STUDIA POHL-: SERIES MAlaR

DISSERTATIONES SCIENTIFICAE DE REBUS ORIENTIS ANTIQUI

9

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
TO AKKADIAN TO AKKADIAN

E PONTIFICIO INSTITUTO BIBLICO ROME

ROMAE BIBLICAL INSTITUTE PRESS
1988 1988
The Pontifical Biblical Institute dedicates this series to the memory of P. Alfred
Pohl, founder of its Faculty of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Studia Poh/
reproduces in offset studies on Ancient Near Eastern history and philology, and is
intended particularly to benefit younger scholars who wish to present the results of
their doctoral studies to a wider public.

Table of Contents
Abbreviations
Introductory. I
§1. Preface I
§2. Tools... I
§3. Geography and Language 2
§4. The Writing System. . . 4
Lesson I: Nominal Declension, (I): Status Rectus II
§5. Inflection, Status Rectus. II
§6. Forms . II
§7. Gender. . . . II
§8. Number. . . . 12
§9. Case Functions. 12
§IO. Further Annotations 12
§II. No\U1swith Vocalic Stems. 13
§12. Variations in Form. 13
§13. aljum and abum . . . . . 14
§14. The Adjective . . . . . . 14
§15. On Learning Cuneiform Signs 14
Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 15
Lesson 2: Nominal Declension, (II): Absolute and Construct State.
Pronominal Suffixes 17
§16. Nominal States. 17
§17. Absolute State. . 17
§18. Construct State . 17
§19. Periphrasis with sa 20
§20. Possessive Suffixes 21
Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 21
Lesson 3: G-Stem of the Strong Verb (I) .
§21. The Verb: General
§22. Stems. . . . . . . . . . . .
§23. 'Tenses'. . . . . . . . . . .
§24.. Verb Types and Vocalic Classes.
STAMPATO IN ITALIA §25. The Preterite. . . . . . . . .
TIPOGRAFIA POLIGLOTTA DELLA PONTIFICIA UNIVERSITA GREGORIANA
 VII

§26. The Present . . .. 26 §57. The tn-Stems . . . . . . . . . . 51

§27. The Imperative. 26 §58. The SD-Stem . 53
§28. The Infinitive . 26 §59. Review of Vocalization in the Strong Verb. 53
§29. The (Active) Participle ., 27 §60. Indefinite Pronouns. . . . . . . 53
§30. The Verbal Adjective . 1:1 Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 54
§31. The Nominal Sentence . t7
§32. Word Order in Verbal Sentences 27 Lesson 8: Verbs III Weak. sa. 56
Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 28 §61. Weak Verbal Forms 56
§62, Verbs III Weak . . 56
Lesson 4: G-Stem of Strong Verb (II). Verbal Suffixes. Ventive. §63. Determinative-Relative Pronoun 57
Subjunctive Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 58
§33. The Stative . . . . . . . .
Lesson 9: Verbs II Weak. Nominal Typology . 61
§34. The Perfect . . . . . . . .
§35. Pronominal Suffixes of Verb. §64. Verbs II Weak. .. . . . . . . . - , 61
§36. The Ventive. . . . . . . . §65. Nominal Typology . . . . . . . 63
§37. Some Conjunctions (Subordinating) . Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 65
§38. The Subjunctive . . . . . .
Lesson 10: Verbs I ',j, n. 68
§39. summa .
§40. Conjunctions (Coordinating). . . §66. Verbs I Aleph. 68
Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. §67. The a-Group .. 68
§68. The Verb aliikum. 69
Lesson 5: Gt-Stem. Modals. Demonstratives and Interrogatives 70
§69. The e-Group. . .
§41. The Gt-Stem. . . . . . . . . . §70. Verbs Ij .... 70
§42. Volitional (Modal) Constructions. §71. Verbs In. . . . 70
§43. The Cohortative . . . . Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 71
§44. The Precative. . . . .
Lesson 11: Verbs I w. Infinitive Constructions. Numbers 74
§45. The Emphatic Particle Iii.
§46. The Vetitive. . §72. State-Verbs I w.. 74
§47. The Prohibitive. . . . . §73. Action-Verbs I w. . . . 74
§48. Questions. . . . . . . §74. Initial w . 75
§49. Demonstratives and Interrogatives §75. Infinitive Constructions . 75
§50. Negation . . . . . . . . . . . §76. Numerals . . . . . . . 76
Vocabulary, Cuneiform-Signs, -Exercise. Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs; Exercise. 78

