KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2023 ACADEMIC YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

CE 367 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

CAPACITY AND LOS ANALYSIS

OF ROADWAY SEGMENTS

DR. KENNETH A. TUTU

 ROADWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE ANALYSIS
• Transportation is a service that must meet customer needs and expectations.
• Capacity and level of service (LOS) are two concepts used to measure the performance of a
transportation facility.

Capacity
• Capacity is the maximum hourly traffic flow in one direction that can be sustained on a
uniform roadway segment during a specific period of time under prevailing traffic and
roadway conditions. It is expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln or pcphpl).
• A facility can have an ideal capacity or a practical capacity. Ideal capacity is expected under
ideal conditions, whereas practical capacity can be expected given any conditions that might
impact capacity (prevailing conditions). Table 1 shows some conditions that impact capacity.

Table 1: Some Road and Traffic Conditions That Impact Capacity

Condition Impacting Factors
• Good weather
Environment
• Good and dry pavement surface
• Number and width of lanes
• Shoulder widths and right-shoulder lateral clearance
• Design speed
Roadway
• Ramp density (interchange spacing)
• Horizontal and vertical alignments (grades)
• Exclusive turn lanes at intersections
• Vehicle types (i.e., passenger vehicles, trucks, buses, recreational vehicles)
Traffic • Familiarity of drivers with roadway segment
• Traffic signals
Control • STOP and YIELD control
• Other regulations

Level of Service (LOS)

• LOS is a qualitative rating of the quality of transportation service a user might experience on
a facility. LOS represents a qualitative rating of the traffic operational conditions
experienced by facility users under prevailing roadway conditions.
• Motorists tend to evaluate the quality of transportation service they receive in terms of
factors such as speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort
and convenience.
• There are six LOS, ranging from A to F. LOS A represents the best operating conditions and
LOS F, the worst. Analyst selects a roadway performance measure that represents motorists’
perception of the quality of service they receive on a facility. Performance measures selected
to define LOS are called service measures or measures of effectiveness (MOE).
• Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) provides procedures for determining capacity and LOS.
o HCM is produced by the Transportation Research Board. The current version is HCM 7.
o Highway capacity software (HCS) implements the HCM procedures.
• The LOS descriptions for roadway segments are shown in Table 2.

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 Table 2: LOS Descriptions for Roadway Segments
LOS Description Illustration (VDOT)
• Traffic operates at free flow speed
• Individual vehicles are virtually unaffected by the
presence of others in the traffic stream
• High level of freedom for drivers to select speeds and
A
maneuver within the traffic stream.
• The effects of incidents are local and minimal
• Excellent level of comfort and convenience for drivers
• Average spacing of 160m
• Traffic operates at or near free flow speed
• The presence of other vehicles begins to be noticeable
• Freedom to select speeds is relatively unaffected
• Slight decline in freedom to maneuver in traffic stream
B
• High level of comfort and convenience for drivers
• Effects of minor incidents are still easily absorbed
• Average spacing of 100m

• Traffic operates near free flow speed

• Freedom to maneuver is noticeably restricted
• Lane changes require careful attention
• Significant decline in level of comfort and convenience
C
• Minor incidents may still be absorbed, but the local
deterioration in service quality will be significant.
• Average spacing of 67m

• Speeds begin to decline with increasing flows

• Freedom to maneuver is seriously limited
• Drivers experience reduced comfort and convenience
• Minor incidents can cause queuing, since the higher
D
density provides little space to absorb flow disruptions
• Average spacing of 50m

• Roadway operates at its capacity

• Operations are highly volatile because there are virtually
no usable gaps in the stream; maneuverability is extremely
limited, and drivers experience considerable discomfort.
E • Any incident can be expected to cause a serious
breakdown with extensive queuing
• Average spacing of 34m

• Breakdown in traffic flow

• Demand-to-capacity (v/c) ratio exceeds 1.0
• Stop-and-go waves, poor travel times, low comfort and
convenience, and increased accident exposure.
F • Queues can extend over significant distances

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General Procedure for LOS Determination

Step 1: Determine Base (Ideal) Roadway Conditions and Capacity

• Vehicle and roadway characteristics affect traffic flow, and hence roadway capacity.
o Different vehicle types (automobiles, trucks, buses, RVs) perform differently.
Differences in vehicle performance are magnified by roadway features.
 Grades influence performance of trucks more than automobiles (passenger cars)
 A traffic flow of 2000 veh/hr comprising only automobiles will have far different speed and
density compared with a 2000-veh/h flow comprising 50% automobiles and 50% trucks.
• Base conditions refer to unrestrictive geometric, traffic and environmental conditions.
• Field studies have established values of base conditions for which roadway capacity is
maximized. Values that exceed base conditions will not increase capacity but values more
restrictive than the base conditions will produce a lower capacity.
• Uninterrupted flow facilities include freeways, multilane highways and two-lane highways.

Step 2: Determine Free Flow Speed

• Free flow speed (FFS) is influenced by roadway characteristics (curves, lane and shoulder
widths, median), frequency of access points, driving environment (e.g., distractions from
roadway signs) and speed limits.
• Measure FFS directly in the field; otherwise, estimate FFS from a base free flow speed
(BFFS), depending on the physical characteristics of the roadway segment being analyzed.

Step 3: Determine Demand Flow Rate

• Measure the peak hour volume (V) in the field. It can also be a projected volume.
• Adjust the peak hour volume to reflect the variation of traffic demand within the peak hour
and impacts of heavy vehicles and driver population by dividing by appropriate factors.
• Adjust the peak hour volume to become equivalent flow rate (pc/hr).
• Divide the flow rate by the number of lanes in one direction to obtain flow rate in passenger
cars per hour per lane (pc/hr/ln).

Step 4: Calculate Service Measures and Determine LOS

• Calculate the value of service measures (e.g., density) and then determine the LOS.

LOS Determination for Basic Freeway Segments

• A freeway is a section of a divided highway with full access control and two or more lanes
in each travel direction for the exclusive use of traffic.
o No at-grade intersections (to allow for uninterrupted traffic flow)
o Vehicles enter or leave freeways by the use of ramps
o Accra-Tema Motorway could have been an example.
• A freeway has three elements:
o Basic freeway section: this is outside of the influence area of ramps or weaving area.
o Ramp junctions: merging or diverging movements occur near ramps
o Weaving areas: where vehicles cross each other’s path.

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Figure 1: Merge, Diverge and Weaving Influence Areas of Interchanges (HCM, 2000)
• The speed-flow curve for basic freeways (Figure 2) shows that FFS remains constant while
flow rate increases up to a breakpoint, after which mean speed of the traffic stream begins to
reduce. That is, the mean speed of the traffic stream is equal to the FFS from low volumes
until the density is sufficiently high to impact the travel speed. Beyond the breakpoint, the
mean speed drops below the FFS. The first figure is in imperial units; the second, in metric.

Figure 2: Speed-Flow Curves for Basic Freeway Segments (HCM)

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• Flow rates at breakpoint are shown in Table 3, and Equations 1a through 1e are used to
compute the mean speed of the traffic stream beyond the breakpoint.
Table 3: Flow Rate at Breakpoint and Mean Speed Beyond Breakpoint for Basic Freeway Segments (HCM, 2016)
FFS Flow Rate at Breakpoint
Mean Speed Beyond Breakpoint
(mi/h) (pc/h/ln)
2
75 1000 S = 75 − 0.00001107�vp − 1000� (1a)
2
70 1200 S = 70 − 0.00001160�vp − 1200� (1b)
2
65 1400 S = 65 − 0.00001418�vp − 1400� (1c)
2
60 1600 S = 60 − 0.00001816�vp − 1600� (1d)
2
55 1800 S = 55 − 0.00002469�vp − 1800� (1e)
Where: vp = Demand flow rate (pc/h/ln) under equivalent base conditions

• Capacity varies with FFS of the freeway (see Table 4). These capacity values are average
values obtained mostly under U.S. conditions and may vary at different locations.
• Capacity for basic freeway segments is reached at a density of 45 pc/mi/ln (28pc/km/ln).
• The capacity values in Table 4 are calculated using the equation below:
Basic Freeway Capacity = Min[2200 + 10(FFS − 50), 2400 55 ≤ FFS ≤ 75]
Table 4: Free flow Speed and Capacity on Basic Freeway Segments (HCM 2016)
FFS (mi/hr) FFS (km/hr) Capacity (pc/hr/ln)
75 120 2,400
70 112 2,400
65 104 2,350
60 96 2,300
55 88 2,250

• Table 5 shows base conditions for basic freeway segment.

