KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2023 ACADEMIC YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

CE 367 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

INTERSECTION CONTROL

DR. KENNETH A. TUTU

 INTERSECTION CONTROL
• Roadway intersection is a common area shared by two or more roads; it allows motorists
change their travel direction. It is an area of decision, where drivers select a travel path.
• Traffic flow on a network considerably depends on intersection performance.

Types of Intersections
Grade-Separated Intersections Grade-Separated Intersections
At-Grade Intersections
Without Ramps With Ramps (Interchanges)
Vehicles cross at different levels Vehicles cross at different levels without
Vehicles cross at the same level
without interruption interruption

Ramps allow vehicles from one intersecting road

No conflicts between traffic
Conflicts between intersecting traffic connect with another intersecting road.
streams
streams Many conflicts between intersecting traffic streams
are eliminated.

Unable to safely and efficiently Safely and efficiently handle Safely and efficiently accommodate large traffic
handle large traffic volumes large traffic volumes volumes
Examples are: Examples are:
• T and Y intersections (3 legs) • Trumpet interchange (e.g., Achimota)
• Cross intersections (4 legs) Various configurations • Partial cloverleaf interc. (e.g., Asokwa, Apenkwa)
• Multi-leg intersec. (5 or more legs) • Full cloverleaf interchange (e.g., Tetteh Quarshie)
• Roundabouts • Four-tier stack interchange (e.g., Pokuase)

Conflict Points At Intersections

• Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions interfere.
• Three types of conflicts: merging, diverging and crossing.
• Conflict points depends on number of approaches, turning movements and TCD type
• Intersection traffic control system’s purpose is to reduce conflict points. Crossing conflicts
have severest effect on traffic flow and safety

Cross Intersection
(Two-Lane, Two-Way)

(Credit: Wenhui et al., 2013)

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 (Credit: https://engineer-educators.com/lessons/conflicts/)

T Intersection
(Two-Lane, Two-Way)

Staggered Intersection (Two Closely Spaced T Intersections)

(Two-Lane, Two-Way)

(Credit: https://engineer-educators.com/lessons/conflicts/)

Exercise: Using an appropriate diagram, identify all the possible conflict points at an unsignalized
cross, staggered and T intersections.

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 Types of Intersection Control
• Intersection control devices include yield signs, stop signs, channelization, roundabouts and
traffic signals.
• Since traffic control devices interrupt traffic flow at intersections, implement the lowest form
of control as possible, while ensuring safe and efficient operations at the intersection.
• Consider the following factors in establishing intersection control:
o Motorized and non-motorized traffic volumes
o Number and angle of approaches
o Approach speeds
o Crash history
o Engineering judgment
• MUTCD provides guidelines (warrants) for selecting intersection control devices.

Yield (Give Way) Signs

• Drivers seeing the yield sign must give the right-of-way (ROW) to conflicting vehicles.
• Stopping at yield signs is not mandatory, but drivers must stop whenever necessary to avoid a
conflict with the traffic stream that has the ROW.
• Locations for installing yield sign include:
o Minor road and roundabout approaches
o On entrance ramp, where an adequate acceleration lane is not provided.
o At merging lanes where merging maneuvers may be hampered due to inadequate
acceleration lane length and/or inadequate sight distance.

Stop Signs
• MUTCD recommends stop sign on minor road approaches if at least one of these conditions exist:
o Traffic volumes on the major roadway exceeds 6000 vehicles per day
o Adequate observation of conflicting traffic on the major roadway requires drivers to stop
o At least three crashes that can be avoided by a stop sign have occurred within a period of
12 months or at least five of these crashed have occurred within a period of 2 years.

