TAKEITEASY ENGINEERS’ 21EC72 SIMP Scheme of Evaluation- VTU

Module - 01 TIE Scheme of Evaluation

1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fibers & Bending Losses:

● Advantages: High bandwidth, low signal loss, immunity to electromagnetic interference
(EMI), security, small size, and lightweight.
● Disadvantages: Higher initial cost (compared to copper), more difficult to splice and repair,

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susceptibility to damage from physical stress, specialized equipment required for installation
and testing.

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● Bending Losses: Occur when the fiber is bent excessively. Light rays incident at angles
greater than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface can escape, leading to signal loss.

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Macrobending (large radius bends) causes radiative losses, while microbending (small,
random bends) causes mode coupling and losses.

2. Attenuation Losses in Optical Fibers:

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● Absorption: Caused by impurities in the fiber material (e.g., OH- ions), intrinsic material
absorption (UV and IR absorption), and atomic defects.
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● Scattering:
○ Rayleigh Scattering: Inherent to the glass structure; caused by microscopic variations in
density and composition. Proportional to 1/λ⁴ (shorter wavelengths scatter more).
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○ Mie Scattering: Caused by larger inhomogeneities or imperfections in the fiber

core-cladding interface.
● Chromatic Dispersion: Spreading of optical pulses due to different wavelengths traveling at
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different speeds within the fiber. This includes:

○ Material Dispersion: Arises from the wavelength dependence of the refractive index of the
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fiber material.
○ Waveguide Dispersion: Arises from the dependence of the mode propagation constant on
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wavelength due to the fiber's structure.

3. V-Number and Mode-Field Diameter:

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● V-Number (Normalized Frequency): Defines the number of guided modes in a fiber. V =

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(πd/λ)√(n₁² - n₂²), where d is the core diameter, λ is the wavelength, n₁ is the core refractive
index, and n₂ is the cladding refractive index. For single-mode operation, V < 2.405.
● Mode-Field Diameter (MFD): Represents the actual spatial distribution of the optical power
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in a single-mode fiber. It's slightly larger than the core diameter and is a more accurate
measure of the guided light.

4. Derivation of Numerical Aperture (NA) using Snell's Law:

● Snell's Law: n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂
● Consider light entering the fiber at an angle θ₀ to the fiber axis. At the core-cladding interface,
the critical angle θc is defined by sinθc = n₂/n₁.
● The acceptance angle θa is the maximum angle θ₀ for which light is guided. Using geometry
 and Snell's law:
○ sinθa = n₀sinθ₀ = n₁sin(90° - θc) = n₁cosθc = n₁√(1 - sin²θc) = √(n₁² - n₂²) (assuming n₀ = 1,
air).
● Numerical Aperture (NA): NA = sinθa = √(n₁² - n₂²)

5. Calculation of Core Radius, NA, and Acceptance Angle:

● Given: n₁ = 1.48, n₂ = 1.46, λ = 820 nm = 0.82 μm
● For single-mode operation, V < 2.405. Assuming V = 2.405 (for the smallest core radius):
○ 2.405 = (πd/0.82)√(1.48² - 1.46²)

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○ Solving for d (core diameter): d ≈ 8.3 μm. Therefore, core radius (r) ≈ 4.15 μm.
● NA = √(1.48² - 1.46²) ≈ 0.24

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● Acceptance Angle (θa) = sin⁻¹(NA) = sin⁻¹(0.24) ≈ 13.9°

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6. Pulse Spreading due to Material Dispersion:
● Material dispersion is quantified by the material dispersion parameter D (ps/nm-km).
● Time delay (Δt) due to material dispersion: Δt = D * L * Δλ, where L is the fiber length and
Δλ is the spectral width of the source.

