Mathematical & Statistical foundation for Computer Applications

Module-3

#Correlation & Regression

*correlation:-Two variables are said to be correlated if the change in one variable results
in a corresponding change in the other variable.
-That is, when two variables move together, we say they are correlated.
-For example, when the price of a commodity rises, the supply for that commodity also rises.
-On the other hand, if price falls the supply also falls.
- So both variables move together or they move in sympathy.
-Hence price and supply are correlated.

→Types of correlation/different kinds of correlation

● Positive and negative correlation:-Correlation can be either positive or negative.
-When the values of two variables move in the same direction, correlation is said to
be positive .
- an increase in the value of one variable results into an increase in the value of the
other variable also or if a decrease in the value of one variable, results into a
decrease in the value of the other variable also correlation is said to be positive.
-If on the other hand, the value of two variables move in opposite directions so that
an increase in the value of one variable, results in to a decrease in the value of the
other variable or the decrease in the value of one variable results into an increase in
the value of the other variable the correlation is said to be negative.
-Generally, price and supply are positively correlated because when price increases
supply also increases and when price comes down supply follows.
-Correlation between price and demand is said to be inverse or negative because
with a fall in price, demand goes up and with a rise in price, demand comes down.
->example
-In example 1, both x and y increase.
-In example 2, both x and y. Decrease.
-In example 3, x increases but y decreases.
-In example 4, x decreases but y increases.
-So x and y are positively correlated in
ex-amples 1 and 2 while they are negatively correlated in examples 3 and 4.

● Linear and non-linear correlation:-Correlation may be linear or non linear.

-When the amount of change in one variable leads to a constant ratio of change in
the other variable, correlation is said to be linear.
 -For example if price goes up by 10% it leads to a rise in supply by 15% each time,
then there is a linear relation between price and supply.
-When there is linear correlation, the point plotted on a graph will give a straight line.
-Generally we do not find linear correlation in the economic and social phenomena
because of the influence of multiple and complex factors on the variable.
->example

x: 20 25 30 35 40

y: 30 37.5 45 52.5 60

-In this example there is linear relationship as there is the ratio 2:3 at all points.
- If we plot these points, they will lie on a straight line.

-Correlation is said to be non linear (or curvilinear), when the amount of change in
one variable is not in constant ratio to the change in the other variable.
-In the case of curvilinear correlation, the ratio of change fluctuates and is never
constant.
● Simple, Multiple and Partial correlation:-The correlation is said to be simple when
only two variables are studied.
-The correlation is either multiple or partial when three or more variables are
studied.
-The correlation is said to be Multiple when three variables are studied
simultaneously.

*methods for studying correlation /measures of correlation:-correlation

between two variables can be measured by both graphic and algebraic method.
-Scatter diagram are graphic methods and coefficient of correlation is an algebraic method
used for measuring correlation.

1. Scatter diagram:-This is a graphical method of studying correlation between two

variables.
-One of the variables is shown on the X-axis and the other on the Y-axis.
-Each pair of values is plotted on the graph by a dot mark.
-After, all the items are plotted we get as many dots on the graph paper as the
number of points.
-If these points show some trend either upward or downward, the two variables are
said to be correlated.
-If the plotted points do not show any trend, the two variables are not correlated.
- If on the other hand the tendency is reverse so that the points show a downward
trend from the left top to the right bottom, correlation is negative.
-The scatter diagram is a visual show the presence or absence of correlation
between two variables.
-A line of best fit can be drawn using the method of least square. This line will be as
close to the points as possible. If the points are falling very close to this line, there is
very high degree of correlation.
- If they lie very much away from this line it shows that the correlation is not much.
->example

-answer

-From the three scatter diagrams we can say that there is positive correlation
between x and y in the set 1,
-there is negative correlation between x and y in the set 2 and there is no correlation
between x and y in the set 3.

→Merits of Scatter diagram are;

● It is easy to plot the points.
● It is simple to understand.
● Abnormal values in the data can be easily detected.
● The extreme values do not affect it.

→Demerits of Scatter diagram are;

● The degree of correlation cannot be easily estimated.
● Algebraic treatment is not possible.
 ● When the number of pairs of observations is either very big or very
small, the method is not easy.

2. Coefficient of correlation:- Coefficient of correlation is an algebraic method of

measuring correlation.
-Under this method, we measure correlation by finding a value known as the
coefficient of correlation using an appropriate formula.
-Correlation coefficient is a numerical value.
- It shows the degree or the extent of correlation between two variables.
-Coefficient of correlation is a pure number lying between -1 and +1.
-When the correlation is negative, it lies between-1 and 0.
-When the correlation is positive, it lies between 0 and 1.
-When the coefficient of correlation is zero, it indicates that there is no correlation
between the variables.
-When the correlation coefficient is 1, there is perfect correlation.
-Between no correlation and perfect correlation there are varying degrees of
correlation.
-Coefficient of correlation can be computed by applying the methods given below:
1. Karl Pearson's method
2. Spearman's method
3. Concurrent deviation method
'
*Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation (KPCC):-Of the several
mathematical methods of measuring correlation the Karl Pearson's method,
popularly known as Pearsonian coefficient of correlation, is most widely used.
-Karl Pearson, the great biolo-gist and statistician has given a formula for calculation
of coefficient of correlation.
-The pearsonian coefficient of correlation is denoted by the symbol 'r'.
-The formula for computing pearsonial Coefficient of correlation is r=

- where =Standard deviation of x series.

- = Standard deviation of y series.

-and n = Number of pairs of observations.

-This is also known as product moment correlation coefficient.
-The above formula can be expressed in the following form also
->example: calculate coefficient of correlation

x: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

y: 4 5 6 12 9 5 4

-answer
->example 2

-ans:
→example 3
→Properties of Correlation Coefficient
● Correlation coefficient has a well defined formula.
● Correlation coefficient is a pure number and is independent of the units of
measurement.
● It lies between -1 and +1.
● Correlation coefficient does origin or change with reference to change of origin or
change of scale.
● Coefficient of correlation between x and y is same as that between y and x.

*probable Error:-Probable error of the coefficient of correlation is a statistical measure

which measures reliability and dependability of the value of coefficient of correlation.
-If probable error is added to or subtracted from the coefficient of correlation it would give
two such limits within which we can reasonably expect the value of coefficient of correlation
to vary.
-Usually the coefficient of correlation is calculated from samples.
-For different samples drawn from the same population the coefficient of correlation may
vary.
- But the numerical value of such variations is expected to be less than the probable error.
-The formula for finding probable error is
Probable Error =

-where 'r' stands for the cor- relation coefficient

-and 'n' number of pairs of observation.

