The relationship between the stress and strain -material's Stress-Strain curve.

found by
recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or
compressive loading (stress). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material
(including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E).
Stress–strain curves of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests
conducted on the same material yield different results, depending upon the
temperature of the specimen and the speed of the loading.

O-A:
From O on the diagram represents the original undeformed, unloaded condition of the
material. Asthe material is loaded, both stress and strain increase, and the plot
proceeds from O to A. If the material is unloaded before A is reached, then the plot
would proceed back down thesame line to O. If the material is unloaded anywhere
between O and A, then it will return to its original shape, like a rubber band. This type
of behavior is termed Elastic and the region between O and A is the Elastic Region.
The Stress-Strain curve also appears linear between O and A. In this region stress and
strain are proportional. The constant of proportionality is called the Elastic Modulus
or Young's Modulus(E). The relationship between stress and strain in this region is
given by Equation:

A-B:
From A to B is a process called yielding. B is the yielding point. At this point, the
material undergoes permanent deformation even when the stress is removed. The
stress at which this transition occurs is known as the yield stress. Beyond the yield
point, the material enters the plastic region. In this region, the material continues to
deform plastically with increasing stress but the relationship between stress and strain
may not be linear again.

B-C:
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or, more simply, the tensile strength, is the
maximum engineering stress level reached in a tension test. The strength of a material
is its ability to withstand external forces without breaking. In brittle materials, the
UTS will at the end of the linear-elastic portion of the stress-strain curve or close to
the elastic limit. In ductile materials, the UTS will be well outside of the elastic
portion into the plastic portion of the stress-strain curve.On the stress-strain curve
above, the UTS is the highest point where the line is momentarily flat. Since the UTS
is based on the engineering stress, it is often not the same as the breaking strength. In
ductile materials strain hardening occurs and the stress will continue to increase until
fracture occurs, but the engineering stress-strain curve may show a decline in the
stress level before fracture occurs. This is the result of engineering stress being based
on the original cross-section area and not accounting for the necking that commonly
occurs in the test specimen. The UTS may not be completely representative of the
highest level of stress that a material can support, but the value is not typically used in
the design of components anyway. For ductile metals the current design practice is to
use the yield strength for sizing static components. However, since the UTS is easy to
determine and quite reproducible, it is useful for the purposes of specifying a material
and for quality control purposes. On the other hand, for brittle materials the design of
a component may be based on the tensile strength of the material

C-D:
From C to D is process called necking. Point D is the fraction point or failure point.
This point show that the material is ultimately fails either by fracture or excessive
deformation. This is typically observed as a sudden drop in stress after reaching the
UTS.

The term use in :

Elastic Deformation: This refers to the reversible deformation of a material under

applied stress, where the material returns to its original shape when the stress is
removed. In the stress-strain diagram, the elastic region is characterized by a linear
relationship between stress and strain, governed by Hooke's Law.

Plastic Deformation: Plastic deformation occurs when a material undergoes

permanent deformation even after the applied stress is removed. This typically begins
after the material surpasses its yield point. In the stress-strain diagram, the plastic
region shows a nonlinear relationship between stress and strain, indicating irreversible
deformation.

Yield Point: The yield point is the stress level at which a material transitions from
elastic to plastic deformation. It signifies the onset of permanent deformation in the
material. The yield stress is the stress value corresponding to the yield point.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)**: The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum
stress a material can withstand before failure. It is represented by the highest point on
the stress-strain curve and indicates the material's resistance to breaking under tension.

Young's Modulus (E): Young's modulus is a measure of a material's stiffness or

resistance to deformation in the elastic region. It is calculated as the ratio of stress to
strain within this region and is represented by the slope of the linear portion of the
stress-strain curve.

Brittle Fracture: Brittle fracture refers to the sudden and catastrophic failure of a
material without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials tend to break under
stress without warning, often with little deformation prior to failure.