Table 5: Base Conditions for Basic Freeway Segment
Factor Base Condition
Lane width • 12 feet (3.65 m) minimum

Lateral clearance • 6-ft (1.8 m) min. clearance btn. right edge of lane & objects (e.g., utilities, walls, etc.)
• Ramp density is the total number of on- and off- ramps (per direction) within 3 miles
Ramp density upstream and downstream of midpoint of the segment divided by 6 miles
• Zero total ramp density
Terrain • Level terrain (maximum grade of 2%)
Vehicle types • No heavy vehicles (e.g., trucks, buses, RVs); only passenger cars(automobiles)
Driver population • Predominantly regular users of the freeway segment
Weather • Clear weather, good visibility, dry pavement
Incidents • No disabled vehicles, police activity, crashes
Work zone • No construction activities

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LOS Criteria for Basic Freeways
• The base conditions (Table 5) represent a high operating level, with FFS of 75.4 mi/hr or higher.
• Prevailing roadway and traffic conditions, as they vary from base conditions, will reduce the
free flow speed, and hence the capacity of the segment.
• For basic freeways, service measures or MOE that could be used to describe LOS include:
o Density, measured in passenger cars per mile per lane (pc/mi/ln)
 It provides a good measure of relative mobility of individual vehicles
 Density indicates proximity to other vehicles; it measures freedom to maneuver.
 Low density enhances lane and speed changes; high density hinders maneuverability
o Space mean speed, mi/hr or km/hr
 Mostly uncommon to use as speed remains constant over a wide range of flows
o Volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c): peak hour volume divided by roadway capacity
Tables 6 and 6a provide LOS criteria for basic freeway segments.

Table 6a: LOS Criterion for Basic Freeway Segment (HCM, 2016)
LOS Density (pc/mi/ln)
A 0–11
B 12–18
C 19–26
D 27–35
E 36–45
> 45 OR
F
Demand flow (vp) exceeds capacity

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 Determination of LOS and Capacity for Basic Freeway Segment

Select Adjust Estimate

Collect Determine Check Determine
FFS Demand Speed &
Input Data FFS LOS F LOS
Curve Volume Density

Step 1: Collect Input Data

Table 7 shows data requirements for analysing capacity and LOS of a basic freeway segment.
Measure or assume input data for the following requirements.
Table 7: Data Requirements for Basic Freeway Capacity and LOS Analysis
Data Inputs Data Elements
• Free flow speed
• Number of lanes in one direction and their width
Freeway data • Right-side lateral clearance
• Total ramp density
• Terrain (i.e., level, rolling, mountainous, length and grade)
• Peak hour volume (demand volume)
• PHF
Demand data
• Percent of heavy vehicles (trucks, buses and RVs)
• Driver population (commuters, unfamiliar drivers, etc.)
Analysis period • Peak 15-minute period within peak hour
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Step 2: Determine FFS
FFS is determined by field measurement or by estimation using an equation.
(a) Field Measurement: FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured under low to moderate
flows, no greater than 1300 pc/h/ln. Sample a minimum of 100 cars across all lanes during off-
peak hours and measure their speeds. Field-measured FFS needs no adjustment as it reflects the
net effect of all site conditions.
(b) Estimation of FFS: Equation 2 is used to compute FFS, and it accounts for the effects of lane
width, right-shoulder lateral clearance and ramp density on FFS.
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2)
Where:
FFS = Estimated free flow speed, mi/h
BFFS = Base (ideal) FFS for basic freeway segment, mi/h.
fLW = Adjustment for lane width, mi/h
fLC = Adjustment for right-side lateral clearance, mi/h
TRD = Total ramp density, ramps/mi.
BFFS is often taken as 75.4 mi/h, so Equation 2 becomes:
FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)

Lane Width Adjustment, fLW

Lane widths narrower than 12 ft cause traffic to slow due to reduced psychological comfort and
limits on driver maneuvering and accident avoidance options. Hence, the BFFS reduces.
HCM(2016) recommends the following lane width adjustment factors.
Table 8: Lane Width Adjustment Factors, fLW
Lane Width (ft) Reduction in FFS, fLW (mi/h)
12 0.0
11 1.9
10 6.6

Right-Side Lateral Clearance Adjustment, fLC

Obstructions on the right-side shoulder (e.g., retaining wall, barriers, utility posts, road signs) closer
than 6ft. impose psychological discomfort on drivers and cause them to lower their speed. Table 9
shows HCM recommendations for right-side lateral clearance adjustment factors.
Table 9: Right-side Lateral Clearance Adjustment Factors, fLC
Reduction in FFS, fLC (mi/h)
Right-side Lateral
Lanes Per Direction
Clearance (ft)
2 3 4 ≥5
≥6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1
4 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.2
3 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3
2 2.4 1.6 0.8 0.4
1 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.5
0 3.6 2.4 1.2 0.6
8
Total Ramp Density Adjustment Factor
It is a measure of the impact of merging and diverging vehicles on FFS. It is computed as the
number of on- and off- ramps (in one direction) within 3 miles upstream and downstream of the
midpoint of the segment divided by 6 miles.

Step 3: Select FFS Curve

Round the FFS calculated in Step 2 to the nearest 5 mi/hr (8 km/hr) to coincide with one of the
standard five speed curves (55–75 mi/hr) in Figure 2, based on the following limits:
• ≥ 72.5 mi/h < 77.5 mi/h: use FFS = 75 mi/h
• ≥ 67.5 mi/h < 72.5 mi/h: use FFS = 70 mi/h
• ≥ 62.5 mi/h < 67.5 mi/h: use FFS = 65 mi/h
• ≥ 57.5 mi/h < 62.5 mi/h: use FFS = 60 mi/h
• ≥ 52.5 mi/h < 57.5 mi/h: use FFS = 55 mi/h

Step 4: Adjust Demand Volume

• The demand volume is the measured or projected volume for the busiest hour (peak hour vol.)
• The demand volume must be adjusted to provide flow rate for a single lane.
• If the traffic stream contains heavy vehicles and/or a non-commuter driver population, the
demand volume must be converted to a demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions,
accounting for the presence of heavy vehicles and unfamiliar drivers.
• Equation 3 converts demand volume to a demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions.
V
vp = (3)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP
Where:
vp = Demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions, pc/h/ln
V = Demand vol. under prevailing conditions (veh/h) in one direction
PHF = Peak hour factor
N = Number of lanes in the analysis direction
fHV = Adjustment factor for presence of heavy vehicles in traffic stream
fp = Adjustment factor for unfamiliar driver population. Range is
0.85–1.00, where 1.00 is typically for commuter drivers.