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● Pulse spreading is directly proportional to D, L, and Δλ.
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7. Approaches for Single-Mode Fibers and Minimizing Losses:
● Step-Index Single-Mode Fiber: Has a small core diameter and a small refractive index
difference between core and cladding.
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● Dispersion-Shifted Fiber (DSF): Designed to shift the zero-dispersion wavelength to the

1550 nm window, where fiber loss is minimum.
● Dispersion-Flattened Fiber (DFF): Designed to have a wider range of wavelengths with low
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dispersion.
● Advantages in Minimizing Losses: Single-mode fibers eliminate intermodal dispersion
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(different modes traveling at different speeds), which is a major source of pulse broadening in
multimode fibers. DSFs and DFFs further minimize chromatic dispersion in specific
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wavelength regions.

8. Types of Chromatic Dispersion:

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● Material Dispersion: As explained earlier, arises from the wavelength dependence of the
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refractive index of the fiber material.

● Waveguide Dispersion: Arises from the dependence of the mode propagation constant on
wavelength due to the fiber's structure.
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● Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD): Arises from slight asymmetries in the fiber core,
causing different polarization states of light to travel at slightly different speeds. This is
usually a smaller effect compared to material and waveguide dispersion in modern fibers.

Module - 02 TIE Scheme of Evaluation

 1. LED Configurations and Comparison with LASERs:
● LED Configurations:
○ Surface Emitting LEDs (SLEDs): Emit light perpendicular to the junction plane.
○ Edge Emitting LEDs (ELEDs): Emit light parallel to the junction plane.1
● LED vs. LASER Comparison:

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Parameter LED LASER

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Output Power Lower (mW) Higher (mW to W)

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Spectral Width Wider (tens of nm) Narrower (sub-nm to few
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Coherence Incoherent Coherent

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Modulation Speed Lower (MHz to few GHz) Higher (GHz to tens of

GHz)
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Cost Lower Higher

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Linearity More linear Less linear, requires bias

control
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Beam Divergence Wider Narrower

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Lifetime Longer Relatively shorter in some

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types
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Applications Short-haul communication, Long-haul communication,

indicators high-speed data
transmission, optical
storage

2. Working Principles of Surface-Emitting and Edge-Emitting LEDs:

● Surface-Emitting LED (SLED):
○ Diagram: A simple p-n junction with a contact on top and bottom. Light is emitted from
 the top surface.
○ Working: When forward biased, electrons from the n-side and holes from the p-side
recombine in the active region (junction), emitting photons. The emitted light is isotropic
(emitted in all directions).2
○ Features: Simpler fabrication, lower cost, wider emission angle.
○ Applications: Short-distance communication, indicators, displays.
● Edge-Emitting LED (ELED):
○ Diagram: A p-n junction with a narrow active region and optical waveguide structure.
Light is emitted from the edge of the device.3

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○ Working: Similar recombination process as SLEDs, but the waveguide structure confines
the light, resulting in a more directional output.4
○ Features: Higher output power, narrower spectral width, more directional output.

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○ Applications: Medium-distance communication, optical sensing.

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3. GaAlAs Double Heterostructure LED:
● Cross-section: Layers of GaAlAs with different aluminum concentrations are grown on a
GaAs substrate. The active region (where recombination occurs) has a lower bandgap than the

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surrounding layers.5
● Energy Band Diagram: Shows the energy levels of the conduction and valence bands in each
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layer. The heterojunctions create potential barriers that confine electrons and holes to the
active region.6
● Refractive Index Variation: The higher bandgap layers have a lower refractive index than the
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active region, creating an optical waveguide that confines the emitted light.
● Importance: Double heterostructures improve LED efficiency by:
○ Carrier Confinement: Prevents carriers from diffusing away from the active region,
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increasing the recombination rate.7

○ Optical Confinement: Guides the emitted light within the active region, increasing the
light extraction efficiency.
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4. RAPD Photodiode and Comparison with PIN Photodiode:

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● RAPD (Reach-Through Avalanche Photodiode):

○ Structure: A p+-i-p-n+ structure with a high electric field region (depletion region) near
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the p-i junction.