-The quantity is known as standard error of correlation co- efficient.

→Interpretation of coefficient of correlation on the basis of probable error

● If the coefficient of correlation is less than its probable error,it is not at all significant.
● If the coefficient of correlation is more than six times its probable error, it is
significant.
● If the probable error is not much and if the coefficient of correlation is .5 or more it
is generally considered to be significant.

→example 1
-if r=.6 and n=64 find probable error and standard error?
ans:
 =0.08
-since probable error is very small the correlation is significant.

*Rank Correlation:-Karl Pearson's Coefficient is applicable when variables are mea-sured

in quantitative form.
-But in many cases measurement is not possible because they are in quantitative form.
-For example, we cannot measure the beauty or intelligence quantitatively.
-But it may be possible, in their case, to rank the individuals in some order.
-The correlation coefficient obtained from the ranks so obtained is called rank correlation.
-Therefore rank correlation is the correlation obtained from ranks,instead of their
quantitative measurement.
-Thus, when the values of two variables are expressed in ranks and thereform correlation is
obtained, that correlation is known as rank correlation.
-Spearman has devised a formula known as Spearman's rank correlation coefficient to find
the correlation coefficient from the ranks.
-According to spearman's method, the formula for Rank Correlation Coefficient is

-where 'D' = difference between ranks

- n = number of items.
->example-1
->example-2
*Repeated rank/Tie in Rank:-when the value is repeated in one or both the series we
add a correction factor is

To

Rank correlation coefficient =

-m =number of times each value repeats.

->example 1
 = 0.545 (pg:H 17)

→Merits and Demerits of Rank correlation

-Merits
● It is easy to calculate.
● It is simple to understand.
● It can be applied to both quantitative and qualitative data.
-Demerits
● Rank correlation coefficient is only approximate measure as the actual values are not
used.
● It is not convenient when 'n' is large.
● Further algebraic treatment is not possible.

*Uses of Correlation
● It helps to study the Association between two variables.
- For example, we can examine whether there is any relation between sale and profit,
with the help of correlation.
● Correlation measures degree of relation between two variables.
-Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation provides a formula for finding the degree of
relation between two variables.
● From the correlation coefficient, we can develop a measure called probable error.
-Probable error indicates whether the correlation is significant or not.
● Correlation analysis helps to estimate the future values.
-For example, from the correlation coefficient between income and investment one
can predict the possible quantum of investment for a particular amount of income.

#Regression Analysis:-a in the general sense, means the estimation or the prediction
of the unknown value of one variable from the known value of the other variable.
- It is a statistical device used to study the relationship between two or more variables that
are related.
→Dependent and Independent Variables
-In regression analysis there are two types of variables.
-The vari-able whose value is influenced or is to be predicted is called dependent variable.
-and the variable which influences the values or is used for pre-diction, is called independent
variable.

→Simple and multiple regression

-On the basis of number of variables, regression can be classified into simple and multiple
regressions.
-when there are only two variables the regression equation obtained is called simple
regression equation.
-in multiple regression analysis there are more than two variables and we try to find out the
effect of two or more independent variables on one dependent variable.

→Linear and Non-Linear Regression

-On the basis of proportion of changes in the variables, the regression can be classified into
Linear and Non-linear regressions.
-If the given bivariate data are plotted on a graph, the points so obtained on the scatter
diagram will more or less concentrate around a curve, called 'curve of regression'.

-If the regression curve is a straight line, we say that there is linear regression between the
variables.
- If the curve of regression is not a straight line, then the regression is termed as curved or
non-linear regression.
-The regression equation in such cases is not of first degree.
-In this case the dependent variable does not change by a constant amount of change in the
independent variable.

→Line of best fit (Regression line)

-When the given bivariate data are plotted on a graph, we get the scatter diagram.
- If the points of the scatter diagram concentrate around a straight line, that line is called the
line of best fit.
-That is, the line of best fit is that line which is closer to the points of the scatter diagram.
-This line is also known as Regression line.
-So a regression line is a graphic technique to show the functional relationship between the
dependent and the independent variables.
-It shows average relationship between the variables.
*Method of drawing regression lines:-The regression lines can be drawn by the two
methods
1. Free hand curve method
2. The method of least squares.

→Freehand Curve method:-A freehand curve method is an easy method for obtaining a
regression line.
-According to this method original data are plotted on a graph paper.
-Usually original data when plotted on a graph gives a wave like curve but it depicts a
general tendency of the data. Or Original data typically produces a wave-like curve when
plotted on a graph, but this curve only represents the data's overall tendency.
-Independent variable is taken along the horizontal axis and dependent variable along the
vertical axis.
-We draw a smooth freehand line in such a way that it clearly indicates the tendency of the
original data.

->Example : The following are the price in thousands of Rupees and Corresponding supply.

→Method of least squares (Curve fitting):-it is a method of drawing regression line by

applying principle of least squares.
-The principle of least squares is that principle which states that the line of best fit should be
drawn in such a manner that the sum of the squares of difference between the known
values of the dependent variable and the corresponding values of it obtained from the line
of best fit should be the least.
 should be the least where yo stands for known (or given) values of

dependent variable and ye stands for the corresponding value of the dependent variable
obtained from the line.

-The difference between given y values and y values obtained from the line of best fit are
respectively d₁, d₂ ,.......
-Therefore principle of least squares states that the line of best fit be so drawn such that
d₁²+ d₂² +......... is minimum.

*Regression Equations:-Regression equations are the equations of the regression lines.

-Regression equation is a mathematical relation between the dependent and the
independent variables.
-There are two regression lines and therefore there are two regression equations.
(i) Regression equation of y on x.
(ii) Regression equation of x on y.

→Derivation of regression equation of y on x when the relation is linear

→example note pg: 1 to 5 or textbook pg: H* 7 (imp annu)

→Relation between correlation coefficient and regression coefficient

->example 2 pg: 6 to 15
->example 3 pg :16 to 18
#Probability Theory:-The probability of a given event may be defined as the
numerical value given the chance of the occurrence of that event.
-It is a number lying between 0 and 1.
-Zero is for an event which cannot occur and 1 for an event certain to occur.
-When the occurrence of an event is uncertain, probability is a number between 0 and 1.
-For example, when we toss a coin, the event of getting Head is uncertain.
- So its probability is neither 0 nor 1, but between the two.
-Since the chance of the occurrence of Head is as much as it's not occuring,
- we can predict the occurrence of the Head with 50% confidence only.
-Therefore the probability for head = ½.