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

Operational characteristics of heavy vehicles reduce traffic flow. The heavy vehicle adjustment
factor (fHV) is calculated using Equation 4:
1
fHV = (4)
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)
Where:
fHV = Heavy vehicle adjustment factor
PT = Proportion of trucks and buses in traffic stream
PR = Proportion of recreational vehicles (RVs) in traffic stream
ET = Passenger car equivalent (PCE) of one truck or bus in traffic stream
ER = PCE of one RV in traffic stream

9
• Base conditions assume only the presence of passenger cars. Heavy vehicles have
performance characteristics (e.g., slow acceleration and deceleration) and dimensions that
reduce traffic flow (or capacity).
• When prevailing conditions include heavy vehicles, the heavy vehicle adjustment factor
(fHV) is used to convert the traffic stream from prevailing conditions to base conditions.
• Follow a two-step process to calculate the fHV factor:
o Step 1: Determine the proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in the traffic stream
o Step 2: Determine passenger car equivalent (PCE) for each heavy vehicle type
 PCE represents the number of passenger cars that would consume the same amount
of roadway capacity as a single heavy vehicle OR it represents the number of
passenger cars that would occupy the same roadway space as one heavy vehicle.
Trucks and buses have similar flow characteristics, so they are treated identically.
 The extent to which the presence of heavy vehicles affect traffic flow depends on the
grade of the freeway segment. PCEs can be determined for three grade types:
• Segments in general terrain
• Segments on specific upgrades
• Segments on specific downgrades

PCEs for General Terrain Segments

• General terrain has a series of single grades that are not too long or too steep to significantly
impact traffic operation on the freeway segment.
• General terrain has:
o Grades of ≤ 2% and segment lengths ≤ 0.40 km long OR
o Grades between 2% and 3% and segment lengths ≤ 0.80 km long.
• General terrain is classified as follows:
o Level Terrain: Any combination of grades and horizontal alignment that permits heavy
vehicles to maintain similar speed as passenger cars. Grades are short and do not exceed 2%.
o Rolling Terrain: Any combination of grades and horizontal alignment that causes heavy
vehicles to reduce their speeds substantially below those of passenger cars but not to
crawl speeds for any significant length of time or at frequent intervals. Crawl speed is the
max. sustained speed that trucks can maintain on an extended upgrade of a given percent.
o Mountainous: Any combination of grades and horizontal alignment causes heavy
vehicles to operate at crawl speeds for a significant distance or at frequent intervals.

• PCEs for trucks, buses and RVs in general terrain segment analysis are shown in Tables 10
and 11. Notice the differences in the values.
Table 10. PCEs for Trucks/Buses and RVs in General Terrain Segments (HCM, 2010).

10
 Table 11. PCEs for Trucks/Buses in General Terrain Segments (HCM, 2016)

PCE by Terrain Type

Vehicle
Level Rolling
Trucks and Buses, ET 2.0 3.0

• Note that it is not appropriate to use PCEs to accommodate heavy vehicles for mountain
terrain conditions. Refer to HCM (2016) for a more accurate analysis procedure.

PCEs for Specific Upgrades and Downgrades

• Freeway grade of 3% or greater and longer than 0.40 km or a grade between 2% and 3% and
longer than 0.80 km is considered as a separate segment.
• Where upgrades and downgrades are severe and require that trucks change to low gears
(downshift), there will be adverse impact on traffic flow.
• Refer to Tables 9.4–9.6 (see appendix) for PCEs for heavy vehicles traveling on specific
upgrades. For RVs, a downgrade is treated as if it were level.
PCEs for Composite Grades
• When a freeway segment consists of two or more consecutive upgrades with different
slopes, the average grade technique may be used to determine the PCE of heavy vehicles
provided all grades within the segment are less than 4% or the total length of the composite
grade is less than 1,200 m (4,000 ft).
o Determine the average grade of the segment by diving the total rise in elevation by the
total horizontal distance of the segment.
o Use the computed average grade with Tables 9.4 or 9.5 (provided separately) to
determine the PCE values for trucks and RVs.
• Refer to the HCM for additional analysis situations involving composite grades (e.g.,
combining two or more successive grades when the grades exceed 4% or the combined
length is greater than 1200 m).

Example: A freeway segment consists of two consecutive upgrades of 3%, 600m long and 2%,
450m long. Determine the PCE of trucks/buses on this composite upgrade if 6% of the vehicles
are trucks and buses.
Solution: Use the average grade technique since the grades are less than 4% and the total length
of the composite grade is less than 1200 m.
Total rise = (3% * 600) + (2% * 450) = 27m
Average grade = total rise divided by total horizontal distance = 27/(600 + 450) = 2.6%
From Table 9.4 (see appendix), PCE for trucks/buses (ET) = 1.5.

Adjustment Factor For Unfamiliar Driver Population, fp

• The driver population factor (fp) represents the impact of unfamiliar drivers on traffic flow.
• Higher proportion of unfamiliar drivers impose greater impact (reduce traffic flow).
• fp range is 0.85–1.00, where 1.00 (no impact) is often used for commuter drivers.

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Step 5: Check LOS F
• Check if the demand flow rate (vp) exceeds the capacity for the basic freeway segment.
Table 4 presents capacity values for different FFS.
• If the demand flow rate exceeds the capacity, the segment is operating at LOS F (worst).
• If the demand flow rate is less than capacity, proceed to Step 6 to determine the actual LOS.
Step 6: Estimate Speed and Density
• Compare the demand flow rate (vp) with the flow rates at breakpoint (Table 3).
• If the demand flow rate (vp) is less than the flow rate at breakpoint, the mean speed of the
traffic stream is equal to the FFS. Use the FFS from Step 3 in Equation 5 to find density
(this is just one of the service measures or measures of effectiveness).
• If the flow rate (vp) is greater than the flow rate at breakpoint, it means the mean speed of
the traffic stream is less than the FFS. Use the appropriate equation in Table 3 to calculate
the mean speed of the traffic stream and use it in Equation 5 to compute density.
• Calculate density using Equation 5. (Equation 5 is analogous to Greenshields’ q = uk)
vp
D= (5)
S
Where:
D = Density, pc/mi/ln
vp = Demand flow rate (pc/h/ln)
S = Mean speed of traffic stream under base conditions, mi/h

Step 7: Determine LOS

• Using the computed density from Step 6, refer to the definitions of LOS (A–D) in Table 6
or 6a and select the appropriate LOS; Figure 2 can also be used.

Uses of Capacity Analysis Procedures

• Capacity analysis procedures can be used for:
o Operational analysis
o Design analysis
o Planning analysis
• Operational Analysis
o It involves using known or projected geometric and traffic conditions to estimate LOS.
It is useful in evaluating the impacts of alternative designs.
o Follow the above steps (Steps 1 to 7) to conduct operational analysis.
• Design Analysis
o It involves using projected demand volume, selected design standards and a desired
LOS to determine the number of lanes of a roadway.
o Design Steps
 Assume a four-lane freeway (two lanes per direction).
 Determine demand flow rate in pc/h/ln using anticipated traffic characteristics (PHF,
percent heavy vehicles) and peak hour volume (directional design hour volume).
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  Establish anticipated roadway conditions (lane width, right-shoulder clearance &
terrain grade) from design guidelines.
 Estimate FFS and determine LOS
 If the calculated LOS is worse than the desired LOS, increase the number of lanes
and repeat the steps.

• Planning Analysis
o This may include planning for LOS and number of lanes.
o Required data include anticipated AADT in the design year, anticipated heavy vehicle
percentage and general classification of the terrain type. Estimates or default values can
be used for the remaining input values.
o Planning Steps:
 Convert AADT to DDHV using Equation 6 and use either the operational or design
analysis procedures already described.