Multiway (Four-way or All-way) Stop Signs

• They require all vehicles approaching an intersection to stop before entering it.
• They are used as a safety measure at some intersections where approach volumes are similar.
• MUTCD’s guidelines for installing multiway stop signs include:
o Volume warrant:
 The average of the total volume on both major road approaches should not be less than
300 veh/h for any 8 hours of an average day. An average day is a weekday whose
traffic volumes are normally and repeatedly observed at the location.
 Nor should the combined volume of vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles from both
minor approaches be less than 200 units/hr for the same 8 hours.
o Safety warrant:
 Five or more crashes occur in a 12-month period, and these crashes could be avoided
with a multiway stop control.
 The average delay to minor street traffic should not be less than 30 sec/veh during the
peak hour, when the combined average volume of vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles
entering the intersection (total of both approaches) is more than 200 units/hr for the
same 8 hours.
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  If the 85th percentile approach speed of the major street exceeds 65km/h, the minimum
vehicular volume warrant can be reduced by 30%.
o If none of the safety or volume criterion (excluding that for the 30% reduction for speeds
of 65km/h or more) is fully met, but each satisfies 80% of the minimum requirement, the
installation of a multiway stop sign is warranted.

Example: Determine if a multiway stop sign is warranted at a certain cross intersection with the
following characteristics:
• Traffic volume on each minor road approach for 8 hours on an average day is 75 veh/hr
• Traffic volume on each major road approach for 8 hours on an average day is 145 veh/hr
• Pedestrian volume for both minor road approaches for the same 8 hours as traffic vol. is
40 ped/hr
• Average delay to minor road vehicular traffic during the peak hour is 27 veh/hr
• Average of four crashes per year that may be corrected by a multiway stop control
• 85th percentile speed on major road approach = 35km/hr

Solution:
(a) Verify the traffic volume warrant on major road (min. 300 veh/day):
Traffic vol. entering intersection from the major road approaches = 145 +145 = 290 veh/hr.
The major road traffic volume warrant is not satisfied.
(b) Verify total minor road traffic & pedestrian vol. satisfies the warrant (min. 200 units/hr)
Total minor road traffic and pedestrian volume = 2 x 75 + 40 = 190 units/hr.
Total minor road traffic and pedestrian volume warrant is not satisfied.
(c) Check if the crash warrant is satisfied (min. 5 crashes per year)
Total number of crashes per year = 4. Crash warrant is not satisfied.
(d) Check if delay to minor road traffic warrant is satisfied (min. 30 sec/veh during peak hour)
Average delay to minor road traffic = 27 sec < 30 sec. Delay warrant is not satisfied.
(e) 85th percentile speed on major road approach = 35 km/hr (should not exceed 65 km/hr).
70% criterion is not applicable.
(f) Volume and safety warrants are not met. Check if they are met at 80% requirement level.
a. Minimum number of crashes at 80% requirement = 0.8 x 5 = 4. Since four crashes are
recorded annually, the crash warrant is satisfied.
b. Minimum volume requirement on both major road approaches at 80% requirement = 0.8
x 300 = 240 veh/hr. Since the traffic volume entering the intersection from the major road
approaches is 290 veh/hr, the volume warrant is satisfied.
c. Minimum volume of vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles on minor road approaches at 80%
requirement = 0.8 x 200 = 160 veh/hr. Since the total traffic and pedestrian volume on the
minor road approaches is 190 units/hr, the total minor road traffic, pedestrian and bicycle
volume warrant is satisfied.
d. Minimum delay to minor road traffic warrant at 80% requirement = 0.8 x 30 = 24 sec.
Since the average delay to the minor road traffic is 24 sec, this warrant is satisfied.

Conclusion: Each volume and safety criterion is satisfied up to 80% of the minimum required.
Installation of a multiway stop control is warranted.