Ductile Deformation: Ductile deformation is the opposite of brittle fracture, where a

material undergoes significant plastic deformation before eventual failure. Ductile
materials can stretch and deform considerably before reaching their breaking point.
Understanding these terms helps in interpreting stress-strain diagrams and predicting
how materials will behave under different loading conditions, which is crucial in
engineering and materials science for designing reliable and safe structures and
components.

Necking :The term "necking" is used in engineering and materials sciences to

describe the localized reduction of cross-sectional area of a specimen under tensile
load. Necking occurs when an instability in the material causes its cross-section to
decrease by a greater proportion than the strain hardens when undergoing tensile
deformation. If the material begins to harden by a smaller proportion than the
decrease in cross-sectional area, strain concentrates at the location of highest stress or
lowest hardness. The greater the local strain, the greater the local decrease in cross-
sectional area, which in turn causes even more concentration of strain, leading to an
instability that causes the formation of a neck. Necking behavior is disregarded in
calculating engineering stress but is taken into account in determining true stress.

EXPLAIN HOW TO GET 0.2 offset yield strength.

It is difficult to detect at which point the material changes from elastic to plastic. In
such cases, 0.2% offset yield strength is calculated to distinguish the elastic and
plastic region. It is defined as the stress value corresponding to the 0.2% plastic strain.
This is also called as proof stress and sometimes denoted asR_p0.2.

This 0.2% offset value is often mentioned in the material certificates by material
suppliers. For fragile materials the offset is 0.05% - 0.1% because the plastic
deformation is small.

In the following section, the R_p0.2 value will be calculated for a stress-strain curve.
Figure 1.2 depicts a typical stress-strain curve for a ductile metal. The curve is in the
near elastic region, so has low strain values along the X axis. The 0.2% offset yield
strength is calculated by constructing a parallel line offset by 0.002 strain to the linear
stress-strain line.
Young’s modulus (E) can be found through the linear elastic part of the curve. It is
basically the slope of the linear part of the stress-strain curve (Elastic region). Here
we will discuss how to calculate the slope in excel. The ‘SLOPE’ function in excel
returns the slope of the linear regression line through the given data points.

Figure 1.3 depicts the stress-strain (marked in green) points selected from columns B
and C to calculate the slope (Young’s modulus). The X data points are selected as
Stress (N/m2) values starting from 3.56E+06 N/m2 to 1.29E+08 N/m2 whereas for Y
data points, Strain [-] values are selected from 2.44E-05 to 8.89E-04.

This can be done by selecting any cell in excel, then type ‘=slope’ in that cell. Then
select known Y values first and then select known X values separated by a comma as
discussed above and hit enter to get the final result. The calculated slope value in
excel is 147 GPa.

Young’s modulus can even be calculated by choosing two points and finding the
slope by a two-point-slope equation. There might be some difference in the final
answers by both methods.\
 \
Calculate the 0.2% offset Stress-Strain values
All the strain values are offset by 0.2% strain that is 0.002 strain. This is done by
adding 0.002 to every strain value in column B. Equation 2, shows the calculation for
the first strain point ‘2.44E-05’. Similarly, after adding 0.002 to every strain value in
column B we get column E (figure 1.4), which is 0.2% offset strain values.

0.0000244 + 0.002 = 0.0020244

(2)

For calculating 0.2% offset stress, all the strain values from column B should be
multiplied with the calculated Young’s modulus. This gives the linear behavior of the
stress line which is parallel to the elastic part of the curve. So, basically we are
considering a complete linear behavior for all stress-strain points. Equation 3 shows
calculation of the 0.2% offset stress value for the first point. Similarly, calculating the
0.2% offset stress for every value we get column F (figure 1.4).

0.2% offset yield stress = Strain * Young's modulus

0.2% offset yield stress = 0.0000244 * 147.3E+09 = 3.59E+06 Pa

(3)

Now, plot the Column E and F data which is 0.2% offset stress-strain data. This will
be a straight line parallel to the linear elastic region of the stress-strain curve.