DDVHV = AADT ∗ K ∗ D (6)

Where:
DDHV = Directional design hourly volume (veh/hr)
AADT = Anticipated annual average daily traffic (veh/day)
K = Proportion of AADT occurring in the peak hour
D = Proportion of peak hour traffic in the heavier direction

Values of K and D are based on local conditions. Typical K and V values are shown in Table 12.
Table 12. Typical K and D Values
Roadway Class K values D values
Urban freeways 0.08–0.09 0.52–0.55
Rural freeways 0.15–0.20 0.75

Worked Examples
Example 1: An urban freeway with a base FFS of 75 mi/hr. has a demand volume of 4,960
veh/hr. It has three 12-ft lanes in each direction with a right-side lateral clearance of 5ft. The
total ramp density of 1.0. The traffic stream is comprised of 12% heavy vehicles and a PHF of
0.90. The terrain is level throughout the segment, and the mean speed of the traffic stream is 73
mi/hr. What is the LOS of the facility?
Solution
Step 1: Compute FFS
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84
Given:
FFS = 75 mi/h
fLW = 0.0
fLC = 0.4 (from Table 9)
TRD = 1.0
FFS = 75 − 0.0 − 0.4 − 3.22(1.0)0.84 = 71.93 mi/h
13
Because 71.93 mi/h falls within the range ≥ 67.5 mi/h < 72.5 mi/h: use FFS = 70 mi/h
Step 2: Adjust demand volume
V
vp =
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP

From the given information:

V = 4960 veh/h
PHF = 0.90
N = 3
fp = 1.0 (commuter drivers)
PT = 12% (0.12)
ET = 2.0 (from Table 11)

Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (ignoring RVs)

1 1 1
fHV = = = = 0.89
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + PT (ET − 1) 1 + 0.12(2.0 − 1)

Therefore,
4960
vp = = 2064 pc/hr/ln
0.90 ∗ 3 ∗ 0.89 ∗ 1

Step 3: Check LOS F

At FFS of 70 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln (Table 4). Since the demand flow rate (vp) of
2064 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.
Step 4: Estimate Speed and Density
Mean speed of the traffic stream is already given as 73 mi/hr. Density is calculated as follows:
vp 2064
D= = = 28.3pc/mi/ln
S 73
Step 5: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6, the facility operates at LOS D.

Example 2: A freeway segment with three lanes per direction and width of 11 ft has demand
volume of 1,726 veh/hr, PHF of 0.927, trucks and buses represent 5% of the traffic stream, right-
side lateral clearance of 4 ft, ramp density of 0.5 ramps/mi, a level terrain and mostly commuter
driver population. (a) Determine the LOS (b) Determine the LOS if the demand volume doubles
to 3,452 veh/hr.

Solution (a):
Step 1: Determine FFS

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84

Where:

14
 fLW = 1.9 (from Table 9)
fLC = 0.8 (from Table 10)
TRD = 0.5

FFS = 75.4 − 1.9 − 0.8 − 3.22(0.5)0.84 = 70.9mi/hr

Because 70.9 mi/h falls within the range ≥ 67.5 mi/h < 72.5 mi/h: use FFS = 70 mi/h
Step 2: Adjust Demand Volume
V
vp =
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP

From the given information:

V = 1726 veh/h
PHF = 0.927
N = 3
fp = 1.0 (commuter drivers)
PT = 5% (0.05)
PR = 0%
ET = 2.0 (from Table 11)

Heavy vehicle adjustment factor, fHV

1 1 1
fHV = = = = 0.952
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + PT (ET − 1) 1 + 0.05(2.0 − 1)

Therefore,
1726
vp = = 651 pc/hr/ln
0.927 ∗ 3 ∗ 0.95 ∗ 1

Step 3: Check for LOS F

At FFS of 70 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln. Since the demand flow rate (vp) of 651pc/hr/ln
is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

Step 4: Estimate Speed and Density

Recall that a unique feature of the FFS curve (Figure 2) is the mean speed of the traffic stream is
equal to the FFS for low flow rates until the flow rate reaches the break point. For FFS of 70
mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate is ≤ 1200 pc/hr/ln
(Table 3).
Density is calculated as follows:
vp 651
D= = = 9.3pc/mi/ln
S 70
Step 5: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6, the facility operates at LOS A.
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Solution (b): Demand volume doubles to 3452 veh/hr

Step 2: Adjust Demand Volume

Most of the previously calculated values remain the same, but the calculations for vp and S
would be different, as shown here.

3452
vp = = 1306 pc/hr/ln
0.927 ∗ 3 ∗ 0.95 ∗ 1

Step 3: Check for LOS F

At FFS of 70 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln. Since the demand flow rate (vp) of 1306
pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual level of service.

Step 4: Estimate Speed and Density

A unique feature of the FFS curve (Figure 2) is the mean speed is equal to the FFS for low flow
rates until the flow rate reaches the breakpoint. For 70 mi/hr, the mean speed is equal to the FFS
when the flow rate is ≤ 1200 pc/hr/ln (Table 3). Since the flow rate of 1306 pc/hr/ln exceeds the
breakpoint flow rate of 1200 pc/hr/ln, the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined
using the relevant equation in Table 3. For FFS of 70 mi/hr, Equation 1b is used for calculating
the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 70 − 0.00001160�vp − 1200� (1b)

S = 70 − 0.00001160(1306 − 1200)2 = 69.87 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 1306
D= = = 18.69pc/mi/ln
S 69.87
Step 5: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6, the facility operates at LOS C. If demand volume doubles, the LOS changes
from LOS A to LOS C.

16
 Multilane Highway Capacity
• Multilane highways are like freeways. However, multilane highways:
o Have partial control of access. Vehicles may enter or leave the roadway at at-grade
intersections and driveways.
o May or may not be divided by a barrier or median separating opposing flow directions.
 They can have a two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL)
 Freeways are always divided and have no TWLTL
o May have traffic signals at major crossing points.
o Have lower design standards (e.g., design speed) than freeways
o Usually have two or three lanes in each direction.
o Have posted speed limits between 40 and 65 mi/hr.
o Between fixed interruption points, such as two signalized intersections at more than 2
miles apart, multilane highways operate similarly as freeways (with uninterrupted flow
conditions), except that the flow is not as efficient as that on freeways.
o Side and median friction, with vehicles entering and leaving the roadway and the
existence of opposing lanes on undivided multilane highways are common occurrences.

Capacity and LOS Determination for Multilane Highways

• The procedures for determining capacity and LOS for multilane highways are like those for
freeways. The speed-flow relationship and some of the FFS adjustment factors differ.
• The three main analysis procedures for determining LOS for multilane highways are:
o Determination of FFS
o Adjustment of demand volume
o Determination of LOS

Base (Ideal) Conditions for Multilane Highways (HCM, 2016)

• 12-foot (3.6-m) minimum lane widths
• 12-foot (3.6-m) minimum total lateral clearance (TLC) from roadside objects (right
shoulder and median) in the travel direction.
• Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
• No direct access points along the roadway
• Divided highway
• Level terrain (no grades greater than 2%)
• A minimum FFS of 60 mi/hr
• Driver population comprising primarily commuters
• There are no heavy vehicles (trucks, buses, RVs)
• Weather and driver visibility are good and do not affect traffic flow

17
 Speed-Flow Curve
• The speed-flow curve for multilane highways (Figure 3) shows FFS remains constant while
flow rate increases up to a breakpoint, after which mean speed of traffic begins to diminish.
o That is, the mean speed is equal to the FFS from low volumes until the density is high to
impact travel speed. Beyond the breakpoint, the mean speed drops below the FFS.
• Flow rates at breakpoint is the same for all FFS, and are shown in Table 13. The table also
shows equations for calculating mean speed of the traffic stream beyond the breakpoint.
• Equations 7a through 7d are used to compute mean speed of the traffic stream beyond the
breakpoint. Figure 3 can also be used to find the mean speed beyond the breakpoint.