Lesson 6: D, S, Dt, St-Stems. Independent P~onouns . Lesson 12: Quadriliteral Verbs. izuzzum. Doubly Weak Verbs 81
§51. D and S-Stems and Their t and tn-Stems. §77. Quadriliteral Verbs. . . . 81
§52. The D-Stem and Dt-Stem . . . . §78. Irregular N-Stem. . . . . 82
§53. The S-Stem and St-Stem. . . . . §79. The Irregular Verb izuzzum 83
§54. The Independent Pronouns. . . . §80. Doubly Weak Verbs . . . 83
Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. §81. 'All' . 83
Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise. 84
Lesson 7: N, tn, SD-Stems. Indefinite Pronouns.
§55. The N-Stem . Appendix I: General Phonetics of Akkadian 87
§56. The Nt-Stem. §82. Akkadian Historical Phonetics . 87
 §83. Patterns of Consonantal Structure.
§84. Patterns of Vocalic Structure. .
. Appendix II: Numbers, Dating, Measures
§85. Numbers . .
§86. Year Dates . . .
§87. Month Dates ..
§88. Weight Measures.
§89. Linear Measures. abs.: absolute MB: Middle Babylonian
§90. Area-Measures .. ace.: aceusative med.: medial
§91. Solid Capacity Measures. adj.: adjective n., nom.: nominative
AHw: (see §2) NA: Neo-Assyrian
Index of Akkadian Vocabulary . Akk.: Akkadian OA: Old Assyrian
English-Akkadian Glossary. Arab.: Arabic OAkk.: Old Akkadian
Ass.: Assyrian OB: Old Babylonian
Index of Signs . . . Bab.: Babylonian obI.: oblique case (gen.-ace.)
Index of Sign-Values c.: common gender perf.: perfect
CAD: (see §2) pl., plur.: plural
Paradigm of Strong Verb. conj.: conjunction PN: person's name
dat.: dative prep.: preposition
f., fern.: feminine pres.: present
GAG, GAG Erg.: (see §2) pret.: preterite
gen.: genitive ptc.: participle
GN: geographical name s., sing.: singular
Hebr.: Hebrew SB: Standard Babylonian
imp.: imperative stat.: stative
indic.: indicative subj.: subjunctive
inf.: infinitive Sum.: Sumerian
intr.: intransitive tr.: transitive
LB: Late Babylonian v. adj.: verbal adjective
m., masc.: masculine vb.: verb
MA: Middle Assyrian wr.: written
 §1. PREFACE
The Introductioh to Akkadian was first published 'in 1980, and
reissued in slightly revised form in 1983. The present edition is more
fully revised, and supplied with indices to the Akkadian vocabularies
and sign-lists, an English-Akkadian glossary, and a paradigm of the
strong verbs. Revision has profited from suggestions expressed in
reviews of the 1980 edition - especially those of J. Huehnergard-
D. Snell and S. Dalley - as well as suggestions privately offered,
particularly by W. Farber, W. R. Mayer, R. Borger, W. Rollig and
W. Sommerfeld; to all who offered suggestions I express gratitude.
The present edition also profits from the collaboration of
Prof. Daniel Snell, who contributed amplified cuneiform exercises,
the Index of Signs, and copies of cuneiform signs throughout the
book.
As before, the Introduction is intended as a tool in offering a
twelve-lessonor one semester course in essential Akkadian grammar.
The reading exercisesin transliteration and in cuneiform are designed
to introduce the student to common vocabulary and basic cuneiform
signs. The exercises are chosen from Old Babylonian, but signs are
introduced, as is customary, in their Neo-Assyrian form; phonetic
values of signs are primarily those in use in Old Babylonian, but
prominent values of later periods are also given, in parentheses. In
addition to the twelve lessons there are appendices dealing with
Akkadian phonetics and metrology, indices, and a paradigm of the
strong verb.

