MATH RESEARCH

MODULE 1
applications in various disciplines.

Linear qualities in two variables refer to relationships where the change in one variable is directly
proportional to the change in the other variable. This means that if one variable increases by a
certain amount, the other variable will increase or decrease by a constant multiple of that amount.
Here's a breakdown:

Key Characteristics: - Straight Line: When plotted on a graph, a linear relationship between two
variables always forms a straight line. - Constant Rate of Change: The change in one variable is
always the same for every unit change in the other variable. This is represented by the slope of the
line. - Equation Form: Linear relationships can be expressed mathematically using the equation: y =
mx + c, where: - y is the dependent variable. - x is the independent variable. - m is the slope of the
line, representing the rate of change. - c is the y-intercept, the point where the line crosses the y-
axis.

Example: Imagine you're driving a car at a constant speed. The distance traveled is directly
proportional to the time (x). If you drive for twice the time, you'll travel twice the distance. This
relationship is linear.

Real-World Applications: Linear relationships are found in various real-world scenarios, including: -
Cost and Quantity: The total cost of a product is directly proportional to the number of units
purchased. - Speed and Distance: The distance traveled at a constant speed is directly proportional
to the time spent traveling. - Temperature and Volume: For a fixed mass of gas, the volume is
directly proportional to the temperature.

Understanding Linear Relationships:

By recognizing linear qualities in two variables, you can predict how changes in one variable will
affect the other. This understanding is crucial in fields like: - Economics: Analyzing supply and
demand curves. - Physics: Studying motion and force relationships. - Statistics: Predicting trends
and making estimations. In summary, linear qualities in two variables describe a direct proportional
relationship between two variables, characterized by a straight-line graph and a constant rate of
change. This fundamental concept has wide-ranging

MODULE 2
A System of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables consists of two or more inequalities that are solved
together to find a common solution region. Each inequality represents a half-plane on a Cartesian
coordinate system, divided by a boundary line. The boundary line is derived from the equation ax +
by = c, where a, b, and care constants, and y are variables. To graph the inequalities, the boundary
line is first plotted, using a solid line if the inequality includes ≤ or >, and a dashed line if it involves
< or >. Then, one side of the line is shaded to represent the region satisfying the inequality. For a
system of inequalities, the solution is the overlapping shaded region that satisfies all the
inequalities simultaneously. This method is commonly used in optimization problems and real-
world applications, such as determining feasible solutions in business, economics, and
engineering.

MODULE 3
DEFINITION OF RELATION‼️:

•A relation in math is a set of ordered pairs defining the relation between two sets.

Any set of ordered pairs (x, y) is called a relation in x and y.

• The set of first element in the ordered pairs is called the domain of the relation.

• The set of second element in the ordered pairs is called the range of the relation.

Relations can be one to one, one to many, or many to one.

A relation can be represented in different ways: by a list of ordered pairs, mapping diagram, table of
values, graph, or by an equation

DEFINITION OF FUNCTION‼️:

•A function is a relation for which each value from the domain(x) is associated with exactly one
value from the range (y). Functions can be either one to one or many to one.

•A functional relationship is usually represented by a function rule where the dependent variable, y,
is expressed in terms of the independent variable, x.

•In the example above the cost, y, for x kilograms of apples will be given by y = 16,00x. The cost, y,
depends on the number of kilograms, x, of apples bought.

MODULE 4
A linear function is a type of mathematical function that creates a straight line when graphed on a
coordinate plane. It is characterized by a constant rate of change between the dependent and
independent variables. This constant rate of change is represented by the slope, and the formula
for a linear function is typically written as: Where: is the output (dependent variable), is the slope
(rate of change), is the input (independent variable), is the y-intercept, which is the point where the
line crosses the y-axis. For example, if a function is defined by, it means that for every unit increase
in , increases by 2, and the line crosses the y-axis at 3. Linear functions are widely used in real-life
situations where there is a constant rate of change, such as calculating costs, distances, or prices
over time.