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Exercises:
1. Under what conditions would you recommend the use of each of the following intersection
control devices at urban intersections?
a. Yield sign
b. Stop sign
c. Multiway stop sign
2. Explain the considerations in deciding between stop control and yield control on a minor road
approach at an intersection with a major road.
3. Determine whether the criteria for installation of multiway stop control are satisfied for an
intersection with a total entering volume of 230 veh/h on the major street approaches, 220
veh/h on the minor street approaches, and 6 crashes within the past 12 months that could be
avoided had multiway stop control been in place. [Answer: Criteria are satisfied]

Intersection Channelization
• Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements at an
intersection into definite travel paths by using traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate
orderly vehicular and pedestrian movements.
• Proper channelization increases intersection capacity, enhances safety and increases driver
confidence and convenience.

• Objectives of Channelization
o Direct vehicle paths to prevent two paths crossing at any one point
o Provide pedestrian refuge
o Restrict vehicular speeds
o Control prohibited turns
o Provide space for installation of TCDs for better visibility
o Decrease vehicle wander and the area of conflict by reducing the amount of paved area
o Control the merging, diverging or crossing angle of vehicles

• Basic Channelization Design Principles

o Provide motorists with channel lines easy to follow
o Motorists should not be required to make more than one decision at a time
o Prohibited turns should be physically blocked, wherever possible
o Intersecting angle of merging streams should ensure adequate sight distance
o Over-channelization creates confusion for motorist and must be avoided.
o Islands should be carefully located and be as few as possible
o Merging and weaving areas should be as long as possible
o Provide adequate curve radii and lane widths for the prevailing type of vehicle

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 • Traffic Islands
o These are areas between traffic lanes used for regulating traffic movement or providing a
refuse for pedestrians as they cross an intersection.
o Traffic islands are formed by using raised curbs or pavement markings.

Islands Formed by Raised Curbs Islands Formed by Pavement Markings

Paint, thermoplastic striping or retroreflective markers
Concrete curbs delineate the island areas
delineate the island areas
May be mountable or unmountable by vehicles They flush with the pavement surface (flush islands)
Mostly used on urban road intersections, where Preferred at intersections where approach speeds are
approach speeds are low and pedestrian volume is high, pedestrian volume is low and signals or traffic
high. Proper lighting improves visibility. signs are not placed on the island.

Functional Classification of Traffic Islands

Channelized Islands Divisional Islands Refuge (Pedestrian) Islands

• Guide motorists into appropriate lanes • Divide opposing or same-directional • Delineate refuge areas for
by converting excess space into islands, traffic streams pedestrians
thus avoiding confusion at intersections • Control left turns at skewed
with several traffic paths intersections
• Used at locations where separate
roadways exist for right-turning traffic

Credit: Images from various internet sources and AASHTO Green Book

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Roundabouts
• Channelized intersections comprising a central circle surrounded by a one-way roadway.
• Traffic entering roundabouts yield to those in circulation. Traffic may not stop when traffic
volumes are low.
• Roundabouts deflect vehicle paths by the use of central island, approach islands and staggering
the alignment of entries and exits.

Traffic Signals
• Traffic signals are power-operated devices for regulating, directing or warning road users.
• Highest form of intersection control; often the last resort to control an intersection for safety
and efficiency.
• When justified and properly designed, traffic signals provide benefits such as:
o Improve overall safety
 Eliminate or reduce certain types of crashes (e.g., right-angle type)
 Allow pedestrians to safely cross intersection
o Decrease travel time through an intersection, and hence increase capacity
o Equalize the quality of service for different road users
o Regular interruptions to heavy traffic streams, allowing ROW access to other road users
• Unwarranted and improperly-designed traffic signals have drawbacks, such as:
o Increased crash frequency (e.g., rear-end collisions)
o Excessive delay for vehicles on certain approaches
o Forcing motorists to adopt circuitous routes as they attempt to avoid the signals
o Driver irritation leading to signal violations
• Traffic signals have the following advantages over traffic signs:
o Less room for erroneous driver judgements
o Flexibility in allocating ROW based on changes in traffic flow
o Ability to prioritize some movements or vehicles
o Provision of continuous traffic flow through signal coordination

Traffic Signal Warrants

• Traffic engineering studies must be conducted to assess whether traffic conditions, crash
history, pedestrian characteristics or geometric characteristics warrant a traffic signalization.
• MUTCD provides nine warrants; at least one should be satisfied before signalization.