*Random experiment:-An experiment that has two or more outcomes which vary in an
unpredictable manner from trial to trial when conducted under uniform conditions, is called
a random experiment.
-In a random experiment all the possible outcomes are known in advance but none of the
outcomes can be predicted with certainty.
-The tossing of a coin, for example, is a random experiment since it has two specified
outcomes - Head and Tail.
-But we are uncertain whether head will turn or tail when the coin is tossed.
-Throwing a die is another example of a random experiment.
-When we throw a die, the possible results are [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
-It is not possible to predict which of these will occur.

→Therefore the essential features of a random experiment are;

● It has more than one outcome.
● The outcomes are unpredictable.
● The experiment is repeatable.

*Sample point /Simple event /elementary outcome:- Every indecomposable

outcome of a random experiment is called a sample point of that random experiment.
● when a coin is tossed, getting head is a sample point.
● when two dice are thrown getting (2, 3) is a sample point.

*Sample Space:-The Sample space of a random experiment is the set containing all the
sample points of that random experiment.
-Therefore the sample space of a random experiment is the totality of all the elementary
outcomes of that random experiment.
-Eg: 1: When a coin is tossed the sample space is [Head, Tail].
-Eg: 2. When two coins are tossed the sample space is [HH, HT, TH, TT].
-A sample space may be discrete or continuous.
-When a sample space has finite number of points, it is said to be finite sample space
otherwise infinite.

->Ex. 1: A box contains 10 tickets each numbered 1 to 10. A ticket is drawn. What is the
sample space?
Ans: The sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
->Ex. 2. From a lot containing good and bad items, 3 items are chosen. Prepare the sample
space.
Ans: Let B stand for bad and G stand for good. Then the sample space is
{GGG GGB,GBG BGG GBB, BGB, BBG, BBB}

*Event:-An event is a subset of the sample space of a random experiment.

-Eg: When two coins are tossed getting two heasds is an event.
-An event may be simple or compound.
-An event is said to be simple if it corresponds to a single elementary outcome of an
experiment.
-Eg: When a die is thrown, getting '2' is a simple event.
-The joint occurrence of two or more simple events is called a compound event.
-Eg: When a die is thrown, getting an even number is a compound event because even
number can be 2, 4, 6.
→types of events
● Sure events (or certain events) (Sample space events):- An event whose occurrence
is possible is called certain event.
-For example, getting a white ball from the bag containing all while balls is a sure
event.
-A sure event is therefore the set containing all the sample points of the random
experiment.
-A sure event is the sample space itself.

● Impossible event (Empty set):-If an event cannot occur, when the random
experiment is conducted, then that event is an impossible event.
-For example, Getting a white ball from a bag containing all black balls is an
impossible event.
-An impossible event is an empty set, as it contains no sample point of the random
experiment.
-An empty set can be denoted by ∅

● Uncertain events:-An event is said to be uncertain if its happening is neither sure nor
impossible.
-That is, the happening of an uncertain event cannot be predicted.
 -For example getting a white ball from a bag containing white and black balls is
uncertain.

● Equally likely events:-Two events are said to be equally likely if any one of them
cannot be expected to occur in preference to the other.
-Eg: 1. Getting Head and Getting Tail when a coin is tossed.
- 2. when a die is thrown are equally likely events.

● Mutually exclusive events:-A set of events are said to be mutually exclusive if the
occurrence of one of them excludes (or prevents) the possibility of the occurrence of
the others.
-Two mutually exclusive events cannot occur simultaneously in the same trial.
-Eg: 1. Getting an Ace and Getting a King when a card is drawn from a pack of cards
are mutually exclusive.
-Eg: 2. Getting Head and Getting Tail when a coin is tossed are mutually exclusive.
-Note: If A and B are mutually exclusive, then A ∩ B = ∅ (null set) ie the two sets are
disjoint.

● Exhaustive events:- A group of events is said to be exhaustive when it includes all

possible outcomes of the random experiment under consideration.
-That is, if a set of events are exhaustive, at least one of them will happen in any trial
of the random experiment.
-Eg: When a die is thrown, outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 together will form exhaustive
events because one of them will occur when a die is thrown.

● Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive events:- A set of events are said to be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive if one of them must and only one can occur.
-That is, A, B and C are said to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive
-if they are (i) mutually exclusive and (ii) exhaustive.
- Example: In tossing two coins, getting no head, A getting one head, getting two
heads and getting 3 heads are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

-NOTE: A, B, C are mutually exclusive and exhaustive then, A∩B = ∅ , A ∩ C= ∅,

B∩C= ∅, A∩B∩C= ∅ and S=AUBUC.
● Independent events:-Two or more events are said to be independent if the
occurence of one of them in no way affects the occurrence of the other or the
others.
-Eg. In the tossing of a coin twice, the result of the second tossing is not affected by
the result of the first toss.

● Dependent events:-Two or more events are said to be dependent if the happening of

one of them affects the happening of the other.
- In the case of dependent events the chance of one event depends on the
happening of the other event.
-Eg: From a pack of 52 cards if one card is drawn then 51 cards are left.
-If another card is drawn without replacing the first, the chance of the second draw is
affected by the first draw.
-Therefore drawing a king first and without replacing it, drawing again a king are
dependent events.

● Complement of event A (Event 'not A'):-The event 'A' and the event 'not A' are
called complementary events.
-A’=U-A (where 'U' stands for sample space).

● Union of two events (At least one) (A or B) :-The union of two events A and B
denoted by A u B is the set of sample points in A or in B or in both.
-Eg: A = getting a multiple of 5 ,B= getting a multiple of 3
,then AUB= getting a multiple of 5 or 3.
-In fig. 1, A and B are intersecting.
-In fig. II, A and B are not intersecting.
-In both the cases, A u B is shaded.

● Intersection of two events (Both A and B):- The intersection of two events A and B
denoted by A n B is the set of sample points common to both A and B.
-Eg A =getting a multiple of 5. B = getting a multiple of 3
-Then A n B = getting a multiple of 15.
-In fig. I, A and B are intersecting, AnB=∅
 ● Difference of two events (A and not B) (only A) (exactly A):- The event 'A not B' is
the event whose outcomes are those belonging to A, but not B.
-Therefore 'A not B' excludes from A outcomes common to A and B.
-A not B= AnB’=(A-B)=A-(AnB)
-A-B is shaded.