○ Working: Incident photons generate electron-hole pairs in the depletion region.8 The high
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electric field accelerates these carriers, causing impact ionization (avalanche

multiplication), generating more electron-hole pairs. This results in internal gain.
● PIN vs. APD Comparison:
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 Parameter PIN Photodiode APD Photodiode

Gain No internal gain (gain = 1) Internal gain (M > 1)

Sensitivity Lower Higher

Bandwidth Higher Lower (due to avalanche

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process)

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Noise Lower Higher (due to avalanche
noise)

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Bias Voltage Lower Higher

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Cost Lower Higher

Applications
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Short-haul, lower data Long-haul, high data rates,
rates low-light detection
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5. Internally Generated Power and Efficiency in an LED:

● Internally Generated Power (Pint): Pint = (ηint * I * hν) / q, where ηint is the internal
quantum efficiency (fraction of injected electrons that generate photons), I is the injection
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current, hν is the photon energy, and q is the electron charge.

● Internal Quantum Efficiency (ηint): ηint = Rr / (Rr + Rnr), where Rr is the radiative
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recombination rate and Rnr is the non-radiative recombination rate.9

● External Quantum Efficiency (ηext): ηext = ηint * (Φext) where Φext is the light extraction
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efficiency.

6. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

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● Principle: Transmitting multiple optical signals at different wavelengths over a single fiber.
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● Block Diagram: Multiple optical transmitters (each emitting at a different wavelength) are
connected to an optical multiplexer (MUX).10 The MUX combines the signals onto a single
fiber. At the receiving end, an optical demultiplexer (DEMUX) separates the signals based on
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their wavelengths and directs them to the appropriate receivers.

● Advantages: Increases the capacity of optical fiber links significantly.

7. Polarization-Independent Isolator:
● Design and Operation: Typically uses three main components:
○ Input Birefringent Wedge: Splits the incoming light into two orthogonal polarization
states (TE and TM).
○ Faraday Rotator: Rotates the polarization of both beams by 45 degrees.
 ○ Output Birefringent Wedge: Recombines the beams, but only allows light traveling in the
forward direction to pass through. Light traveling in the reverse direction is blocked.
● Polarization Independence: The use of birefringent wedges and a Faraday rotator ensures
that the isolator works regardless of the input polarization state.11

8. Working Principle and Features of an Edge-Emitting LED:

● Working Principle: Similar to a SLED, but with a waveguide structure that confines the light
to the active region and directs it towards the edge of the device.12
● Structural Design: Includes a narrow active region, optical waveguide layers (with higher

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refractive index than the surrounding layers), and reflecting facets at the edges to improve
light extraction.13

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● Special Features:
○ Higher output power: Due to the waveguide structure and efficient light extraction.

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○ Narrower spectral width: Compared to SLEDs.
○ More directional output: Suitable for coupling to optical fibers.14
○ Faster modulation capabilities than surface emitters.

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Module - 03 TIE Scheme of Evaluation

1. Comparison of 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G & Notes on Doppler Shift, Coherence
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Bandwidth, and Coherence Time:
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Feature 1G 2G 3G (Data) 4G 5G
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(Analog) (Digital) (Broadban (Advanced

d) Broadband
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)
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Technolog AMPS GSM, UMTS, LTE, NR (New

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y CDMA CDMA20 WiMAX Radio)

00
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Data Low Low Medium High Very High

Speed (voice)

Switching Circuit Circuit/Pac Packet Packet Packet

ket
 Feature 1G 2G 3G (Data) 4G 5G
(Analog) (Digital) (Broadban (Advanced
d) Broadband
)

Core Analog Digital IP-based All-IP All-IP

Network

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Key Voice Text, basic Multimedi High-spee Enhanced

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Features data a, internet d data, mobile
access mobile broadband,

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broadband massive
IoT,
mission-cri
tical

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communic
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● Doppler Shift: Change in the observed frequency of a wave due to the relative motion
between the source and the observer.1 f_d = (v/c) * f * cos(θ), where v is the relative velocity,
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c is the speed of light, f is the transmitted frequency, and θ is the angle between the direction
of motion and the direction of the wave.
● Coherence Bandwidth (Bc): Range of frequencies over which the channel's frequency
response is approximately constant.2 If the signal bandwidth is less than Bc, the channel is
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considered frequency-selective (flat fading).