Warrant Title
Warrant 1 Eight-hour vehicular volume
Warrant 2 Four-hour vehicular volume
Warrant 3 Peak hour
Warrant 4 Pedestrian volume
Warrant 5 School crossing
Warrant 6 Coordinated signal system
Warrant 7 Crash experience
Warrant 8 Roadway network
Warrant 9 Intersection near a railway crossing

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• If an intersection satisfies a warrant, it does not necessarily mean a signal must be installed. It
means the intersection meets the minimum threshold to consider installing a signal. Consider
the warrants as a guide to the determination of the need for traffic control signals rather than
as absolute criteria, and their use must be tempered with engineering judgment.
• Engineering judgement is “… the evaluation of available pertinent information, and the
application of appropriate principles, provisions, and practices…for the purpose of deciding
upon the applicability, design, operation, or installation of a traffic control device.”
• Data collection activities for traffic signal warrant analysis typically include:
o Traffic volumes, typically during 12 hours of an average day
o Pedestrian volumes (counted during the same period as the vehicular counts)
o Posted or statutory speed limit or the 85th percentile speed on the approaches
o Crash statistics, including collision diagrams (one year minimum, 3–5 years preferred).
Collision diagrams should show crash experience by type, location, direction of
movement, severity weather, time of day, date and day of week.
o Condition diagram showing details of the physical layout, including intersection geometry,
channelization, grades, sight distance restrictions, parking conditions, pavement markings,
roadway lighting, driveways, distance to nearest traffic signals and adjacent land use.
o At locations under construction where traffic studies are not feasible, if projected volumes
or proxy volumes are used to justify signalization, a traffic study should be conducted
within one year of the start of operation of the signals to confirm their justification.

Warrant 1: Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume

• Applies if primary reason for considering signalization is high intersection traffic volume.
• The table below (from MUTCD, 2009) show the minimum intersection approach volumes
that should exist for consideration of traffic signals under this warrant.
• The warrant addresses two volume-based conditions:
• Condition A (Minimum Vehicular Volume)
o Condition A considers minimum vehicular volumes on both the major street and the
higher-volume minor street.
o The warrant is satisfied when traffic volumes on the major street and on the higher-volume
minor-street for each of any eight hours of an average day are at least equal to the volumes
specified in the 100% column of Table 4C-1(upper half).
• Condition B (Interruption of Continuous Traffic)
o Condition B can be used for locations where Condition A is not satisfied but traffic on the
major street causes the minor street traffic to experience excessive delay or conflict with
major street traffic.
o The warrant is satisfied when traffic volumes on the major street and on the higher-volume
minor-street for each of any eight hours of an average day are at least equal to the volumes
specified in the 100% column of Table 4C-1(lower half).

• Either Condition A or B should be satisfied. If not, utilize a combination of Conditions A

and B. The criteria for satisfying this combination are:
o Traffic volume on the major street and on the higher-volume minor street traffic volume
are at least equal to the 80% values stated in Table 4C-1 (upper half), and
o Traffic volume on the major street and on the higher-volume minor street are at least equal
to the 80% values stated in Table 4C-1 (lower half).
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• Rural or High Prevailing Speed Conditions
o If the 85th percentile speed on the major street exceeds 64 km/h or the intersection is in an
isolated community with a population of less than 10,000, the 56% column values can be
used instead of the 80% column values when the combination of Conditions A and B is
utilized.

• Key Notes:
o The major street volume thresholds are based on total volume on both approaches.
o The minor street volume thresholds are based on higher-volume minor street approach.
o The higher-volume minor street approach could be one approach for some of the 8 hours
and the opposite approach for the remaining hours.
 That is, the higher volume on the minor street does not have to be on the same approach
during each of the eight hours being considered.
o The eight one-hour periods need not be consecutive; they may involve four AM peak hours
and four PM peak hours.