● Exactly one (Symmetric difference) of two events.:-If A and B are two events exactly
one of them is the event whose outcomes are in A only or in B only.
-That is, the outcomes common to A and B are excluded.
-Exactly one of A and B

-Eg; A={1,2,3} B={2,3,4,1}

A ⊕ B= {3,4)

→Different definitions of probability:-The definition of probability can be classified as

1. Classical
2. Empirical (frequency approach)
3. Modern /Axiomatic

*Classical definition of Probability/( A Priori or Mathematical Probability):-

Let a random experiment produce only a finite number of outcomes only, say n.
-Let all these outcomes be equally likely and mutually exclusive.
-Let f of these outcomes be favourable to an event 'A' then the probability of the event A is
defined as the ratio between f and n.
ie P(A) =f/n
-For example, when a bag contains 2 white and 3 black balls, then probability for drawing a
white ball = ⅖
-formula

->Example: Two coins are tossed, what is the probability of getting

(1) both heads
(2) one head
(3) at least one head
(4) No head

Ans: Sample space is {(HH), (HT), (TH), (TT)}

(1) P (both heads)=¼ {H,H}
(2) P (one head) =2/4 {H,T},{T,H}
(3) P (at least one head) =¾ {H,H}.{H,T}.{T,H}
(4) P (no head)=¼ {T,T}

->Example note pg; 19 to 22

*Axiomatic approach to probability:-Let 'S' be the sample space of a random

experiment.
-Let A be an event of the random experiment so that A is a subset of S.
-Then we can associate a real number P (A) to the event A.
- This number P (A) wil be called probability of A if it satisfies the following three axioms.
● Axiom 1: P (A) is a real number such that P (A)≥ 0 for every A subset of S
● Axiom 2: P (S) = 1 where 'S' is the sample space.
● Axiom 3: P (AUB) = P(A) + P(B) where A and B are two non intersecting subset of S.

*Addition and multiplication rule

1. Addition rule of probability

01. Addition Rule for mutually exclusive events:- If A and B are two mutually
exclusive events then the probability for A or B to happen is the sum of their
probabilities ie P(A u B)= P(A) + P(B) if A and B are disjoint
Proof: Let n (A) be the number of elementary outcomes in A and n (B) be
the number of elementary outcomes in B. Let n( A u B) be the number of
outcomes in A u B.
-Let n (S) be the number of elementary outcomes in the sample space.
 Or Example note pg;23

02. Addition Rule for any two events (not mutually exclusive):- If A and B are
any two events, then the probability for A or B to happen is the sum of their
probabilities minus probability for both to happen.

Or Example note pg; 24 to 25

→Conditional Probability:-Probability of an event A given that B has happened is called

the conditional probability of A given B and is denoted by P (A/B).
- Example: Consider a family with two children.
-The different outcomes are (Boy, Boy), (Boy, Girl), (Girl, Boy), (Girl,Girl)
-If it is known that the first is a boy, the outcomes are only (B, B), (B, G) so that probability
for both boys = 1/2.
-This is under the condition,first is a boy.
P [both boys/ first is a boy] = P(A/B) = ½
-This is called the conditional probability as the condition is that first is a boy.
-Note: If the condition is not given, P (both boys) =¼

Theorem =
→Independence of two events/statistical independence

2. Multiplication rule of probability

01. Multiplication rule for any two events:-If A and B are any two events,then
probability for both A and B to take placed together, denoted by P(AnB)
P(AnB) =P(A) . P(B/A) ,P(A) ≠ 0
=P(B) . P(A/B) ,P(B) ≠ 0
02. Multiplication rule for two independent events:-If A and B are two
independent events, then the probability for both A and B to happen is the
product of their probabilities.
P(A n B)= P(A) .P (B)
*Bayes theorem:- If an event A can happen if and only if one or the other of a set of
mutually exclusive events B1,B2,......Bk happens and if P(Bi ) ≠ 0 for (i=1,2,3…k) then,

Or

-proof Example note pg:26 to 27 imp annu

→ Bayes theorem applications:- One of the many application of Bayes theorem is

Bayesian influence, a particular approach to statistical inference .
-Bayesian inference has to and application in many activities including medicine , science,
Philosophy engineering, sports law etc..
-Example: we use bayes theorem to define the accuracy of medical test result by considering
how likely any given person is to have a disease and the tests overall accuracy.

->problems Example note pg; 28 to 32

___________________________________________________________________________

Module -4

#Random variables:-A real valued function, defined over the sample space of a
random experiment is called the random variable associated to that random experiment.
-That is, the values of a random variable correspond to the outcomes of a random
experiment.

*Discrete and continuous Random variables:-A random variable may be discrete or

continuous.
-A random variable is said to be discrete if it assumes only specified values in an interval.
-When X takes values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 it is a discrete variable.
-A random variable is said to be continuous if it can assume any value in a given interval.
-When X takes any value in a given interval (a, b), it is a continuous variable in that interval.
-If X stands for the age of persons belonging to the age group 20 to 30, then X can take any
value between 20 and 30.

*Distribution /Probability distribution/Probability function/Density

function/mass function/ of a discrete random variable
-Let 'X' be a random variable assuming values X1,X2,X3…
-Let 'x' stand for any one of X1,X2,X3…
-Then probability that the random variable 'X' to take the value x is defined as probability
function of 'X' and is denoted by f(x) or P (x).
P(x) = P(X = x)
- where X is the random variable and x stands for values of X, is the probability function of x.

*Density function of a continuous random variable

-Let X be a continuous random variable.
-here X can take values from the interval (a,b) then probability density function is given by

(a < x < b )=

-Let X and x be two random variable then joint probability function joining probability
density of X and Y is denoted by f( x,y ) and that of joint distribution function of X and Y is
denoted by ;
f( x,y ) = p( X <= x , Y <= y )

*marginal probability function:-From the joint probability function of X and Y,

Probability function can be derived and is called the marginal probability function of X and is
denoted by f1(x)

-similarly we have marginal probability function of y denoted by f2(y).

f2(y)=P(Y=y, X=taken any value)
=
->problems Example note pg:-33 to 36

*Binomial distribution:-A discrete random variable x is said to follow binomial

distribution if its pdf is given by

● n - number of trials.
● x - number of success in trials.
● P - probability of success.
● 1- P = q - probability of failure.

=> mean up = np
=> variance = npq

=>

=>
→Importance of Binomial distribution:-The Binomial distribution is often very useful in
decision making situations in business.
-In quality control it is very widely applied.
-In acceptance sampling plans, inspection is carried out on the articles drawn in a sample.
-The Binomial Distribution is used in such a sampling.
-The Binomial Distribution describes an enormous varieties of real life events.
-The distribution can be used to judge whether a coin or a die is unbiased or not by
comparing the observed frequencies and expected frequencies.

