Most lipids have building blocks of
glycerol and fatty acids. Lipids are hydrophobic or at least contain a significant hydrophobic
component. That means lipids or at least a major component of them doesn’t like water. They
dissolve in water.

How are lipids important to an organism and the structure and function of its cells? Well,
all cells have membranes. These lipids make up cell membrane structure. Lipids have a major
function of being a source of long-term energy storage. Lipids are also very important for
different types of insulation. Insulation may involve helping a cell carry an electrical impulse, or
may also involve temperature regulation. Lipids also act as hormones which are chemical
messengers from many different processes.

Proteins- Protein food sources include beans, meat, nuts, and eggs. The monomer of a
protein is amino acid. Proteins are consist of many amino acids bounded together. And there are
different types of amino acids.

How is protein important to the structure and function of cells?

Structure wise, tissue like muscle tissue, consist heavily of proteins. Proteins can make up
all kinds of other structures like hair, or collagen. Proteins can also be found embedded in cell
membrane as protein channels. These channels are important for letting substances pass through.
Proteins can also be receptors which are critical in cell signaling. Most enzymes are made of
proteins. Antibodies which are made up of antibodies also are made up of proteinswhich are
involved in protecting your body. Some critical hormones such as insulin are proteins. Genes are
which are made up of DNA also code for proteins, which will lead us to our last biomolecule.

Nucleic Acid- nucleic acid includes DNA and RNA. Nucleic acid have a monomer called
a nucleotide.

How are nucleic acids important in you cells?

All genetic information are in the form of nucleic acids DNA and RNA which is needed
for the coding of your traits, which are involved in structure and various functions.
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Lesson 10: The Nature of Chemical Reactions

You know how sometimes you go to bake a cake but your bananas have all gone rotten,
your utensils have rusted, you trip and pour all of your baking soda into the vinegar jug, and then
your oven explodes? Why do you think this happens?

These chemical reactions have fallen victim to enthalpy and entropy. These reactants are
all products.

Enthalpy- refers to the increase or decrease of energy during a chemical reaction. Every
molecule has a certain amount of chemical potential energy stored within the bonds between its
atoms. Chemicals with more energy are less stable, and thus more likely to react.

Let’s visualize the energy flow in a reaction, the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, by
playing around of crazy golf. Our goal is to get a ball, the reactant, up a small rise and down the
other much steeper slope. Where the hill goes up, we need to add energy to the ball, and when it
goes down, the ball releases energy into its surroundings. The hole represents the product or the
result of the reaction. When the reaction period ends, the ball is inside the hole, and we have our
product: water. This, like when an oven exploded, is an exothermic reaction, meaning that the
final energy is less than its starting energy. And the difference has been added to the surrounding
environment as light and heat. We can also play out the opposite type of reaction, an
endothermic reaction, where the final energy is greater than the starting energy. That’s what we
were trying to achieve by baking our cake, the added heat from the oven would change the
chemical structure of the proteins in the eggs and various compounds in the butter. Exothermic
reactions are more likely to happen than endothermic ones, because they require less energy to
occur.

Entropy- measures a chemical’s randomness. Let’s have another demonstration. Here’s

an enormous pyramid of golf balls. Its ordered structure means it has low entropy. However,
when it collapses, we have chaos everywhere, balls bouncing high and wide so much so that
some even go over the hill. This shift to instability, or higher entropy, can allow reactions to
happen. In actual chemicals, this transition from structure to disorder gets some reactants past the
hump and lets them start a reaction.

You can see both enthalpy and entropy at play when you go to light a campfire to cook
dinner. Your match adds enough energy to activate the exothermic reaction of combustion,
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converting the high energy combustible material in the wood, to lower energy carbon dioxide
and water. Entropy also increases and helps the reaction along because the neat organized log of
wood is now converted into randomly moving water vapor and carbon dioxide.

Lesson 11: How is Energy Produced and Managed

. Let us begin with defining what is energy?

In general, energy is defined as the ability to do work. And energy can be found in almost
everything and everywhere (digesting food requires chemical energy). Now the question is if we
can find energy in almost everywhere why do we hear energy crisis?

According to the Law of Conservation of Energy (Thermodynamics):

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed: energy can only be transferred or
changed from one form to another. If this is the case, is there any need to worry about
running out of energy? That is why we need to understand fully the concept of energy.

Energy comes from different forms and can be used in different ways through conversion
(ex. leaving a hot water in an air conditioned room) the hot water will eventually turn cold
because of heat loss. Is there any way to collect back the heat loss to turn the water hot again?
No, there isn’t. The best thing to do is to look for conventional or non-renewable energy.

Conventional /non-renewable Energy Source will run out of supply once consumed because
they are only present in limited amounts. (oldest sources of energy)

Renewable Energy Sources are replenished naturally over a short time.(the sun, the wind etc.)
(can be used again and again and will never run out)

Sources of Energy

1. Fossil Fuels – comes from organic remains of pre- historic organisms, ex. of this are
hydrocarbons such as oil, coal, and natural gas. (coal is the world’s largest source of
fossil fuel, comparably affordable and is readily obtainable. It harnesses energy from the
sun). Oil in the form of gasoline is used as engine fuel for vehicles and in generators etc.
Heating applications use natural gas and coal. However, fossil fuel is known to pollute
the environment. Its reservoir is limited and will last for 100 years.
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2. Biogas- can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure,
municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste. It is a renewable
energy source.