Figure 3: Speed-Flow Curves for Multilane Highway Segments (HCM, 2016)

Table 13: Flow Rate at Breakpoint and Mean Speed Beyond Breakpoint for Multilane Highways
FFS Flow Rate at Breakpoint Mean Speed Beyond Breakpoint
(mi/h) (pc/h/ln) (For vp ≥1400 pc/h/ln)
1.31
�vp − 1400�
60 1400 S = 60 − �5.00 ∗ � � � (7a)
800
1.31
�vp − 1400�
55 1400 S = 55 − �3.78 ∗ � � � (7b)
700
1.31
�vp − 1400�
50 1400 S = 50 − �3.49 ∗ � � � (7c)
600
1.31
�vp − 1400�
45 1400 S = 45 − �2.78 ∗ � � � (7d)
500

Where: vp = Demand flow rate (pc/h/ln) under equivalent base conditions

18
• Capacity varies with FFS, as shown in Table 13. These capacity values are average values
obtained mostly under U.S. conditions and may vary at different locations.
• Capacity is reached at a density of 45 pc/mi/ln (28pc/km/ln).
• The capacity values in Table 13 are calculated using the equation below:

Multilane Capacity = Min[1900 + 20(FFS − 45), 2300] 45 ≤ FFS ≤ 70

Table 13: FFS and Capacity on Multilane Highways (HCM 2016)

FFS (mi/hr) FFS (km/hr) Capacity (pc/hr/ln)
70 113 2,300
65 105 2,300
60 97 2,200
55 89 2,100
50 80 2,000
45 72 1,900

LOS Criteria for Multilane Highway Segments

Tables 14a and 14b provide LOS criteria for multilane highway segments corresponding to
density, speed, volume-to-capacity ratio and maximum flow rate. Under base conditions, the
speeds, volume-to-capacity ratios and the tabulated maximum service flow are expected to exist
in traffic streams operating at the densities defined for each LOS.

Table 14a: LOS Criterion (Density) for Multilane Highway (HCM, 2010)
LOS FFS (mi/hr) Density (pc/mi/ln)
A All 0–11
B All 12–18
C All 19–26
D All 27–35
60 34–40
55 34–41
E
50 34–43
45 34–45
Demand Flow (vp) Exceeds Capacity OR
60 40
F 55 41
50 43
45 45

19
 Table 14b: LOS Criteria for Multilane Highway Segment (HCM, 2016)
Free Flow Speed LOS
Criteria
(FFS) A B C D E
Max. density (pc/mi/ln) 11 18 26 35 45
70 mi/h Average speed (mi/h) 70.0 70.0 65.4 58.1 51.1
(112 km/h) Max. volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) 0.33 0.55 0.74 0.88 1.00
Max. service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 770 1260 1700 2035 2300
Max. density (pc/mi/ln) 11 18 26 35 45
65 mi/h Average speed (mi/h) 65.0 65.0 62.7 57.0 51.1
(104 km/h) Max. volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) 0.31 0.51 0.71 0.87 1.00
Max. service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 715 1170 1630 1995 2300
Max. density (pc/mi/ln) 11 18 26 35 45
60 mi/h Average speed (mi/h) 65.0 65.0 64.0 58.9 52.2
(96 km/h) Max. volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) 0.30 0.49 0.70 0.86 1.00
Max. service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 660 1080 1535 1895 2200
Max. density (pc/mi/ln) 11 18 26 35 45
55 mi/h Average speed (mi/h) 55.0 55.0 54.8 51.1 46.7
(88 km/h) Max. volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) 0.29 0.47 0.68 0.85 1.00
Max. service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 605 990 1425 1790 2100
Max. density (pc/mi/ln) 11 18 26 35 45
50 mi/h Average speed (mi/h) 50.0 50.0 50.0 48.0 44.4
(80 km/h) Max. volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) 0.28 0.45 0.65 0.84 1.00
Max. service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 550 900 1300 1680 2000
Max. density (pc/mi/ln) 11 18 26 35 45
45 mi/h Average speed (mi/h) 45.0 45.0 45.0 44.4 42.2
(72 km/h) Max. volume-to-capacity ratio (v/c) 0.26 0.43 0.62 0.82 1.00
Max. service flow rate (pc/h/ln) 495 810 1170 1555 1900

Determination of LOS and Capacity of Multilane Highway Segments

Select Adjust Estimate

Collect Determine Check Determine
FFS Demand Speed &
Input Data FFS LOS F LOS
Curve Volume Density

Step 1: Collect Input Data

Table 14 shows data required to analyze the capacity and LOS of multilane highway segments.
Table 14: Input Data for Multilane Highway Capacity and LOS Analysis
Data Inputs Data Elements
• Free flow speed
• Number of lanes in one direction and their widths
Multilane highway data • Right-side and median lateral clearance
• Roadside access points per mile
• Terrain (i.e., level, rolling, mountainous, length and percent grade)
• Peak hour volume (demand volume)
• PHF
Traffic demand data
• Percent of heavy vehicles (trucks, buses and RVs)
• Driver population (commuters, unfamiliar drivers, etc.)
Analysis period • Typically the peak 15-minute period within the peak hour
20
Step 2: Determine FFS
FFS is determined by field measurement or by estimation using an equation.
(a) Field Measurement: FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured under low to
moderate flows, no greater than 1400 pc/h/ln. Field-measured FFS needs no adjustment,
because it reflects the net effect of all site conditions that influence speed, including lane
width, lateral clearance, median type, access points, posted speed limits and alignment.
a. Systematically sample a minimum of 100 cars across all lanes during off-peak hours and
measure their speeds.
b. Estimate FFS from 85th percentile speed and posted speed limit if it is not feasible to
measure FFS directly in the field. Table 15 provides some rules-of-thumb.

Table 15. Estimation of FFS from 85th Percentile Speed and Speed Limit
Available Speed FFS under Base Conditions
85th percentile speed of 40 mi/hr 1 mi/hr lower (i.e., 39 mi/hr)
85th percentile speed of 60 mi/hr 3 mi/hr (i.e., 57 mi/hr)
Speed limit of 40 mi/hr or 45 mi/hr 7 mi/hr higher (47 mi/hr or 52 mi/hr)
Speed limit of 50 mi/hr or higher 5 mi/hr higher (55 mi/hr or higher)

(b) Estimation of FFS: Use the Equation 7 to estimate FFS. This equation accounts for
roadway characteristics of lane width, lateral clearance, presence or lack of median and
access density.
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fTLC − fM − fA (7)
Where:
FFS = Estimated free flow speed, mi/h
BFFS = Base FFS for multilane highway, mi/h.
fLW = Adjustment for lane width, mi/h
fTLC = Adjustment for total lateral clearance (TLC), mi/h
fM = Adjustment for median type
fA = Adjustment for number of access points along roadway, mi/hr

Lane Width Adjustment, fLW

These factors are the same as those for freeways (Table 8).
Lateral Clearance Adjustment, fTLC
• Roadside obstructions such as trees, guardrails, retaining walls, traffic barriers, light posts,
utility posts, road signs that are closer than 6 ft. impose psychological discomfort on drivers
and cause them to lower their speed.
• First compute the total lateral clearance using Equation 8
TLC = LCR + LCL (8)
Where:
TLC = Total lateral clearance, ft.
LCR = Lateral clearance from right edge of lane to obstructions (max. 6 ft)
LCL = Lateral clearance from left edge of lane to obstructions in median (max. 6 ft)
21
• For undivided highways, no adjustment is made for the left-side lateral clearance because
this is already accounted for in the median type adjustment factor (fm)
• If an individual lateral clearance (either left or right) exceeds 6 ft., use a max. of 6 ft.
• Highways with two-way left-turn lanes (TWLTLs) are considered to have LCL equal to 6 ft.
• Having calculated TLC, use the value to select the adjustment factor from Table 15.
Table 15: Adjustment for Total Lateral Clearance, fTLC (HCM, 2016)
Total Lateral Reduction in FFS, fTLC (mi/h)
Clearance (ft) Four-Lane Highways Six-Lane Highways
12 0.0 0.0
10 0.4 0.4
8 0.9 0.9
6 1.3 1.3
4 1.8 1.7
2 3.6 2.8
0 5.4 3.9

Median Type Adjustment, fM

Table 16: Adjustment for Median Type, fM (HCM, 2016)

Median Type Reduction in FFS, fm (mi/h)
Undivided highways 1.6
Divided highways
0.0
(including TWLTLs)

Access-Point Density Adjustment, fA

• Access points include intersections and driveways on the right side of the highway in the
direction of travel being studied that significantly influence traffic flow.
• Access points exclude driveways to individual residences or service driveways to
commercial sites.
• For divided roadways, determine access-density by dividing the total number of access
points (intersections and driveways) on the right side of the roadway in the direction of
travel being studied by the length of the segment in miles.
• For one-way multilane highways, include driveways on both sides.