● Coherence Time (Tc): Time duration over which the channel impulse response is
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approximately constant.3 If the symbol duration is less than Tc, the channel is considered
time-selective (slow fading).
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2. Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms:

● Reflection: Occurs when a wave encounters a large, smooth surface compared to its
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wavelength (e.g., buildings, ground).

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● Diffraction: Bending of waves around obstacles with sharp edges or corners (e.g., building
corners).
● Scattering: Occurs when a wave encounters objects with dimensions smaller than its
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wavelength (e.g., trees, foliage).

3. Free Space Propagation Model and Path Loss Model:

● Free Space Propagation Model: Assumes ideal propagation conditions with no obstacles.4
Received power (Pr) is given by Friis transmission equation: Pr = (Pt * Gt * Gr * λ²) / (4πd²),
where Pt is transmitted power, Gt and Gr are transmitter and receiver antenna gains, λ is the
wavelength, and d is the distance.
● Path Loss Model: Quantifies the signal power attenuation as a function of distance. A
common model is the log-distance path loss model: PL(d) = PL(d₀) + 10nlog(d/d₀), where
PL(d) is the path loss at distance d, PL(d₀) is the path loss at a reference distance d₀, and n is
the path loss exponent.

4. Cell Structure and Clustering:

● Cell Structure: Cellular networks divide the coverage area into smaller cells, each served by a
base station.5 This allows for frequency reuse and increased capacity.
● Clustering: Groups of cells are arranged in a cluster.6 The same set of frequencies is reused in

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different clusters. The cluster size (N) determines the frequency reuse distance.
● Cell Splitting: Dividing a congested cell into smaller cells to increase capacity in high-traffic

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areas.7
● Cell Sectoring: Using directional antennas at the base station to divide a cell into sectors,

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reducing co-channel interference and increasing capacity.8

5. Received Power Calculation:

● Given: Pt = 100 W, f = 2.4 GHz, d₁ = 200 m, d₂ = 5 km = 5000 m, Gt = Gr = 1.

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● λ = c/f = (3 x 10⁸ m/s) / (2.4 x 10⁹ Hz) = 0.125 m
● Pr = (Pt * Gt * Gr * λ²) / (4πd²)IE
● At d₁ = 200 m: Pr₁ = (100 * 1 * 1 * 0.125²) / (4π * 200²) ≈ 3.1 x 10⁻⁵ W = -45.1 dBm
● At d₂ = 5000 m: Pr₂ = (100 * 1 * 1 * 0.125²) / (4π * 5000²) ≈ 5 x 10⁻⁷ W = -63 dBm
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6. Two-Ray Ground Reflection Model:

● Assumes two propagation paths: a direct path and a ground-reflected path.
● Received power: Pr = (Pt * Gt * Gr * ht² * hr²) / (d⁴ * L), where ht and hr are transmitter and
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receiver antenna heights, d is the distance, and L is the system loss factor.
● This model is accurate for larger distances where the ground reflection is significant. It
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predicts a path loss exponent of 4.

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7. Receiver Calculations:
● Given: Pt = 75 W, f = 1.8 GHz, d = 8 km = 8000 m, R = 75 ohms.
● λ = c/f = (3 x 10⁸ m/s) / (1.8 x 10⁹ Hz) ≈ 0.167 m
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● Assuming free space propagation: Pr = (75 * 1 * 1 * 0.167²) / (4π * 8000²) ≈ 1.65 x 10⁻⁸ W =
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-77.8 dBm (a)

● Power density at the receiver: S = Pr / Aeff, where Aeff is the effective aperture of the receiver
antenna. Assuming Aeff = λ²/4π (for an isotropic antenna), S = Pr / (λ²/4π) ≈ 4.7 x 10⁻⁶ W/m²
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● Magnitude of the E-field: E = sqrt(2 * S * η₀), where η₀ is the impedance of free space (≈ 377
ohms). E ≈ 1.9 V/m (b)
● Power at the receiver input is also given by P= V²/R where V is RMS voltage and R is
resistance. Hence V = sqrt(P*R) = sqrt(1.65 x 10⁻⁸ W * 75 ohms) = 1.1 mV (c)