When bacteria decompose manure without oxygen into a gas mixture, composed of about
60 to 70% methane biogas is obtained, which is important in generating heat, hot water,
or electricity. The left over manure can be used as fertilizer and potting soil. Biogas
enables farmers to produce their own electricity and reduce pollution, and global
warming emissions caused by animal waste.

3. Geothermal- this energy optimizes heat energy from the earth’s crust. This energy heat
up rocks affecting the ground water. Once the ground water becomes so hot, it turns into
an underground steam then this steam is used to drive turbines that generate electricity. It
is said that geothermal energy is the main source of energy of the Visayan region. It is
clean, sustainable, and environment friendly. However, it can only be produced at
selected sites.

4. Hydrothermal Power plant- usually associated with dams since there are only few
waterfalls exists in the country. It is the kinetic energy and potential energy of falling
water that is being converted to produce electricity. It is produced from the heat obtain
from the hot water from the hydrothermal vents or sea water in contact with hot rock
beds. Hot water from hydrothermal vents is collected into heat exchanger. The heat from
the water is transferred to another fluid which evaporates and drives the turbines to
generate electricity.

5. Batteries- it is a device that store and convert chemical energy into electricity. Some are
rechargeable, and some are not. The energy produced from a chemical reaction.
However, they do not have carbon dioxide emissions. When it is connected to an external
circuit, the electrolytes move within the battery and the chemical reactions are completed
at the two terminals of the battery. The movement of electrons generates the current and
generates the electricity and sends to the external circuit.

6. Solar Cells- the energy derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation is
directly converted into electricity. This energy will continue to renew until the sun ceases
to exist. Solar cells system mostly has these three main parts:

 Modules- converts sunlight into electricity

 Inverters- were electricity is being converted into alternating current or ac so
it can be used by most household appliances
 Battery- that store the excess electricity produced by the system
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7. Biomass – refers to the organic matters and waste from plants and animals such as
compost, crop remnants and garbage. Plants get the energy from the sun through the
process of photosynthesis, pass through animals upon consumption. Biomass is used to
produce alcohol and methane which are fuels useful in energy manufacture and running
coils. The materials of biomass are burnt to generate heat, by burning the biomass in the
boiler, the generated heat is used to produce steams which drive a turbine to produce
electricity. One of its issue is that it produces a large amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere which also causes air pollution.
8. Thermal Power plant- Heat energy is being produced and converted into electricity by
burning a large amount of fossil fuels which are burnt in power stations.

9. Wind Power- The energy from the wind is being harnessed by the wind turbines,
converting the wind into mechanical energy.

Lesson 12: Household Chemicals and Personal Care Products

Activity: Collect any 2 household products or personal care products that can be found in your
homes (soap, lotion, skin cares etc.). After collecting, look at the ingredients of the product and
do the following:

 Look at the ingredients of the product and do some research of each benefits and negative
effects it brings.
 Answer: Why do you think it is important to study the ingredients of every products?
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I. Fill in the Blanks (5 items)

1. The process that formed light elements like hydrogen and helium in the early universe is
called _____________ _______________.

2. _____________ is the subatomic particle discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

3. The scientist who proposed the "plum pudding" model of the atom was _____________.

4. _____________ bonding is the strongest type of intermolecular force.

5. The primary source of quick energy for cells is _____________.

II. True or False (5 items)

1. ____ Alchemy is considered the precursor to modern chemistry.

2. ____ Protons have a negative charge.
3. ____ Lipids are hydrophilic molecules.
4. ____ The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy can be created but not destroyed.
5. ____ Solar power is considered a non-renewable energy source.

III. Multiple Choice (10 items)

1. Which of the following is NOT a fossil fuel?

a) Coal b) Natural gas c) Oil d) Biogas

2. What type of chemical reaction releases energy to its surroundings?

a) Endothermic b) Exothermic c) Isothermic d) Adiabatic

3. Which ancient Greek philosopher first proposed the idea of atoms?

a) Aristotle b) Plato c) Socrates d) Democritus

4. What is the main component of biogas?

a) Oxygen b) Carbon dioxide c) Methane d) Hydrogen

5. Which subatomic particle is found in the nucleus of an atom?

a) Electron b) Proton c) Positron d) Muon

6. What is the monomer of a protein?

a) Glucose b) Fatty acid c) Amino acid d) Nucleotide
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7. Which of the following is an example of a polar molecule?

a) O2 b) CH4 c) H2O d) CCl4

8. What type of energy is stored in the chemical bonds of molecules?

a) Kinetic energy b) Potential energy c) Thermal energy d) Nuclear energy

9. Which of the following is NOT a type of biomolecule?

a) Carbohydrates b) Lipids c) Proteins d) Minerals

10. What is the primary function of nucleic acids in cells?

a) Energy storage b) Genetic information c) Enzyme catalysis d) Membrane structure

IV. Essay Questions (3 items)

1. Name three renewable energy sources and three non-renewable energy sources. Pick one
renewable source and explain why you think it's good for the environment.

2. Why is it important to read the ingredients list on household products or personal care
items? Give an example of an ingredient you might want to avoid and explain why.