→Application of Binomial distribution:-Binomial distribution can be applied when;

● The random experiment has two outcomes, which can be called 'success' and
'failure".
● Probability for success in a single trial remains constant from trial to trial of the
experiment.
● The experiment is repeated finite number of times.
● Trials are independent

→Properties of Binomial Distribution

1. Binomial Distribution is a discrete probability distribution.
2. The shape and location of Binomial distribution changes as 'p' changes for a given ‘n'.
3. Binomial Distribution has one or two modal values.
4. Mean of the Binomial Distribution increases as 'n' increases, with 'p' remaining
constant.
5. If 'n' is large and if neither 'p' nor ‘q' is too close to zero, Binomial Distribution may
be approximated to normal distribution.
6. Binomial Distribution has mean = np and S. D =

7. If two independent random variables follow Binomial Distribution, their sum also
follows Binomial Distribution.

->problems Example note pg:-37 to 43

*poisson distribution:-A discrete random variable x is said to follow poisson distribution

with the parameter x.
-if its pdf is given by
 Where λ > 0
λ - mean
λ - variance

-if λ is an integer then the distribution has two modes λ-1 and λ (bimodel).
-if λ is not an integer then it is uni model take the integral part of λ.

→Poisson Distribution as a limiting case of Binomial Distribution

-Poisson distribution may be obtained as a limiting case of Binomial distribution under the
following conditions:
● the number of trials is very large ( ie, n -> ∞ )
● the probability of success for each trial is very small (ie, p -> 0)
● 'np' is finite (say, 'm')
-Therefore Poisson Distribution can be stated in the following manner.
-Let the probability for success in a single trial of a random experiment is very small
(ie p -> 0) and the experiment be repeated larger number of times ( n -> ∞ ) Then the
probability for x successes out of these 'n' trials is given by

p(x) =

- This law is called Poisson law

->Derivation

Or
->problems Example note pg:- 44 to 46

→fitting of poisson distribution (mean =variance)

->problems Example note pg:-47 to 49

*Normal Distributions:-A continuous random variable X is said to follow normal

distribution if its pdf is given by
Graph

-A normal distribution with mean 0 and SD is 1 is called standard normal distribution.

->problems Example note pg:-50 to 59

→Properties of normal distribution.

-Normal curve is a continuous curve.
-Normal curve is bell shaped.
-Normal curve is symmetric about the mean.
-Mean,median and mode are equal for a normal distribution.
-The height of the normal curve is at its maximum at the mean.
-There is only one maximum point which occur at the mean.
-The ordinate at mean divides the whole area into two equal parts (ie, 0.5 on either side)
-the curve is asymptotic to the base on either side ie,the curve approaches nearer and
nearer to base but it never touches.

-coefficient of skewness is 0

-The normal curve is uni model ie,it has only one mode.

-The point of inflexion occur at .and the point of inflexion the curve changes
from concavity to convexity.
-Q1 and Q3 are equidistant from median.

-mean deviation for normal distribution is and QD is .

-All odd moments of the normal distribution are zero and even moments are interrelated by
the following formula.

-Normal distribution is mesokurtic .that is measure of kurtosis =

-No portion of the curve lies below the x axis.

-theoretically the range of the normal curve is .But practically the

range is to .
-If X and Y are two independent normal variates then their sum is also a normal variate .this
is called the additive property.
-Area under the normal curve is distributed as follows,

->problems Example note pg:-60 to 61

# Sampling theory:-: In simple words sampling consists of obtaining information from

a larger group or a universe.
-Sampling theory is an important field of study in statistics.
-An example of sampling theory would be taking a population of smokers and starting them
on nicotine gum and see if it helps the smokers quit smoking. The sample would be the
population of smokers, changing their habits by starting the nicotine gum, and testing the
results

→large and small:-when the sample size is more than 30 the sample is known as large
otherwise small sample
Sample > 30 =large
Sample < 30 =small

→Concepts used in Samplings:-The following concepts are used in sampling designs

● Universe or population:-A population is the entire group that you want to draw
conclusions about.
 -eg: Census
● Sample:-A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from.
-The size of the sample is always less than the total
size of the population.
-eg: Sampling

→Parameter & Statistics:-A sample function are called

Statistics (s - s).
-and population function are called parameter (p - p).

*Sampling Distribution:-Sample statistic is a random variable .

-every random variable has a probability distribution.
-that probability distribution of a sample statistic is called the sampling distribution.
-commonly used sampling distributions are ;
● Normal distribution :- Sample is large or population SD is Know as Normal
distribution
-denoted by Z
(equations unde nokkikkonam)
● χ2 (Chi-Square) distribution:-Z follows a stand normal distribution then Z² will follow
χ2 distribution with one degree of freedom.
● -’s’ SD of sample & ‘σ’ SD of population ,n-1 is the degree of freedom.
● -mean of χ2 distribution is n and variance of χ2 distribution is 2n and mode of χ2
distribution is n-2 where n is the degree of freedom.
● T distribution :-x̄ and s be the mean and SD.
- sample size be small.
-t follows a t- distribution with n-1 degree of freedom.
● F distribution:- n1 and n2 be size and s1² and s2² be variables.
-SD is σ
-here degree of freedom is (n1 - 1 ,n2 - 1).
-f curve is J shaped when n2 <= 2 and bell shaped when n1 > 2.

*Central Limit Theorem:- Let X1, X2, X3….. Xn be n independent variables .

-Let all have same distribution ,same mean ‘μ’ and same SD ‘σ’ .
-then mean of all variable s is
X̄ = (X1+ X2+ X3 +….. Xn ) / n

->condition for central limit theorem are;

● Variable must be independent.
● All variables should have common mean and common SD.
● All variables should have same distribution.
 ● n is very large.
(net ill nokkokonam)

*Point estimation & Interval estimation:-A point estimate is a single value estimate
of a parameter. For instance, a sample mean is a point estimate of a population mean.
-An interval estimate gives you a range of values where the parameter is expected to lie.
Or
-type of estimations are
1. Point:- Any statistic suggest
as an estimate of an
unknown parameter is
called point estimation
2. Interval:-it take the
value from an interval

->statistical inference:-the primary objective of sample study is a draw inference about the
pop by examining only a part of pop.
-such inference drawn are called statistical inference.
-thwere are two main branches they are;
● Test of hypothesis
● estimation
___________________________________________________________________________

Module -5
#Testing of Hypothesis
-procedure for testing hypothesis are;
1. Set up hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis(H1).
2. Decide the test( such as z-test,t-test,χ2 -test and f-test.
3. Specify level of significance.
-usually level of significance specified as 5% or 1%
-in the absence of any specific instruction.
4. Calculate the value of the test statistic using appropriate formula.
5. Obtain the table value of the test using level of significance and the degree of
freedom.
6. Make decision about accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis on the basis of
computed value.
-if computed value less than table value we accept region.
-otherwise we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
*Null & Alternative Hypothesis:-null hypothesis can be defined as a statistical
hypothesis.
-null hypothesis is denoted by H0
-H0 is a original hypothesis.
-Any hypothesis other than H0 is called H1 .
-When H0 is rejected we accept the other hypothesis known as H1 .
-alternative hypothesis is denoted by H0 .