Warrant 2: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume

• This warrant is considered at locations where the main reason for installing a signal is the high
intersecting volume.
• This warrant uses four-hour volumes instead of the eight-hour volumes used in Warrant 1.

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• The warrant defines curves (see below) representing vehicles per hour on the major street
(total of both approaches) and on the higher-volume minor-street approach (one approach).
Curves are given for different types of lane configurations at the intersection.
• The warrant is satisfied when the plot for each of any four hours of an average day falls above
the appropriate standard curve.
• Use Figure 4C-2 if the 85th percentile speed of major street traffic exceeds 40 mph (64 km/h)
or where the intersection is located in a built-up area of an isolated community with population
less than 10,000.

Warrant 3: Peak Hour

• This warrant addresses conditions that typically exist at an intersection for one hour of the day
(four consecutive 15-minute periods),where minor street traffic experiences excessive delay
or hazard in entering or crossing the intersection.
• The warrant is only applicable at locations where large numbers of vehicles are attracted or
discharged during a short time period. These include office complexes, manufacturing plants
and industrial complexes.

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• If a signalization is justified by only this warrant, the traffic control signal may be operated in
the flashing mode during the hours that the volume criteria of this warrant are not satisfied.
• Refer to the MUTCD for discussion the warrant criteria.

Warrant 4: Pedestrian Volume

• It justifies signalization at intersections or mid-block crossings where delay to pedestrians
attempting to cross a major street is excessive.
• The warrant combines pedestrian volumes and gaps in vehicular traffic. Refer to the MUTCD
for discussion on the warrant criteria.
• The warrant applies only to locations where the nearest signalized intersection is more than
90 m away and the proposed installation will not adversely impact progressive traffic flow.
• At midblock locations, view obstructions (e.g. curb parking) should be prohibited at least 30m
in advance of the crosswalk and for at least 6 m beyond. Street lighting should be considered
if the midblock location is used at night.
• The signal should be pedestrian actuated.

Warrant 5: School Crossing

• This warrant is similar to Warrant 4, but it is specifically intended for school crossing
locations. If gaps are inadequate for safe crossing by school children, this warrant is applied.
Refer to the MUTCD for discussion on the warrant criteria.
• If installed, the signal should be pedestrian actuated, and all obstructions to view (e.g., parked
vehicles) should be prohibited for at least 30 m before and 6 m after the crosswalk.
• The warrant applies only to locations where the nearest signalized intersection is more than
90 m away and the proposed installation will not negatively impact progressive traffic flow.
• Alternative measures–namely, warning signs, flashers, speed limit signs, crossing guards, or
footbridge–should be considered before installing a signal.

Warrant 6: Coordinated Signal System

• This warrant allows installations of traffic signals that will enhance progressive movement of
traffic along a roadway segment by ensuring that the gap between two consecutive signalized
intersections is not so large that the platoons of traffic will break up.
• Platoon is a group of closely spaced vehicles traveling together because of traffic signals, road
geometric characteristics or other factors.
• This warrant is not applicable when the resultant spacing of traffic signals will be less than
300 m. Refer to the MUTCD for discussion on the warrant criteria.

Warrant 7: Crash Experience

• This warrant is used when the purpose of the signalization is to reduce crashes.
• Three criteria should be achieved for Warrant 7 to be satisfied:
o Crash frequency has not been reduced by an adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with
satisfactory observance and enforcement.
o Five or more injury or reportable property-damage-only crashes have occurred within a
12-month period that can be corrected through the use of signalization.