8. Fading and Multipath Fading:

● Fading: Variation in signal strength at the receiver due to changes in the propagation
environment.9
● Multipath Fading: Occurs when the signal arrives at the receiver via multiple paths due to
reflection, diffraction, and scattering.10 This can cause constructive or destructive interference,
leading to fluctuations in signal strength.
● Statistical Channel Models:
○ Rayleigh Fading: Models multipath fading in environments without a dominant
line-of-sight path.11 The envelope of the received signal follows a Rayleigh distribution.
○ Ricean Fading: Models multipath fading in environments with a dominant line-of-sight
path. The envelope of the received signal follows a Ricean distribution.
○ Nakagami Fading: A more general model that can approximate both Rayleigh and Ricean

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fading, as well as other fading scenarios.

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Module - 04 TIE Scheme of Evaluation

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1. SDMA/FDMA and SDMA/TDMA & FDMA/FDD:

● SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access): Uses directional antennas to create spatially
separated beams, allowing frequency reuse in the same cell.

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● SDMA/FDMA: Combines SDMA with FDMA, assigning different frequency channels to
different spatial beams. IE
● SDMA/TDMA: Combines SDMA with TDMA, assigning different time slots to different
spatial beams.
● FDMA/FDD (Frequency Division Multiple Access/Frequency Division Duplex):
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○ Salient Features:
■ Divides the available frequency spectrum into separate channels.
■ Each user is assigned a unique frequency channel for the duration of the call.
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■ FDD uses two separate frequency bands for uplink (mobile to base station) and downlink
(base station to mobile) transmissions.
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■ Simple implementation but inefficient use of spectrum if users don't continuously

transmit.
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2. Comparison of TDMA and FDMA:

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Feature FDMA TDMA

Channel Access Frequency channels Time slots within a

frequency channel
 Feature FDMA TDMA

Guard Bands Required between channels Guard times between time

slots

Synchronization Less critical More critical

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Complexity Simpler More complex (requires
time synchronization)

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Flexibility Less flexible in allocating More flexible in allocating

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bandwidth bandwidth

| Advantages of TDMA over FDMA:** * Higher capacity due to efficient use of spectrum
through time sharing. * Easier to implement digital modulation techniques. * More flexible in

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allocating different data rates to users. * Better suited for integrated services (voice, data, video).
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3. Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA):
● Principle: Spreads the signal energy over a much wider bandwidth than required for
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transmission. This makes the signal more resistant to interference and jamming.
● How it works:
○ The narrowband signal is multiplied by a pseudo-random noise (PN) sequence, which has a
much higher chip rate than the data rate.
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○ This spreading process increases the signal bandwidth.

○ At the receiver, the received signal is multiplied by the same PN sequence to despread the
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signal and recover the original narrowband information.

● Types:
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○ Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): The carrier frequency hops rapidly over a
wide range of frequencies according to a PN sequence.
○ Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): The narrowband signal is multiplied by a
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high-speed PN sequence directly in the time domain.

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4. Handling the Near-Far Problem in FDMA:

● Near-Far Problem: Occurs when a nearby mobile transmitter overpowers the signal from a
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distant mobile transmitter using the same frequency channel.

● Measures to handle it:
○ Power Control: Base station continuously monitors the received power from each mobile
and instructs them to adjust their transmit power accordingly.
○ Tight Frequency Planning: Careful frequency allocation to minimize co-channel
interference.

5. Mobile-Originated and Mobile-to-Landline Call Procedures:

● Mobile-Originated Call:
1. Mobile user dials the number.
2. Mobile transmits a request to the base station.
3. Base station forwards the request to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
4. MSC checks the user's authentication and availability.
5. MSC routes the call to the destination network (another mobile network or PSTN).
6. Connection is established, and the call proceeds.
● Mobile-to-Landline (PSTN) Call:
1. Mobile user dials the landline number.

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2. The call is routed through the mobile network (base station, MSC) to a gateway MSC.
3. The gateway MSC connects to the PSTN and routes the call to the landline subscriber.