→simple and composite hypothesis:-A hypothesis may be simple or composite.

-if parameter are completely specified then it is simple.
Eg:pop is normal with mean =10 and SD =9
-parameter are not completely specified then it is composite.
Eg; pop is normal with mean =10 and parameter is not given.

→parametric and non parametric hypothesis:-Parametric statistics are based on

assumptions.
-A hypothesis which specifies only the parameters of the probability density function is
called parametric hypothesis.
-If a hypothesis specifies only the form of the density function in the pop is called non
parametric hypothesis.

→one tail and two tail test:-A two tailed test is one in which we reject the .if the
computed value greater than or lower than the critical value.
-in two tailed test the critical region is represented by both tails.
-if we are testing hypothesis at 5% level of significance ,the size of the acceptance region is
0.95 and the size of rejection region is 0.05 on both side together
-fig

-in one tail test ,the rejection region will be located in only one tail which may be either left
or right, depending on the alternative hypothesis
-in one tailed test critical region is represented by only in one tail
-fig
→critical value:-test statistics which separate the rejection region from the acceptance
region is called

→type 1 and type 2 error:-In any test of hypothesis the decision is to accept or to reject a
null hypothesis .
-there are 4 possibilities of the decision are;
● Accept H0 when it is true.
● Reject H0 when it is false.
● Reject H0 when it is true.
● Accept H0 when it is false.
-here (1) and(2) are correct ,while (3) and(4) are error.
-the last two cases are respectively known as type 1 and type 2 error.
-type 1:-Reject H0 when it is true.
-type 2:-Accept H0 when it is false.

→significance level:-It defines whether the null hypothesis is assumed to be accepted or

rejected.
-usually level of significance specified as 5% or 1%
-in the absence of any specific instruction.

→power of test:-probability for reject the H0 whenH1 is true is called.

Power of a test =1-p [type 1 error]

→critical region:-The region is divided into 2 parts acceptance region and rejection region .
-if the computed value of the test statistics falls in the rejection region we accept the H0 .
-this rejection region is also known as critical region.
-the size of the critical region is also known as level of significance.
->best critical region:-our aim is to minimise both type 1 and type 2 error.
-but decreasing type1 of error cause increase in the other type of error.
-this is undesirable.
-so we have to keep the critical region as low as possible without allowing type 2 error to go
up very much.
-least type 2 error is called best critical region.

→test statistic:-The decision to accept or to reject the H0 is made on the basis of a statistic
computed from the sample.
-such a statistics is called test statistic
-There are commonly used test statistics are t,z, f x2 etc..

→degree of freedom:-defined as the number of independent observation which is

obtained by subtracting the number of constrains from the total number of observations.
-z= ∞ and t=n-1.

*Large sample test and Small Sample test:- for large samples ,we usually use z test .
-greater than 30 is called large sample.
-for small samples,any of the following test can be used z-test,x2-test ,t-test and f-test.
-less than 30 is called small sample.

*z - test
-Z-test is applied when the test statistic follows normal distribution.
-Uses of Z-test are:
1. To test the given population mean when the sample is large or when the population
SD is known.
2. To test the equality of two sample means when the samples are large or when the
population SD is known.
3. To test the population proportion.
4. To test the equality of two sample proportions.
5. To test the population SD when the sample is large.
6. To test the equality of two sample standard deviations when the samples are large or
when population standard deviations are known.
7. To test the equality of correlation coefficients

-Assumptions in Z-test are:

1. Sampling distribution of test statistic is normal.
2. Sample statistics are close to the population parameter and there fore for finding
standard error, sample statistics are used in places where population parameters are
to be used.
* t-test
-t-test is applied when the test statistic follows t - distribution.
-Applications (uses) of t-test are:
1. To test the given population mean when the sample is small and the population S. D
is not known.
2. To test the equality of two sample means when the samples are small and population
S. D is unknown.
3. To test the difference in values of two dependent samples.
4. To test the significance of Correlation Coefficients.

-Assumptions in 't' test

1. The parent population from which the sample drawn is normal
2. The sample observations are independent.
3. The population S. D'a' is unknown.
4. When the equality of two population means is tested, the samples are assumed to
be independent and the population variances are assumed to be equal and
unknown.

*Testing the given population mean

-for this type of problems we can apply Z-test of t-test .
-the detailed test procedure is explained below
1. First set hypothesis
-as, H0 : μ = μ0 , H1 : μ ≠ μ0
2. Secondly decide the test criterion.
● Sample is large then Z-test
● Sample is small but population (pop) S.D ( σ ) is known then Z-test.
● Sample is small but pop S.D is not known then t-test.

3. Using the formula

-Here x̄ is the sample mean and μ0 is the population mean.

-standard error is computed by one of the following formula.
 4. For Z-test ,degree of freedom is infinity (∞) and for t-test it is n-1.
5. Get the table value for degree of freedom and level of significance.
6. Finally take a decision either accept or to reject the hypothesis
-When calculated value less than table value we accept otherwise reject it.

->example

ans:-
 Note: -ve sign is not needed.
Eg; calculate value = -2.5 then we take as 2.5
And table value =1.9
So, calculate value > table value ,we reject

->One tailed test

-in one tailed test ,we take
H0 : μ = μ0 and H1 : μ > μ0 or H1 : μ < μ0 .
-In testing more than, less than,superior ,interior, etc ,we applied one tail test.

->problems Example note pg:-62 to 66

* Testing (equality) of 2 population mean /testing significance of difference

between 2 population mean
1. First set hypothesis
-as, H0 : μ1 = μ2 , H1 : μ1 ≠ μ2.
2. Decide the test ,when the sample is large or sample is small with population S.D is
given ,then we apply z-test.
-when sample is small ,and population S.D is not given we apply t - test.
3. Test statistic =

-Where x̄1 and x̄2 are sample means,

-SE (standard error) is given by the following formulas.
● Two sample and population with same S.D (σ).

● Two sample and population with different S.D ( σ 1 & σ2 ).

● Population S.D are not known and sample are large.

 ● Population S.D are not know and sample are small.

-where n1 and n2 are sample size and s1 and s2 are sample S.D

4. For z - test degree of freedom is infinity (∞) and for t-test it is n1 + n2 - 2.

5. Obtain the table value.
6. When the calculated value is less than the table value, we accept H0 otherwise we
reject H0 .