The standard grammar is W. von Soden, Grundriss der ak-

kadischen Grammatik [= GAG] (Analecta Orientalia 33, with Er-
giinzungshejt AnOr 47 [= Erg.]).
The standard dictionaries are W. von Soden, Akkadisches
Handworterbuch [= AHw] and Chicago Assyrian Dictionary [=
CAD].
 For syllabic values of cuneiform signs the classic listing is F.
Thureau-Dangin, Le syllabaire accadien (1926). Current manuals relationship with any other known language, but which became part
listing cuneiform signs, their formal evolution, and their of the cultural heritage of Akkadian-speakers. The Akkadian
logographic and syllabic values are R. Labat, Manuel d'epigraphie language (or language of Akkade) is first attested in proper names
akkadienne (5thed., revised by F. Malbran-Labat) and R. Borger, mentioned in Sum. texts of the Fara period (ca. 2800 B.C.); from ca.
Assyrisch-babylonische Zeichenliste (Alter Orient und Altes 2500 B:C. we find texts fully written in Akkadian.
Testament 33 and Ergiinzungsheft, 33A). A listing of logographic b. Akkadian is a member of the Semitic language family,
values is to be found in A. Deimel, Sumerisches Lexikon, II. Teil. A indeed one of its earliest and overwhelmingly its best attested
full and up-to-date listing of syllabic values is found in W. von ancient member. A traditional classification of the Semitic
Soden- W. R6llig, Das akkadische Syllabar3• languages is based on their geographical location: Akkadian is the
An introductory bibliography to Akkadian studies is given·in northeastern member of the family; Canaanite (a sub-group which
R. Borger's Babylonisch-assyrische Lesestiicke, 2. Aufl., Heft I ·includes Hebrew and Phoenician, and, in the opinion of some
p. IX-XI. The same scholar's Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur, I-III scholars, Ugaritic and Eblaite) and the Aramaic dialects form the
gives a bibliography of Akkadian-Sumerian studies up to 1974; its northwest Semitic branch; while Arabic, ancient South Arabic and
use may be supplemented by the annual Keilschriftbibliographie in Ethiopic form the southern branch.
the journal Orientalia. c. From its first attestation in the Fara period, Akkadian is
General introductions to ancient Near Eastern studies and to attested down to the first century A.D., though in the last centuries
Mesopotamian civilization are W. von Soden, Einfiihrung in die of the pre-Christian era it was increasingly replaced as a spoken
Altorientalistik and A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia. language by Aramaic, and survived only as a traditional scholarly
Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Revised Edition completed by Erica language. During the long era and wide area of its use, the
Reiner. language naturally underwent changes, and it is customary to
distinguish 'dialects' of Akkadian. The central dialects - the
forms of the language found in the Mesopotamian heartland -
§3. GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGE
begin with Old Akkadian (OAkk.), the language attested in
8. Akkadian is one of the great cultural languages of world documents of the third millennium; in the second and first
history. For a period 'of some 2500 years it was the vehicle of a millennia we find dialectical differentiation between southern
dominant culture in th¢ Ancient Near East, and abundant written (Babylonian) and northern (Assyrian) Akkadian, and between
records in it - religious, historical, literary, grammatical - were different periods (Old, Middle, Neo-, Late) within Babylonian and
written, and in modem times have been found, in its heartland and Assyrian (OB, MB, NB, LB; OA, MA, NA). In addition to these
in other areas as widespread as Egypt, Syria-Palestine, Anatolia and central spoken dialects, we find in use in both Assyria and
Persia. The central geographical area of its use is ancient Babylonia an artificial 'literary' form of the language modelled on
Mesopotamia: this Greek name referred originally to the area the OB dialect; this has been called 'Standard Babylonian' (SB).
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, but today is generally used We may summarize this dialect-history and indicate approximate
in a broader sense to indicate an area roughly corresponding to dates:
modem Iraq. In the second and first millennia B.C. this area was
divided between Assyria, to the north, and Babylonia, to the south;
still earlier, in the third millennium, its southern part comprised the
city-states of Sumer and Akkad. OB 1950-1530 OA 1950-1750
The earliest written records preserved to us from the area are in MB 1530-1000 MA 1500-1000
Sumerian, an agglutinating language that has no provable genetic NB 1000-625 NA 1000-600
LB 625-0
 In addition to the central dialects, several 'peripheral dialects' characteristic wedge-shaped appearance, diverging into two main
of the second millennium area.ttested; these are variant written traditions, Babylonian and Assyrian.
forms of Akkadian, influenced by different local languages (Susa, b. Value of signs. (1) Functionally, signs in their earliest stage
Boghazk6y, Alalab, Nuzi, Ugarit, and various local types in the were logograpbic, i.e. they represented one or more specific words.
Amarna texts). A purely logographic writing system is per se not bound to any
d. The texts preserved in Akkadian are of many types: specific language: given a sequence of picttt[e-signs representing
historical and chronographical texts and census reports; treaties and THREE,SHEEP,GIVE,TEMPLE, a given social context might enable one
other political documents; business and administrative records; to 'read' (adding formal modifications unexpressed in the writing
codes of law; witnessed and sealed contracts of ,marriage, divorce, system) in English 'three sheep were given to the temple' or in
purchase and rentals; personal and state letters; narrative poetry French 'on a donne trois brebis au temple' as adequately as one
recounting myths, epics and humorous fabliaux; love-songs; rituals, could 'read' such a text in Sumerian. Our earliest texts from
prayers, hymns, omens, divination reports; scholarly texts on Mesopotamia are still largely or entirely at this stage, and therefore
language, religion, history, technology. These are spread unevenly subject to its disadvantages: the ambiguities it entails and the
through the periods and dialects discussed above. Because the endless number of signs that would be necessary to express spoken
Babylonian form of the language remained, even in Assyria, the language adequately.
normal vehicle of literary and religious texts, and because the OB (2) Sometime about 3000 B.C. the Sumerian scribes sup-
dialect preserves in greater purity many features of the language plemented their logographic system by introducing a phonetic or
which later were lost, it is customary to begin the study of Akkadian syllabic use of signs, with no relation to the syllable's word-
with OB, and the following pages will be devoted principally to it. meaning. Thus the sign ;+f (AN) was no longer limited to ex-
pressing the Sum. word an 'sky', but could also represent the
§4. THEWRITINGSYSTEM sound /an/, for instance in the verb ba-an-du 'he built'l. When
Akkadian scribes took over this writing system to express their
a. Physical form of signs. Most Akkadian texts were written language, they inherited both types of value, and often added new
with a reed stylus on a clay tablet which, after the writing was phonetic values based on Akkadian: because ANalso had the Sum.
impressed, was sun-baked or fire-baked to hardness; on a smaller value dingir 'god', equivalent to Akk. ilum 'god' in its various
scale other materials (stone, metals, wax tablets) were also used. The declined forms, a new phonetic value fill came to be used, e.g. to
system of signs was inherited from the Sumerians, who used it ·to write ilqe 'he took'.
write their own language. The oldest signs in the system seem to be (3) The use of signs as determinative or semantic classifier is a
imitations of clay tokens of diverse forms, used as counters in an specialized kind of logographic value: the determinative is a
accounting procedure throughout the Near East from the 9th logogram preceding or following a word and identifying the class to
millennium B.C. to the 2nd; each type of counter presumably which it belongs (man, god, city, plant etc.); it is not intended to he
represented an individua'l type of goods, and therefore an individual pronounced in reading the text aloud. Thus a writing ANAssur
word. To the group of signs derived from such tokens were added refers to the god Assur, whereas URU(city) Aimr refers to the
others which, in many cases at least, were pictographic, i.e. depicted homonymous city.
concrete objects. Early Sum. texts (from Uruk, ca. 3000 B.C.) use a (4) A sign with phonetic value may be used as phonetic
battery of signs whose number was gradually reduced to those complement, i.e. added to a logogram to specifyits reading. Thus AN
represented in the classical (Old Babylonian) sign-lists. In form the
signs also underwent evolution: early documentable stages are often
more recognizably pictographic, and more curvilinear in shape, 1 The meaning of accents and numerical indices will be explained below, §4c;