Table 17: Adjustment for Access-Point Density, fA (HCM, 2016)

Access Points/mile Reduction in FFS, fA (mi/h)
0 0.0
10 2.5
20 5.0
30 7.5
≥40 10.0

22
Step 3: Select FFS Curve
Round the FFS calculated in Step 2 to the nearest 5 mi/hr (8 km/hr) to coincide with one of the
standard four speed curves (45–60 mi/hr) in Figure 3, based on the following limits:
• ≥ 42.5 mi/h < 47.5 mi/h: use FFS = 45 mi/h
• ≥ 47.5 mi/h < 52.5 mi/h: use FFS = 50 mi/h
• ≥ 52.5 mi/h < 57.5 mi/h: use FFS = 55 mi/h
• ≥ 57.5 mi/h < 62.5 mi/h: use FFS = 60 mi/h

Step 4: Adjust Demand Volume

• The demand volume (peak hour volume) is the measured or projected volume for the busiest hour.
• The demand volume must be adjusted to provide flow rate for a single lane.
• If the traffic stream contains heavy vehicles and/or a non-commuter driver population, the
demand volume must be converted to a demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions,
accounting for the presence of heavy vehicles and unfamiliar drivers.
• Equation 8 converts demand volume to a demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions.
V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP

Where:
vp = Demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions, pc/h/ln
V = Demand volume under prevailing conditions in one direction, (veh/h)
PHF = Peak hour factor
N = Number of lanes in the analysis direction
fHV = Adjustment factor for presence of heavy vehicles in traffic stream
fp = Adjustment factor for unfamiliar driver populations.

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

Same as freeway.
Adjustment Factor For Unfamiliar Driver Population, fp
• Range is 0.85–1.00. Use 1.00 for commuters or other accustomed drivers.
• Reduce fp if there is significant recreational traffic.

Step 5: Check LOS F

• Check if the demand flow rate (vp) exceeds the capacity for the multilane highway segment.
Table 13 presents the capacity values for different FFS.
• If the demand flow rate (vp) exceeds the capacity, the segment is operating at LOS F.
• If the demand flow rate (vp) is less than capacity, proceed to Step 6 to determine the actual LOS.

Step 6: Estimate Speed and Density

• Compare the demand flow rate (vp) with a flow rate of 1,400 pc/hr/ln at breakpoint (Table 13).
• If the demand flow rate (vp) is less than 1,400 pc/hr/ln, it means the mean speed of the
traffic stream is equal to the FFS. Use the FFS determined in Step 3 in Equation 9, below,
to calculate density.

23
• If the calculated flow rate (vp) is greater than 1,400 pc/hr/ln, it means the mean speed of the
traffic stream is less than the FFS. Use the appropriate equation in Table 13 to calculate the
mean speed of the traffic stream and use it in Equation 9 to compute density.
• Calculate density using Equation 9.

vp
D= (9)
S
Where:
D = Density, pc/mi/ln
vp = Demand flow rate (pc/h/ln)
S = Mean speed of traffic stream under base conditions, mi/h

Step 7: Determine LOS

• Using the computed density value, refer to the definitions of LOS (A–D) in Table 14 (a or
b) and select the LOS corresponding to this value or use Figure 3.

Worked Example: Determine the LOS of a multilane highway segment of uniform grade with
the following details:
• Length of highway = 3.25 mi (5.2 km)
• Length of segment = 3200 ft (960 m)
• Terrain = Level
• Lane width = 11 ft. (3.3 m)
• Number of lanes = 2 (in each direction)
• Facility location = Suburban area
• Free flow speed (FFS) = 46 mi/h (74 km/h) (measured)
• Demand volume = 1900 veh/h
• PHF = 0.90
• Driver population = Commuters and residents
• Truck composition = 13%

Solution:
Step 1: Determine FFS
Since the FFS is measured, no adjustments are necessary.
FFS = 46 mi/h (74 km/h)

Step 2: Select FFS Curve

• Since the FFS is 46 mi/h (74 km/h), it falls within the ≥ 42.5 mi/h < 47.5 mi/h range. Use
FFS = 45 mi/h (72.4 km/h) standard FFS value.

24
Step 3: Adjust Demand Volume
Use Equation 8 (above) to adjust the demand volume to equivalent base condition:

V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP
Where:
N = 2 lanes in the analysis direction
fp = 1.00 (commuter and resident drivers)
fHV = Use Equation 4 (under basic freeways) to compute it

The heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV) is computed as using Equation 4 (refer to basic
freeway). The question has no information on recreational vehicles, so PR and ER are omitted.
PT = 13% (0.13) and ET = 2.0 (Table 11).

1 1 1
fHV = = = = 0.885
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + PT (ET − 1) 1 + 0.13(2.0 − 1)
Therefore,
1900
vp = = 1,193 pc/h/ln
(0.90)(2)(0.885)(1.00)

Step 4: Check for LOS F

At FFS of 45 mi/hr, the capacity is 1900 pc/hr/ln (see Table 13). Since the demand flow rate (vp)
of 1,193 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual level of service.

Step 5: Estimate Speed and Density

As seen in Figure 3, the mean speed of the traffic stream is equal to the FFS for low flow rates
until the flow rate reaches the breakpoint of 1400 pc/hr/ln. Since the flow rate of 1,193 pc/hr/ln
is less than the breakpoint flow rate of 1400 pc/hr/ln, the mean speed of the traffic stream is
equal to the measured FFS of 46 mi/h.
Density is calculated as follows:
vp 1193
D= = = 25.93pc/mi/ln
S 46
Step 5: Determine LOS
Based on Table 14a, the facility operates at LOS D.

25
 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS ON LOS AND CAPACITY ANALYSIS

Question 1: Describe the possible situations that require adjustments from the base conditions
for freeway and multilane highway capacity analysis.
Question 2: Describe the factors that affect the LOS of a freeway and multilane highway
facilities and the impact each factor has on flow. [Hint: lane width, lateral clearance, traffic
composition, grade, driver population, interchange spacing (ramp density), access density].
Question 3: Briefly describe the traffic characteristics associated with each of the LOS for basic
freeway sections.
Question 4: Distinguish between basic freeway and multilane highway facility. Mention
examples of roadways in Ghana that generally qualify as freeway and multilane facility.
Question 5: A freeway is to be designed to provide LOS C for the following conditions: design
hourly volume of 5600 veh/h; PHF: 0.92; trucks: 6%; FFS: 70 mi/h (112 km/h); no lateral
obstructions; rolling terrain; total ramp density of 0.5 ramps/mi. Determine the number of 12-ft
(3.6-m) lanes required in each direction.
Solution:
Step 1: Compute heavy vehicle adjustment factor, fHV
• fp (driver population factor); assuming mainly commuter traffic, fp = 1.0
• ET (PCE for trucks). From Table 10, ET = 2.5
• ER (PCE for trucks). From Table 10, ER = 2.0
Compute fHV (heavy vehicle adjustment factor) using Equation 4:
1 1
fHV = = = 0.92
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + 0.06(2.5 − 1) + 0.00(2.0 − 1)

Step 2: Assume 6 lanes (3 per direction). Use Eqn. 8 to calculate the adjusted demand flow, vp
V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP

5600
vp = = 2205 pc/h/ln
(0.92)(3)(0.92)(1.0)

Step 3: Compute FFS using Equation 2a

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)
• Adjustment for lane width (fLW) from Table 8 = 0 (Lane width of 12 ft or 3.6 m is standard)
• Adjustment for right-side lateral clearance (fLC) from Table 9 = 0 (No lateral obstructions)
• Total ramp density (TRD) = 0.5 ramps/mi.