->two tailed test

->problems Example note pg:-67 to 71

*χ2 -test (Chi-square test)

-The statistical test in which the test statistic follows a x2-distribution, is called the x2-test.
-Therefore x2 test is a statistical test, which tests the significance of difference between
observed frequencies and the corresponding theoretical frequencies .
->Characteristics of x²- test
1. It is a non-parametric test.
2. free test, which can be used in any type of distribution of population.
3. Easy to calculate.
4. It analyses the difference between a set of observed frequencies and a set of
corresponding expected frequencies.

->Uses (Applications) of x2-test

-X2-test is one of the most useful statistical tests.
-It is applicable to very large number of problems in practice.
-The uses of x²-test are;
● Used for test of goodness of fit
● Test of independence of attributes
● Testing homogeneity
● Testing given population variance.
→testing of goodness of fit (vvv imp)
-we test whether there is goodness of fit between the observed frequencies and expected
frequencies.
->steps
1. H0 : There is a goodness of fit between observed and expected frequencies.
H1 : There is no goodness of fit between observed and expected frequencies.
2. Compute test

-where o stands for observed frequencies and E stands for expected frequencies.

3. Degree of freedom =n-r-1

-r: no of independent contains to be satisfied by the frequencies
4. Obtain the table value.
5. Calculated value < table value then there is a goodness of fit.
->condition for applying X2 -test
● Total frequencies (N) larger or at least 50.
● Expected frequency less than 5.
● Distribution should not be percentage .
-it should be of original units.

->problems Example note pg:-72 to 73

*Contingency table:-Let a,b,c,d be the observed frequencies if the frequencies are

independently distributed then expected frequencies corresponding to a,b,c,d are
respectively.

a b

c d
-degree of freedom =(R-1) (C-1) R-no.of rows
=(2-1) (2-1) C-no.of columns
=1*1
=1

->Testing independence of two attributes for [contingency tables] steps:

->steps;
1. H0: "The two attributes are independent" (ie they are not associated.)
2. Compute the test statistic by the formula

-where 'O' refers to the observed frequencies and 'E' refers to the expected
frequencies.
3. Degree of freedom= (r-1) x (c-1) where 'r' is the number of rows and 'c' is the number
of columns.
4. Obtain the table value for the degree of freedom and the level of significance.
5. If the calculated value of x2 is less than the table value accept the null hypothesis
(H0) . Otherwise reject it.

->problems Example note pg:-74 to 81

___________________________________________________________________________
Module-2
#Mathematical Logic:-One of logic's key goals is to establish guidelines for judging
the validity of any particular argument or reasoning.
-The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical statements.
-These rules are used to distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments.
-Apart from its importance in understanding mathematical reasoning, logic has numerous
applications in Computer Science, varying from design of digital circuits, to the construction
of computer programs and verification of correctness of programs.

→Propositional Logic:-A proposition is the basic building block of logic.

-It is defined as a declarative sentence that is either True or False, but not both.
-The Truth Value of a proposition is True(denoted as T) if it is a true statement, and
False(denoted as F) if it is a false statement.
-For Example,
● The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
● 1+1=2
● 'b' is a vowel.
-All of the above sentences are propositions, where the first two are Valid(True) and the
third one is Invalid(False).
-Some sentences that do not have a truth value or may have more than one truth value are
not propositions.
-For Example,
● What time is it?
● Go out and play.
● x + 1 = 2.
-The above sentences are not propositions as the first two do not have a truth value, and the
third one may be true or false.
-To represent propositions, propositional variables are used.
-these variables are represented by small alphabets such as p , q , r, s …

-It also produces new propositions using existing ones.

-Propositions constructed using one or more propositions are called compound
propositions.
-The propositions are combined together using Logical Connectives or Logical Operators.
-The negation of p, denoted by ¬p .
-The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth value of the negation of p, ¬p, is the opposite
of the truth value of p.
-example,
Q)Find the negation of the proposition
“Michael’s PC runs Linux”.
ans) “It is not the case that Michael’s PC runs Linux.”
-This negation can be more simply expressed as
-“Michael’s PC does not run Linux.”

Syntax of ¬p “It is not the case that p.”

*Connectives:-The logical connectives commonly used in mathematics are

● Negation [Not , ¬ ]
● Conjunction [And , ∧]
● Disjunction [Or , ∨ ]
● Exclusive Or [ ⊕ ]
● implication/ Conditional [ → ]
● Bi-conditional [ ↔ ]
-It is a symbol which is used to connect two or more propositional or predicate logics.

1. negation:-The symbol ∼ or ' or - is used to indicate the negation.

-If there is a proposition p, then the negation of p will also be a proposition,
-which contains the following properties:
● When p is true, then the negation of p will be false.
● When p is false, then the negation of p will be true.
-If p is a proposition, then the negation of p is denoted by ¬p , which when
translated to simple English means- “It is not the case that p ” or simply “not p “.
-The truth value of ¬p is the opposite of the truth value of p .
- The truth table of ¬p is —------------------------------------------>
- example: The negation of “It is raining today”, is
“It is not the case that is raining today” or simply “It is not raining today”.

2. conjunction:-The conjunction is indicated by the symbol ∧.

-If there are two propositions, p and q, then the conjunction of p and q will also be a
proposition, which contains the following properties:
● When p and q are true, then the conjunction of them will be true.
● When p and q are false, then the conjunction of them will be false.
-For any two propositions p and q , their conjunction is denoted by p∧ q , which
means “p and q “.
-The conjunction p∧ q is True when both p and q are True, otherwise False.
-The truth table of p∧ q is—------------------------------>
 -example: p – “Today is Friday” and
q – “It is raining today”,
- p ∧ q is “Today is Friday and it is raining today”.
-This proposition is true only on rainy Fridays and is false on any other rainy day or on
Fridays when it does not rain.

3. disjunction:- Disjunction is indicated by the symbol ∨.

-If there are two propositions, p and q, then the disjunction of p and q will also be a
proposition, which contains the following properties:
● When p and q are false, then the disjunction of them will be false.
● When either p or q or both are true, then the disjunction of them will be true.
-For any two propositions p and q , their disjunction is denoted by p ∨ q , which
means “p or q “.
-The disjunction p ∨ q is True when either p or q is True, otherwise False.
-The truth table of p ∨ q is—-------------------------------------------->
-Example: p – “Today is Friday” and q – “It is raining today”,
P ∨ q is “Today is Friday or it is raining today”.
-This proposition is true on any day that is a Friday or a rainy day
(including rainy Fridays) and is false on any day other than Friday
when it also does not rain.