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 o There exists traffic volume not less than those stated in both of the 80% columns of
Warrant 1 (Table 4C-1, Conditions A and B) or the minimum pedestrian volume is at least
equal to 80% requirements for Warrant 4 (Pedestrian Volume).
 In cases where the 85th percentile speed on the major street is higher than 65km/h or
the intersection is located in an isolated community with a population of less than
10,000, the volumes shown under the 56% columns of Table 4C-1 (both Conditions A
and B) may be used instead of the 80% column.
• Refer to the MUTCD for detailed discussion on the criteria for Warrant 7.
• Refer to NCHRP research report (Bonneson et al., 2014) for revision to Warrant 7 in future
MUTCD editions.

Warrant 8: Road Network

• This warrant supports efforts to encourage concentration of traffic at specific locations.
• Consider signalizing an intersection of two or more major roads if the intersection has:
o Total existing or immediately projected entering volume of at least 1,000 veh/hr during
the peak hour of a typical weekday and has 5-year projected traffic volumes, based on
engineering studies, that meet one or more of Warrants 1, 2 and 3 during an average
weekday; or
o Total existing or immediately projected entering volume of at least 1,000 veh/hr for each
of any five hours of a Saturday or Sunday.
• Refer to the MUTCD for description of a major road as used in this signal warrant.

Warrant 9: Intersection Near Railway Crossing

• This warrant is intended for use at a location where none of the conditions described in the
other eight warrants are met, but the proximity of a railway crossing to an intersection
approach controlled by a stop or yield sign is the reason to consider installing a traffic signal.
• The signal is intended to address concern that traffic from the stop- or yield-sign-controlled
approach may queue onto or beyond the railway crossing.
• Refer to the MUTCD for detailed discussion on the criteria for Warrant 7.

Example 1: A two-lane minor street crosses a four-lane major street. Given the below conditions,
determine whether traffic signalization is warranted.
• Traffic volumes for each eight hours of an average day (both directions on major street) total
400 veh/h. For the higher volume minor-street approach (one direction only), the total is 100
vehicles for each of the eight hours.
• 85th percentile speed of major street is 53 km/h
• Pedestrian volume cross the major street during each of any four hours of an average day is
450 ped/h. The closet traffic signal is located 137 m from this location.

Solution:
(a) Warrant 1: Condition A (Minimum Vehicular Volumes)
From Table 4C-1, minimum volume requirements for this intersection (two lanes on major street
and one lane on minor street) are 600 veh/h on the major street (total of both approaches) and
150 veh/h on the minor street (one direction only).

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The volumes at the intersections are less than the minimum volumes: 400 < 600 and 100 < 150.
Note that the 85th percentile speed of 53 km/h is less than the 65 km/h requirement, and so the
70% minimum volumes cannot be used.
Warrant 1 (Condition A) is not met.

(b) Warrant 1: Condition B (Interruption of Continuous Traffic)

Since Condition A is not met, it is not necessary to check for Condition B, as the traffic volume
thresholds for major street under Condition B are higher than those specified for Condition A.
Condition B will definitely not be met.

Warrant 1 (Condition B) is not met.

(c) Warrant 1: Combination of Conditions A and B

It is assumed that adequate trial of other remedial measures have been made, and so the 80%
volumes can be used for this analysis (see footnotes under Table 4C-1).
• Minimum volume for major road per Condition A is 480 veh/h. The prevailing volume is
400 veh/hr. Condition A is not met.
• Minimum volume for major road per Condition B is 720 veh/h. The prevailing volume is
400 veh/hr. Condition A is not met.
Warrant 1 (Combination of Conditions A and B) is not met.

(d) Warrant 4: Minimum Pedestrian Volume

The major street traffic volume of 400 veh/hr (see question) is entered in the chart below from the
MUTCD to obtain a min. pedestrian volume for the major street as 410, which is less than the 450
noted in the question. Hence, the minimum requirement for pedestrian volumes is satisfied.

(e) Check Location of nearest traffic signal

The nearest traffic signal on the major street must be located at least 90 m from the intersection.
Per the question, the nearest traffic signal to the intersection is 137 m away. Thus, the location of
the nearest traffic signal condition is satisfied.