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6. Mobile-to-Mobile and Network-Originated Call Procedures:

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● Mobile-to-Mobile Call:
1. Mobile user dials the mobile number.
2. The call is routed through the serving MSC to the destination MSC (if the called mobile is
in a different location area).

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3. The destination MSC locates the called mobile and establishes the connection.
● Network-Originated Call: IE
1. The call originates from the PSTN or another network and reaches the gateway MSC of
the mobile network.
2. The gateway MSC queries the Home Location Register (HLR) to find the current location
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of the called mobile.

3. The HLR provides the address of the serving MSC.
4. The call is routed to the serving MSC, which pages the mobile and establishes the
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connection.

7. Hybrid and Multicarrier Multiple Access Schemes:

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● Hybrid Multiple Access: Combines different multiple access techniques (e.g.,

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TDMA/CDMA, FDMA/CDMA) to achieve better performance.

● Multicarrier Multiple Access: Divides the available bandwidth into multiple subcarriers,
each used for transmitting a portion of the data. Examples include Orthogonal Frequency
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Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) used in 4G and 5G.

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8. Hand-off Procedure and Mobile Unit Initialization/Registration:

● Hand-off Procedure (Diagram - Conceptual):
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Mobile Moving -->

[Base Station 1]----(Hand-off Request)--->[MSC]----(Hand-off Command)--->[Base Station 2]
| ^ |
| | |
 (Signal Strength Weakens) | (Signal Strength Improves)
|
(Connection transferred)

1.Mobile moves from the coverage area of one base station (BS1) to another (BS2).
2.BS1 detects a weakening signal from the mobile.
3.BS1 sends a hand-off request to the MSC.
4.The MSC communicates with BS2 to prepare for the hand-off.
5.The MSC sends a hand-off command to the mobile.

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6.The mobile tunes to the new frequency/time slot assigned by BS2.
7.The connection is transferred to BS2.

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● Mobile Unit Initialization/Registration:
1. Mobile powers on and scans for control channels.

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2. Mobile selects the strongest control channel and synchronizes with the base station.
3. Mobile sends its identification information (IMSI) to the base station.
4. The base station forwards the information to the MSC.
5. The MSC checks the user's information with the HLR.

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6. If the user is authorized, the mobile is registered with the network.
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Module - 05 TIE Scheme of Evaluation
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1. GSM Services and Protocols with Signaling Models:

● Services Provided by GSM:
○ Bearer Services: Provide the capability for data transmission, including circuit-switched
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data (CSD) and packet-switched data (GPRS, EDGE).

○ Teleservices: Provide specific services to the user, such as telephony, SMS (Short Message
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Service), fax, and supplementary services (call forwarding, call waiting, etc.).
○ Supplementary Services: Enhance basic teleservices, such as call waiting, call forwarding,
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and caller ID.

● GSM Protocols and Signaling Models: GSM uses a layered protocol architecture. Key
protocols include:
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○ Radio Resource (RR) Management: Manages radio resources, such as channel allocation,
handovers, and power control.
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○ Mobility Management (MM): Handles location updates, authentication, and security.

○ Call Management (CM): Manages call setup, call termination, and supplementary
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services.
● Signaling Models (Simplified): Signaling messages are exchanged between the Mobile
Station (MS), Base Transceiver Station (BTS), Base Station Controller (BSC), and Mobile
Switching Center (MSC). These messages handle tasks like call setup, handover, location
update, and authentication.

2. GSM Network Architecture and NSS:

● GSM Network Architecture Diagram (Conceptual):
 MS <---Um---> BTS <---Abis---> BSC <---A---> MSC <---Inter-MSC/PSTN---> Other
Networks
| |
+---------------------------------------+
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

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● Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): Responsible for call switching and routing. It

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comprises:
○ Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The central switching node of the GSM network. It

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performs call control, mobility management, and interconnection with other networks.
○ Visitor Location Register (VLR): A database associated with each MSC that stores
information about visiting mobile subscribers.
○ Home Location Register (HLR): A central database that stores permanent information

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about all subscribers in a network.
○ Authentication Center (AuC): Responsible for generating authentication parameters and
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encryption keys.
○ Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Stores information about mobile equipment (IMEI).
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3. GSM Infrastructure Communication Layers (Um Interface):