FFS = 75.4 − 0.0 − 0.0 − 3.22(0.5)0.84 = 73.6 mi/h

26
From freeway capacity analysis (Page 9), if FFS is within the range ≥ 72.5 mi/h < 77.5 mi/h: use
FFS = 75 mi/h. Since the FFS of 73.6 mi/h computed from Step 3 is this range, a FFS of 75 mi/h
will be used for the analysis.
Step 4: Check for LOS F
At FFS of 75 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln (Table 4). Since the demand flow rate (vp) of
2205 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

Step 5: Estimate speed and density

For FFS of 75 mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate ≤
1000 pc/hr/ln (Table 3).
Since the flow rate of 2205 pc/hr/ln (Step 2) exceeds the breakpoint flow rate of 1000 pc/hr/ln,
the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined using the relevant equation in Table 3.
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, Equation 1a is used for calculating the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 75 − 0.00001107�vp − 1000� (1a)

S = 75 − 0.00001107(2205 − 1000)2 = 58.92 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 2205
D= = = 37.42pc/mi/ln
S 58.92
Step 6: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6a, this density corresponds to LOS E. The desired LOS is C; therefore, a three
lane section is inadequate.

Repeat Steps 2 through 5

Step 2a: Assume eight lanes (four per direction) and use Equation 8 to calculate the adjusted
demand flow, vp
V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP

5600
vp = = 1654 pc/h/ln
(0.92)(4)(0.92)(1.0)

Step 3a: Compute FFS using Equation 2a

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)
• Same as before

FFS = 75.4 − 0.0 − 0.0 − 3.22(0.5)0.84 = 73.6 mi/h

Step 4a: Check for LOS F

At FFS of 75 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln (Table 4). Since the demand flow rate (vp) of
1654 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

27
Step 5a: Estimate speed and density
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate ≤
1000 pc/hr/ln (Table 3).
Since the flow rate of 1654 pc/hr/ln (Step 2a) exceeds the breakpoint flow rate of 1000 pc/hr/ln,
the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined using the relevant equation in Table 3.
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, Equation 1a is used for calculating the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 75 − 0.00001107�vp − 1000� (1a)

S = 75 − 0.00001107(1654 − 1000)2 = 70.27 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 1654
D= = = 23.54pc/mi/ln
S 70.27
Step 6a: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6a, this density corresponds to LOS C. The desired LOS is C; therefore, a four
lane section is adequate.

Question 6: Determine LOS for an existing rural freeway in rolling terrain using the following
information: two lanes in each direction, peak hour volume of 2640 veh/h (in the peak
direction), 20% trucks, PHF = 0.91, lane width = 12 ft (3.6 m), lateral clearance = 10 ft (3 m),
average interchange spacing is 3 mi (4.8 km); ramp density is 0.33 ramps/mi.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine adjusted demand flow rate (vp) using Equation 8.

V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP
• fp (driver population factor); assuming mainly commuter traffic, fp = 1.0
• ET (PCE for trucks), using Table 10; ET = 2.5
• ER (PCE for trucks), using Table 10; ER = 2.0
Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV) is calculated using Equation 4:

1 1
fHV = = = 0.769
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + 0.20(2.5 − 1) + 0.00(2.0 − 1)

2640
vp = = 1886 pc/h/ln
(0.91)(2)(0.769)(1.0)

Step 2: Compute FFS using Equation 2a

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)
• Adjustment for lane width (fLW) from Table 8 = 0 (width of 12 ft or 3.6 m needs no adjustment)
• Adjustment for right-side lateral clearance (fLC) from Table 9 = 0 (shoulder width ≥ 6ft)
• Total ramp density (TRD) = 0.33 ramps/mi

28
 FFS = 75.4 − 0.0 − 0.0 − 3.22(0.33)0.84 = 74.13 mi/h

From freeway capacity analysis (Page 9), if FFS is within the range ≥ 72.5 mi/h < 77.5 mi/h: use
FFS = 75 mi/h. Since the FFS of 74.13 mi/h is in this range, a FFS of 75 mi/h will be used for
the analysis.
Step 3: Check for LOS F
At FFS of 75 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln. Since the demand flow rate (vp) of 1886
pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

Step 4: Estimate speed and density

For FFS of 75 mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate ≤
1000 pc/hr/ln (Table 3).
Since the flow rate of 1886 pc/hr/ln (Step 1) exceeds the breakpoint flow rate of 1000 pc/hr/ln,
the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined using the relevant equation in Table 3.
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, Equation 1a is used for calculating the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 75 − 0.00001107�vp − 1000� (1a)

S = 75 − 0.00001107(1886 − 1000)2 = 66.31 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 1886
D= = = 28.44 pc/mi/ln
S 66.31
Step 5: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6a, this density corresponds to LOS D.

Question 7: An existing urban freeway with four lanes in each direction has the following
characteristics: peak hour volume (in the peak direction) of 7070 veh/h, trucks are 10% of peak
hour volume, PHF = 0.94, lane width = 11 ft (3.3 m), shoulder width = 6 ft (1.8 m), total ramp
density = 1.8 ramps per mile (1.125 ramps/km), rolling terrain. Determine the LOS in the peak
hour.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine adjusted demand flow rate (vp) using Equation 8.

V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP
• fp (driver population factor); assuming mainly commuter traffic, fp = 1.0
• ET (PCE for trucks), using Table 10; ET = 2.5
• ER (PCE for trucks), using Table 10; ER = 2.0
Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV) is calculated using Equation 4:

1 1
fHV = = = 0.870
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + 0.10(2.5 − 1) + 0.0

29
Therefore,
7070
vp = = 2163 pc/h/ln
(0.94)(4)(0.870)(1.0)

Step 2: Compute FFS using Equation 2a

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)
• Adjustment for lane width (fLW) from Table 8 = 1.9 (Lane width of 11 ft)
• Adjustment for right-side lateral clearance (fLC) from Table 9 = 0 (shoulder width ≥ 6ft)
• Total ramp density (TRD) = 1.8 ramps/mi

FFS = 75.4 − 1.9 − 0.0 − 3.22(1.8)0.84 = 68.22 mi/h

From freeway capacity analysis (Page 9), if FFS is within the range ≥ 67.5 mi/h < 72.5 mi/h: use
FFS = 70 mi/h. Since the FFS of 68.22 mi/h is in this range, a FFS of 70 mi/h will be used for
the analysis.
Step 3: Check for LOS F
At FFS of 70 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln (Table 4). Since the demand flow rate (vp) of
2163 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

Step 4: Estimate speed and density

For FFS of 70 mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate ≤
1200 pc/hr/ln (Table 3).
Since the flow rate of 2163 pc/hr/ln (from Step 1) exceeds the breakpoint flow rate of 1200
pc/hr/ln, the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined using the relevant equation in
Table 3.
For FFS of 70 mi/hr, Equation 1b is used for calculating the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 70 − 0.00001160�vp − 1200� (1b)

S = 70 − 0.00001160(2163 − 1200)2 = 59.24 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 2163
D= = = 36.51 pc/mi/ln
S 59.24
Step 5: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6a, this density corresponds to LOS E in the peak hour.

Question 8: An urban freeway is to be designed using the following information: AADT =

52,000 veh/day; K (proportion of AADT occurring during the peak hour) = 0.11; D (proportion
of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction) = 0.65; trucks = 8% of peak hour volume;
PHF = 0.95; lane width = 12 ft (3.6 m); shoulder width = 10 ft (3 m); total ramp density = 0.5
interchange/mile (0.3125 interchange/km); all interchanges are to be cloverleaf interchanges;
rolling terrain. Determine the number of lanes required to provide LOS C.