In conclusion, a traffic signal is justified under the minimum pedestrian volume warrant.

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Example 2: The table below shows data collected at T intersection (minor street has only one
approach). All approaches have one lane entering the intersection. The major and minor streets
have speed limit of 72 km/h and 40 km/h, respectively. Determine if this intersection meets
MUTCD Warrants 1 and 2 for traffic signalization.
Traffic Volume (veh/h)
Hour
Major Street Minor Street
1 25 3
2 28 2
3 31 1
4 59 2
5 270 27
6 714 115
7 774 159
8 460 151
9 479 123
10 430 93
11 508 98
12 455 85
13 537 112
14 558 82
15 736 91
16 785 99
17 689 81
18 546 71
19 396 60
20 264 42
21 193 29
22 149 21
23 84 15
24 36 8

Solution:
Warrant 1: Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume (Condition A, Table 4C-1)
• Major street: 1 approach lane; Minor street: 1 approach lane
• Minimum required traffic volume on major street = 350 veh/h (using the 70% rule as the
major street 85th percentile speed exceeds 64 km/h)
• Minimum required traffic volume on minor street = 105 veh/h (using the 70% rule as the
major street 85th percentile speed exceeds 64 km/h)
• From the data given, only 5 hours satisfy Condition A (Hours 6, 7, 8, 9 & 13).
• Condition A is not met.
Warrant 1: Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume (Condition B, Table 4C-1)
• Major street: 1 approach lane; Minor street: 1 approach lane
• Minimum required traffic volume on major street = 525 veh/h (using the 70% rule as the
major street 85th percentile speed exceeds 64 km/h)
• Minimum required traffic volume on minor street = 53 veh/h (using the 70% rule as the
major street 85th percentile speed exceeds 64 km/h)
• From the data given, 8 hours satisfy Condition B (Hours 6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 & 18)
• Condition B is met.
Since one of the conditions is satisfied (Condition B), Warrant 1 is satisfied.
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Warrant 2: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume (Figure 4C-2)
• Major street: 1 approach lane; Minor street: 1 approach lane
• Figure 4C-2 is used because the major street 85th percentile speed exceeds 64 km/h
• Enter the pair of volumes provided in the table above in Figure 4C-2.
• Five pairs of volumes (for Hours 6, 7, 8 15 & 16) plot above the 1 lane & 1 lane curve. Recall
the warrant is satisfied when the plot for each of any four hours falls above the relevant curve.
• Warrant 2 is satisfied.

Traffic Signal Timing Basics

• The efficient operation of traffic signals depends on the proper timing of the color indications.
• Signal timing design seeks to reduce the average delay of all vehicles and to reduce the
likelihood of crashes by minimizing potential conflict points.
• Some common terms used in traffic signal design are:
o Controller: an electronic device in a traffic signal installation that changes the colors
indicated by the signal lamps according to a fixed or variable plan. It assigns the ROW
to different approaches at appropriate times.
o Cycle length: the time required for one complete sequence of signal indications (from
the start of the green indication to the end of the red indication).
o Signal phase: that portion of a cycle assigned to an independent traffic movement or
combination of traffic movements.
o Phase Plan: indicates the sequential order in the ROW is allocated. The simplest phase
plan is the two-phase plan. The higher the number of phases, the longer the delay. A 4-
phase signal plan example is shown below.

Exercise: Develop a phase plan for three intersections of your choice.

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 Components of Traffic Signal System
• Traffic signal system may consist of the controlling unit, signal heads, vehicle-detecting
devices or other means for activating demand (e.g., pushbuttons).
• Controllers are electronic devices that regulate the length and sequence of signal indications.
o Pretimed controllers: assign ROW according to a pre-determined, fixed phase plan
based on the intersection’s historic traffic patterns.
o Traffic-actuated controllers: receive traffic volume information from detectors and
use this information to change the cycle length and/or phase plan. This system does not
set a timer for the cycle of signals, but instead utilizes traffic demand at the intersection
approaches to set the cycle length and/or phase plan.
• Detectors (sensors) are activated by the passage or the presence of a vehicle. Techniques
for vehicle detection include distortion in a magnetic field, interruption of a light beam, a
change in radar frequency, change in inductance of a conducting loop and video detection.
These devices are mounted over the road or on it, or beneath its surface.