MODULE 5
Linear functions represent a relationship between two variables where the rate of change is
constant. These functions are typically written in slope-intercept form as , where is the rate of
change (slope), and is the initial value (y-intercept). In the context of the problem presented, Rico
gains weight at a constant rate of 2 kilograms per month. After 8 months, he weighs 86 kilograms.
The goal is to determine Rico's initial weight and develop a linear equation to represent his weight
over time. In solving problems like this, the first step is to identify the independent and dependent
variables. The independent variable is time (measured in months), while the dependent variable is
weight (measured in kilograms). Using the constant rate of change, the linear equation can be
established, where represents Rico’s weight at time , and is his weight at the start. By substituting
the given values into the equation, we can determine and predict future or past weights. Linear
functions have numerous applications in real-life scenarios, such as predicting trends, tracking
growth, or analyzing changes over time. For example, they are used to model population growth,
business revenues, or temperature changes. A similar example involves a high school where the
student population increased from 1,200 in 2003 to 1,500 in 2006. Using the linear function , where
is the population and is the time in years since 2003, one can determine the population in future
years. The foundation of solving such problems lies in understanding the relationship between
independent and dependent variables and recognizing the constant rate of change that defines a
linear function. This process demonstrates the practicality and versatility of linear equations in
solving mathematical and real-world problems.

MODULE 6
In math, the hypothesis of an if-then statement is the part that comes after the "if" and the
conclusion is the part that comes after the "then". For example, in the statement "If a number is
even, then it is divisible by 2," the hypothesis is "a number is even" and the conclusion is "it is
divisible by 2". If-then statements are also known as conditional statements. The symbol "→" is used
to represent the relationship between the two statements. Here are some more examples of if-then
statements:

1. "If a square is a rectangle, then a rectangle is a quadrilateral." Hypothesis: "A square is a

rectangle." Conclusion: "A rectangle is a quadrilateral."

2. "If 5 divides evenly into a number, then the number ends in 0 or 5." Hypothesis: "5 divides evenly
into a number." Conclusion: "The number ends in 0 or 5."

3. "If a triangle has three congruent sides, then it is an equilateral triangle." Hypothesis: "A triangle
has three congruent sides." Conclusion: "It is an equilateral triangle."
MODULE 7
Conditional Statement (If-Then Statement) A conditional statement is a statement of the form: "If p,
then q."

Notation: p→q p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent). q is called the conclusion (or
consequent). Example: "If it rains, then the ground will be wet." p: It rains. q: The ground will be wet.

Converse The converse of a conditional statement switches the hypothesis and the conclusion: "If
q, then p." Notation: q→p Example: Original: "If it rains, then the ground will be wet." Converse: "If
the ground is wet, then it rained."

Inverse The inverse of a conditional statement negates both the hypothesis and the conclusion: "If
not p, then not q." Notation: —p→—q Example: Original: "If it rains, then the ground will be wet."
Inverse: "If it does not rain, then the ground will not be wet.

Contrapositive The contrapositive of a conditional statement negates both the hypothesis and the
conclusion and switches their positions: "If not q, then not p." Notation: —q→—p Example: Original:
"If it rains, then the ground will be wet."

Contrapositive: "If the ground is not wet, then it did not rain.

MODULE 8
Understanding the Equivalence of Two Statements in Logic

In logic, when we discuss the equivalence of two statements, we are saying that these statements
are logically identical, they always have the same truth value no matter what the situation is. There
are several ways that two statements can be equivalent in logical reasoning, and here are some
important ideas:

1. Logical Equivalence of Two Statements: Two statements pand q are considered logically
equivalent if they always produce the same truth value in every possible scenario. This is
often written as p q, which means "p is true if and only if q is true."

Example: Statement 1: "If it rains, then the ground is wet" (p → q). Statement

2: "If the ground is not wet, then it did not rain" (¬q → ¬p). These two statements are logically
equivalent because they have the same truth value in all situations. 2. Equivalence of
Conditional Statements: Two conditional statements can also be equivalent if they share the
same truth value. For instance: Statement 1: p → q(If p happens, then q happens).
Contrapositive:¬q → ¬p (If q does not happen, then p did not happen).
 These two statements are logically equivalent. This means if p → q js true, then ¬q → ¬p is also
true, and the opposite is also true.

Converse and Inverse Equivalence: The converse and inverse of a statement are also connected
in terms of equivalence: -

Original Statement: p → q

Converse: q → p Inverse: ¬p → ¬q –

Contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p

Equivalence:

The converse and inverse are logically equivalent to each other. This means p → q is equivalent
to ¬p → ¬q. The original statement and the contrapositive are also logically equivalent, meaning
p → q is equivalent to ¬q → ¬p.