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Solution:
Step 1: Compute Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV) using Equation 6
DDVHV = AADT ∗ K ∗ D (6)
Where:
DDHV = Directional design hourly volume (veh/hr)
AADT = Anticipated annual average daily traffic (veh/day)
K = Proportion of AADT occurring in the peak hour
D = Proportion of peak hour traffic in the heavier direction

DDVHV = 52000 ∗ 0.11 ∗ 0.65 = 3718 veh/h

Step 2: Determine adjusted demand flow rate (vp) using Equation 8.

V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP
• Assume 2 lanes per direction will be adequate
• fp (driver population factor); assuming mainly commuter traffic, fp = 1.0
• ET (PCE for trucks), using Table 10; ET = 2.5
• ER (PCE for trucks), using Table 10; ER = 2.0
• There are no recreational vehicles, PR = 0
Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV) is calculated using Equation 4:
1 1
fHV = = = 0.893
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1) 1 + 0.08(2.5 − 1) + 0.0

Therefore,
3718
vp = = 2191 pc/h/ln
(0.95)(2)(0.893)(1.0)

Step 3: Compute FFS using Equation 2a

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)
• Adjustment for lane width (fLW) from Table 8 = 0.0 (Lane width ≥ 12ft)
• Adjustment for right-side lateral clearance (fLC) from Table 9 = 0 (shoulder width ≥ 6ft)
• Total ramp density (TRD) = 0.5 ramps/mi

FFS = 75.4 − 1.9 − 0.0 − 3.22(0.5)0.84 = 73.60 mi/h

From freeway capacity analysis (Page 9), if FFS is within the range ≥ 72.5 mi/h < 77.5 mi/h: use
FFS = 75 mi/h. Since the FFS of 73.60 mi/h is in this range, a FFS of 75 mi/h will be used for
the analysis.

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Step 4: Check for LOS F
At FFS of 75 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln (Table 4). Since the demand flow rate (vp) of
2191 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

Step 5: Estimate speed and density

For FFS of 75 mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate ≤
1000 pc/hr/ln (Table 3).
Since the flow rate of 2191 pc/hr/ln (from Step 2) exceeds the breakpoint flow rate of 1000
pc/hr/ln, the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined using the relevant equation in
Table 3.
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, Equation 1a is used for calculating the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 75 − 0.00001107�vp − 1200� (1a)

S = 75 − 0.00001107(2191 − 1200)2 = 59.30 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 2191
D= = = 36.94 pc/mi/ln
S 59.30
Step 6: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6a, this density corresponds to LOS D, so 2 lanes are inadequate.

Repeat Steps 2 through 6

Step 2a: Try 6 lanes (3 per direction) and use Equation 8 to calculate the adjusted demand flow,
vp
V
vp = (8)
PHF ∗ N ∗ fHV ∗ fP

3718
vp = = 1460 pc/h/ln
(0.95)(3)(0.893)(1.0)

Step 3a: Compute FFS using Equation 2a

FFS = 75.4 − fLW − fLC − 3.22TRD0.84 (2𝑎𝑎)
• Same as before

FFS = 75.4 − 0.0 − 0.0 − 3.22(0.5)0.84 = 73.6 mi/h

From freeway capacity analysis (Page 9), if FFS is within the range ≥ 72.5 mi/h < 77.5 mi/h: use
FFS = 75 mi/h. Since the FFS of 73.6 mi/h is in this range, a FFS of 75 mi/h will be used for the
analysis.
Step 4a: Check for LOS F
At FFS of 75 mi/hr, the capacity is 2400 pc/hr/ln (Table 4). Since the demand flow rate (vp) of
1460 pc/hr/ln is less than the capacity, determine the actual LOS.

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Step 5a: Estimate speed and density
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, the mean traffic stream speed is equal to the FFS when the flow rate ≤
1000 pc/hr/ln (Table 3).
Since the flow rate of 1460 pc/hr/ln (Step 2a) exceeds the breakpoint flow rate of 1000 pc/hr/ln,
the mean speed of the traffic stream must be determined using the relevant equation in Table 3.
For FFS of 75 mi/hr, Equation 1a is used for calculating the mean speed, as follows:
2
S = 75 − 0.00001107�vp − 1000� (1a)

S = 75 − 0.00001107(1460 − 1000)2 = 72.66 mi/hr

Density is calculated as follows:

vp 1460
D= = = 20.09pc/mi/ln
S 72.66
Step 6a: Determine LOS
Based on Table 6a, this density corresponds to LOS C. The desired LOS is C; therefore, 3 lanes
per direction are adequate.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Question 1: An existing 4-lane freeway (2 lanes in each direction) is to be expanded. The
segment length is 2 mi (3.2 km); mountainous terrain with maximum grade of 4%; Design
volume of 3000 veh/h; trucks and buses: 12%; PHF: 0.95; shoulder width: 5 ft (1.5 m).
Determine the number of additional lanes required in each direction to provide LOS B.
Question 2: A new section of multilane highway is being designed as a six-lane facility (three
lanes in each direction) with a two-way left-turn lane. Determine the peak hour LOS. Traffic
data include directional design hourly volume = 3600 veh/h, PHF = 0.94, assumed base free
flow speed = 55 mi/h (88 km/h). Geometric data include: urban setting, rolling terrain,
lane width = 11 ft (3.3 m), right shoulder width = 4 ft (1.2 m), and average access point
spacing = 12 points per mile on each side [Answer: LOS D]
Question 3: An urban freeway with a base free flow of 70 mi/h has a demand volume of 6750
veh/h. It has four 11-ft lanes in each direction with a right-side lateral clearance of 4 ft. The total
ramp density is 1.2. The traffic stream is comprised of 8% heavy vehicles (trucks and buses) and
a PHF of 0.94. The terrain is rolling throughout the segment, and the mean speed of the traffic
stream is 68 mi/h. What is the LOS of the facility? What is the capacity?
Question 4: For an urban freeway, how many 12-ft lanes in each direction are needed to achieve
LOS D on a freeway with a peak hour traffic volume of 5725 veh/h and with a PHF = 0.96? The
traffic stream is comprised of 8% trucks and buses and the location is rolling terrain. The right-
side lateral clearance is 4 ft, and interchanges are spaced approximately at 1.5 mi. apart. The
base free flow speed is 70 mi/hr.
Question 5: An urban freeway is to be designed according to the following data: design year
AADT = 82,000 veh/day, with the peak-hour fraction of AADT (i.e., K value) estimated at 10%
and a peak directional proportion (D) of 0.55; 25% trucks and buses; PHF = 0.90; level terrain;

33
no lateral obstructions; design standard: LOS D. Determine the number of lanes needed if the
estimated FFS = 65 mi/hr.
Question 6: A rural two-lane highway in level terrain presently connects two communities
experiencing rapid growth. Future DDHV is estimated to be 2300 veh/hr with 8% trucks and a
PHF = 0.90. Design a multilane highway for LOS C to replace the two-lane highway,
incorporating the following expected features: 10-ft-wide lanes, 3-ft clearance on both sides, a
raised median, and 12 access points/mile on each side. Assume a base free flow of 60 mi/hr.
Question 7: A multilane highway needs to be designed to link a developing area of Takoradi.
The highway is expected to carry a DDHV of 1800 veh/hr with 10% trucks and a PHF of 0.90.
Assume 11-ft lane width, no lateral obstruction, undivided highway, 20 access points per mile
on each side, 50-mi/hr posted speed limit, and a rolling terrain. Design the highway for LOS C.

34
 APPENDIX
PCEs for Heavy Vehicles
on Specific Upgrades and Downgrades

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