4. Exclusive Or:-Let p and q be propositions.

-The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p ⊕ q, which means “either p or q but not
both”.
-the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false
otherwise.
-The truth table of p ⊕ q is—-------------------------------------------->
-Example:p – “Today is Friday” and q – “It is raining today”,
-p ⊕ q is “Either today is Friday or it is raining today, but not both”.
-This proposition is true on any day that is a Friday or a rainy day
(not including rainy Fridays) and is false on any day other than Friday when it does
not rain or rainy Fridays.

5. Implication /Conditional:-The conditional propositional is also known as the

implication proposition.
-It is indicated by the symbol →
-The conditional statement p → q is the proposition “if p, then q.”
-The conditional statement p → q is false when p is true and q is false, and true
otherwise.
-In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or
premise) and q is called the conclusion (or consequence).
 -The truth table of p → q is—----------------------------------->

6. Bi-conditional:-The bi-conditional propositional is also known as the bi-implication

/Double Implication proposition.
-It is indicated by the symbol ↔.
- p ↔ q has the same truth value as (p→ q) ∧ (q→ p) The implication is true
when p and q have same truth values, and is false otherwise.
-The truth table of p ↔ q is—----------------------------------->

*Truth tables
*Tautology and contradiction:-A compound proposition that is always true, no matter
what the truth values of the propositional variables that occur in it, is called a tautology.
-A compound proposition that is always false is called a contradiction.
-A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.
-We can construct examples of tautologies and contradictions using just one propositional
variable (P).
-Consider the truth tables of p ∨ ¬p and p ∧ ¬p, shown in Table .
-Because p ∨ ¬p is always true, it is a tautology.
-Because p ∧ ¬p is always false, it is a contradiction.

*Logical equivalence formula:-The compound propositions p and q are called logically

equivalent if p ↔ q is a tautology.
-The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are logically equivalent.
-The symbol ⇔ is sometimes used instead of ≡ to denote logical equivalence.
-One way to determine whether two compound propositions are equivalent is to use a truth
table.
->Example:Show that ¬(p ∨ q) and ¬p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.
-If ¬(p ∨ q) ↔ (¬p ∧ ¬q)is a tautology and that these compound propositions are logically
equivalent.

->Example 2:Show that p → q and ¬p ∨ q are logically equivalent.

->Example 3: Show that p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) Are Logically Equivalent.
-some important equivalence formula are given below
-show some useful equivalences for compound propositions involving conditional
statements and biconditional statements

->Example :Show that ¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) and ¬p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent .
*Inference theory:-The main function of logic is to provide rules of inference, or
principles of reasoning.
-The theory associated with such rules is known as inference theory.
-The interference theory can be described as the analysis of validity of the formula from the
given set of premises.
-An argument can be defined as a sequence of statements.
- The argument is a collection of premises and a conclusion.
-The conclusion is used to indicate the last statement, and premises are used to indicate all
the remaining statements.
- Before the conclusion, the symbol ∴ will be placed.
-The following syntax is used to show the premises and conclusion:
● Premises: p1, p2, p3, p4, ….., pn
● Conclusion: q

*Validity by truth table:-if A and B are two premises and its C is the conclusion .
-When A and B premises are true (T) then the conclusion is also true(T).
-Then we say the give two premises produce a valid conclusion.
-If A and B premises are true (T) then the conclusion is false (F).
-it means that the give two premises not produce a valid conclusion.
->Example 1: Determine whether the conclusion C follows logically from the premises H1 and
H2.
-here H1 and H2 are two premises and C is the conclusion
a) H1:P→Q , H2 :P , C:Q
ans):- Here premises are H1 [P→Q] and H2 [P].
-and here two premises true have a conclusion [C]
True value therefore it is a valid conclusion.

->Example 2:H1:P→Q , H2 :Q , C:P

- Here premises are H1 [P→Q] and H2 [Q].
-And 1st row have two premises are true and
Its conclusion are also true .
-In 3rd row also have its premises are true but its
Conclusion is not true.
-therefore it is not a valid conclusion.
* Rules of Inference:-Simple arguments can be used as building blocks to construct more
complicated valid arguments.
-Certain simple arguments that have been established as valid are very important in terms of
their usage.
-These arguments are called Rules of Inference.
-The most commonly used Rules of Inference are tabulated below

-problems nokkikonam
#Predicate calculus:-Consider the following example. We need to convert the
following sentence into a mathematical statement using propositional logic only.
"Every person who is 18 years or older, is eligible to vote."
-The above statement cannot be properly expressed using only propositional logic.
- It would have been easier if the statement were referring to a specific person.
-But since it is not the case and the statement applies to all people who are 18 years or
older, we are stuck.
->Eg : Is X> 1 true or false
: Is X is great tennis player true or false
-we cannot say this above example are true or false
-Therefore we need a more powerful type of logic. (Predicate logic)
→Predicate logic:-Predicate logic is an extension of Propositional logic.
-It adds the concept of predicates and quantifiers to better capture the meaning of
statements that cannot be properly expressed by propositional logic.

*Predicates:- A predicate P(x) is a sentence that contain a finite number of variables and
becomes a proposition when specific values are substituted for the variables
-where P(x) is a propositional function.
-and x is a predicate variable.
->domain:- The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all possible values that may be
substituted in the place of variables
-Eg: x is great tennis player [x is set of all human names]

*Quantifier:- Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities such as “some” or “all” and
indicate how frequently a certain statement is true.
-There are two types qualifiers they are;
● Universal Quantifier:-The phrase “for all” denoted by ∀ is called the Universal
Quantifier
-eg: Let “all students are smart”
Let p(x) denote “ x is smart”
Then the above sentence can be written as ∀xP(x)
● Existential Quantifier:-The phrase “there exists “ denoted by ∃ is called the
Existential Quantifier
-eg:Let there exist x such that x² =5
Let P(x) is “x² =5”
Then the above sentence can be written as ∃xP(x)
→Negating Quantified Expressions:-Consider the following example
“Every student in the xyz university has studied discrete mathematics."
-here the Domain is All students of xyz university.
-P(x): x has studied discrete mathematics.
-the above statement is equivalent to ∀xP(x).
-Then What is the negation of the above statement?
"It is not the case that every student in the xyz university has studied discrete
mathematics."
OR
-we can simply write as
"There is some student in the xyz university who has not studied discrete
Mathematics."
-here P(x): x has studied discrete mathematics.
-and its negation is ¬P(x): x has not studied discrete mathematics.
"There is some student in the xyz university who has not studied discrete mathematics."
It is equivalent to ∃x¬P(x).

-so the negation of ∀xP(x) is ¬∀xP(x) or ∃x¬P(x).

-e fig important anno ennu onnu nokkanam

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