● Um Interface: The radio interface between the MS and the BTS.
● Layers and Protocols:
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○ Physical Layer (Layer 1): Handles radio transmission and reception, including
modulation, channel coding, and time slot structure.
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○ Data Link Layer (Layer 2): Provides reliable data transfer over the radio link. It includes:
■ LAPDm (Link Access Procedure on the Dm channel): Used for signaling on the
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control channels.
○ Network Layer (Layer 3): Handles mobility management, call control, and supplementary
services. It includes RR, MM, and CM sublayers.
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4. GSM Call Setup Operations:

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● Mobile-Originated Call Setup (Simplified Flow):

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MS --(Channel Request)--> BTS --(Channel Assignment)--> BSC --(Setup Request)--> MSC

<--(Ciphering Mode Command)<-- <--(Authentication Request)<--
--(Ciphering Mode Complete)--> --(Authentication Response)-->
--(Call Proceeding)--> --(Alerting)-->
 --(Connect)--> --(Connect Acknowledge)-->

● Steps:
1. Channel Request: MS requests a channel from the BTS.
2. Channel Assignment: BTS assigns a channel to the MS.
3. Authentication: MSC authenticates the MS using the AuC.
4. IMEI Check: MSC checks the IMEI of the MS against the EIR.
5. Ciphering Mode Setting: MSC initiates ciphering to encrypt the communication.
6. Call Setup: MSC sets up the call to the destination.

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7. Alerting/Connect: Destination alerts/answers, and the connection is established.

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5. GSM Logical Channels:
● Traffic Channels (TCH): Carry user information (voice or data).

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○ TCH/F (Full-rate Traffic Channel): 13 kbps.
○ TCH/H (Half-rate Traffic Channel): 6.5 kbps.
● Control Channels: Carry signaling and control information.
○ Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): Broadcasts cell information.

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○ Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): Used for frequency synchronization.
○ Synchronization Channel (SCH): Used for time synchronization.
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○ Common Control Channel (CCCH): Used for initial access and paging.
■ Paging Channel (PCH)
■ Random Access Channel (RACH)
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■ Access Grant Channel (AGCH)

○ Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): Used for dedicated signaling between the MS and
the network.
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■ Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

■ Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
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■ Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

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6. TDMA Frame Structure:

● TDMA Frame: Basic unit of time division. It consists of 8 time slots. Duration: 4.615 ms.
● Multiframe: A group of TDMA frames.
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○ For traffic channels (26 frames): Duration: 120 ms.

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○ For control channels (51 frames): Duration: 235.4 ms.

● Superframe: A group of multiframes.
○ For traffic channels (51 multiframes): Duration: 6.12 s.
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○ For control channels (51 multiframes): Duration: 12 s

● Hyperframe: A group of superframes (2048 superframes). Duration: 3 h 28 min 53.76 s.

7. GSM Identities and Location Updating:

● GSM Identities:
○ IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity): Unique identifier for a subscriber.
○ TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity): Temporary identifier assigned to a
subscriber for security.
 ○ IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity): Unique identifier for a mobile device.
○ MSISDN (Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number): The phone
number.
● Types of Location Updating:
○ Normal Location Updating: Occurs when the MS moves to a new location area.
○ Periodic Location Updating: Occurs at regular intervals to confirm the MS's presence.
○ IMSI Attach/Detach: When the MS is powered on/off.

8. GSM Network Management Subsystem and Dedicated Control Channel:

M
● Network Management Subsystem (NMS): Responsible for monitoring and controlling the
GSM network. It consists of three layers:

A
○ Network Element Layer: Manages individual network elements (BTS, BSC, MSC).
○ Network Management Layer: Manages the overall network performance.

TE
○ Service Management Layer: Manages services offered to subscribers.
● Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): Used for dedicated signaling between the MS and the
network. It carries information related to call setup, handovers, location updates, and other
control functions. SDCCH is used for low-rate signaling, while FACCH is used for higher-rate

W
signaling during a call. SACCH carries measurement reports and other background
information. IE
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TI
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