4. Biconditional Statements: Another type of equivalence is the biconditional statement. A

biconditional statement, often denoted as p q, means that both p → q and q → p are true. In
other words, p is true if and only if q is true.

Example: Statement: "A figure is a square if and only if it has four equal sides and four right
angles." Symbolic form: p q (p is the figure is a square, q is the figure has four equal sides and
four right angles).

The truth of one part implies the truth of the other, and vice versa. In summary, logical
equivalence is a critical concept in mathematical logic and reasoning, allowing us to
understand when different statements, despite appearing different, are in fact logically
identical.

MODULE 9
Deductive reasoning is when you move from a general conclusion to a specific one When you take
two true statements, or premises, to form a Conclusion

Example: (i) A= B, all dolphins are mammals

B=C, all mammals have kidneys

A= C, all dolphins have kidneys

(ii) All dogs have four legs. Arjun's pet is a dog.

Therefore, Arjun's pet has four legs

For further understanding: Deductive reasoning is a logical process where conclusions are derived
from general principles or premises. It involves moving from broad statements or theories to
specific conclusions based on logical implications.
 In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true and the logical steps are valid, the conclusion must
also be true. It's commonly used in mathematics, philosophy, and formal logic to construct proofs
and validate arguments. Deductive reasoning provides a methodical approach to establishing truth
and making predictions based on established principles. Inductive Reasoning is the process of
observing data, recognizing pattern and making generalization (conjecture) from these
observations. Inductive reasoning is a method of thinking that involves drawing general conclusions
based on specific observations or examples. It starts with details, identifies patterns or trends, and
then forms broader generalizations or theories. It is widely used in science, problem-solving, and
daily decision-making, its conclusions are not guaranteed to be certain and may change with new
evidence.

MODULE 10
Proving Theorems is the heart of geometry and mathematics. Mathematics is all about proving
because only it is only after the proof is produced that it earns the right to be called a theorem.
These proofs can be shown either directly or indirectly as the direct proofs need to show that the
conclusion is proved to be true while indirect proofs need to show that all the alternatives are false.
Theorems are statements that need to be proven using deductive reasoning. The given conditions
formed are the hypothesis and the part of the statement needed to be proved is a conclusion.
Theorems can either be written as a conditional sentence or declarative sentence. The hypothesis
of a theorem is underlined once while the conclusion is underlined twice. The first theorem can be
written as an If-then form or it can be written as a conditional sentence and that of the second
theorem as a declarative sentence. If a theorem is written in a conditional form, then the If-clause
give the hypothesis. After that the then-clause gives the conclusion. If the theorem us written in a
declarative sentence, then the whole subject of the sentence is the hypothesis while the complete
predicate gives the conclusion. The tool used to prove a theorem is called a deductive reasoning.
This type 9f reasoning uses accepted facts in a step-by-step manner until the required proof is
achieved. A proof is a logical statement in which each statement is supported by a given
information, definitions, postulates and previously probed theorems. A postulate is something that
is known or accepted as a fact or true without proof. There are four steps in proving theorems. Step
one is to understand the theorem to determine the given condition and what is needed to be
proved. The second step is to make a plan. Try to recall some definition of terms, postulates and
previously proven theorems which are related to the given topic, you can start to work on the
expected conclusion of the proof first to plan the logical arguments needed. The third step is to
carry out the plan, decide how you will present the proof and what form of proof will you use. There
are multiple way to write proofs but it is suggested to use the two column form for beginners. The
fourth and last step is to look back and read the statements for the given condition, the statements
to be proved and look over to the illustration of the figure. Check if it is properly presented the given
condition and go over the proofs to see if each statements flows logically from the first to the last
statement and lastly check if the reason or justification for each of the statements are valid. There
are three ways of writing proofs. The first one is the two-column form in which the form of writing
proofs in each statement in the logical arguments are written in the left hand column and the
reason for each of the statements are written directly across the right hand column. The second
one is the paragraph form where you write a paragraph to explain why a statement in an argument is
true. The last one is the flow chart form where is is a way of writing proof where a series of
statements are organized in logical order using boxes and arrows. Each statement are together with
its reason or justification written in a box, the arrows are used to show how each statements leads
to another.