Controller

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 Modes of Traffic Signal Operation
Traffic signals operate in pre-timed or actuated mode or some combination of the two. Actuated
signals can be either semi-actuated or fully-actuated.

Pre-Timed Control
• Pre-timed control: the duration of the signal indications (green, yellow, red) is fixed, resulting
in a fixed cycle length. They are better suited for intersections in downtown areas where three
or fewer phases are needed.
• Advantages
o It can provide efficient coordination with adjacent pre-timed signals, since both the start
and end of green indications are predictable.
o Detectors are not needed; hence, its operation is immune to problems associated with
detector failures.
• Drawbacks
o Pre-timed control cannot compensate for large fluctuations in traffic flow, and it tends to
be inefficient at isolated intersections were traffic arrivals are random. An isolated
intersection is one in which the signal timing is not coordinated with that of any other
intersections and, therefore, the intersection operates independently.

Semi-Actuated Control
• It uses detection only on the minor approach, while the movements on the major approach
operate in a “non-actuated” mode.
• It can be installed even when the minor road volume does not meet signalization warrants.
• The controller dwells in a “non-actuated” mode to give continued green indication for the
major street traffic (highest flow). Minor street traffic is served after a call is received by the
controller. A call is a ROW request to the controller from a vehicle or pedestrian.
• The controller varies the lengths of the different phases to meet the demand on the minor
approach.
• It is suitable for application at intersections that are part of a coordinated arterial street system
and for isolated intersections with a low-speed major road and lighter crossroad volume.
• Advantages
o It can be effectively used in a coordinated signal system
o Because the major road has no traffic detectors, its traffic movements are not affected by
failure of detectors.
o It reduces delay to major-road through movements compared with pre-timed control.
• Drawbacks
o Inappropriate green time setting for the minor road movements may lead to significant
delay for the major road movements, especially when there is continuous demand from the
minor movements.

Fully-Actuated Control
• All phases are actuated to allow changes in cycle length and/or phase plan to reflect traffic
demand; thus, detection is required for all traffic movements.
• It is most suited for intersections at which large fluctuations of traffic volumes occur on all
approaches during the day.
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 • Advantages
o Because it responds to traffic demand and changes in traffic pattern, fully-actuated control
reduces delay compared with pre-timed control.
o It has an efficient cycle time as it is dependent on the detection information, which may
result in different durations from one cycle to the other.
o Phases with no demand can be skipped, thus allowing the controller to reallocate the
unused time to phases with demand.

• Drawbacks
o It is more expensive to install and maintain (more detection needed) than the others.

Intersection Operation and Control Type

Operation Pre-Timed Actuated
Features Isolated Coordinated Semi-Actuated Fully-Actuated Coordinated
Cycle Length Fixed Fixed Varied Varies Fixed

Where traffic flow is Where defaulting to Arterial where

Where detection is
Where consistent, closely one movement is traffic is heavy and
available on all
Applicability detection is not spaced intersections desirable and cross adjacent
approaches, isolated
available and where cross street road carries low intersections are
locations
is consistent traffic volumes nearby
Locations without
nearby signals; rural,
Example Central business
Work Zones Highway operations high-speed locations; Suburban arterial
Application districts, interchanges
intersection of two
arterials
Responsive to
Temporary Predictable changing traffic Lower arterial
Lower cost for
application operations, lowest patterns, efficient delay, potential
Key Benefits highway
keeps signals cost of equipment and allocation of green reduction in delay
maintenance
operational maintenance time, reduced delay for the system
and improved safety

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