while in later stages signs are simplified and each stroke assumes a for Akkadian phonemes and their pronunciation see §82a and b.
(without such a complement) is usually to be read D1NGIR = ilum sometimes phonetic complements are raised). Thus: LUGAL gisIG 00-
'god'; AN-U (with -u indicating a final long vowel) is to be read as AN uS or sar-ru-um da-al-tam i-pu-us (these are two of the many possible
== samu 'sky'. Grammatical information is given by the writings sign-sequences that may be used to write the Akkadian sentence
fl.-tum (bitum) 'house' (nom.) but fl.-tim (bitim) (gen.). sarrum daltam pus 'the king made a door'). A sign-by-sign
c. Alphabetic representation of Akkadian signs. (1) We have seen representation is called a transliteration; it does not give, or gives
that the phonetic (syllabic) values of a sign can be represented in only incidentally, the precise linguistic form spoken in Akkadian.
alphabetic script: thus AN has the values JanJ a~d JilJ. It is (ii) The text may be represented as spoken, ignoring the text's
characteristic of the cuneiform writing system (due In part to the written realization and giving the reconstructed linguistic form:
nature of the Sumerian language) that a given syllable in Akkadian sarrum .daltam puS. Such representation is called normalization or
may be represented by anyone of several signs; in order that transcription.
alphabetic representations might indicate which si~ is ac~ually (iii) A mixed representation, using sign-by-sign translitera-
used, modern scholars distinguish homophonous SignS by Index tion to which a transcription of each logogram is added, is often
numbers, following a standard listing compiled by the French used, e.g.: sar-ru-um gisdaltam(IG) puS(oO-US). Such a system gives
scholar Fran~ois Thureau-Dangin (see the sign-lists mentioned in full indication of signs used, and partial indication of linguistic
§2). Thus the syllable JtuJ may be written with the signs ~ 'tu forms.
d. A principal characteristic of the writing system is that each
one', ~ 'tu two', ~'tu three', etc.; in alphabetic representation,
sign may be polyvalent: it may represent different values, just as a
the first of these is unmarked, the 'two' and 'three' values are single alphabetic symbol may represent a variety of phonetic
indicated by acute and grave accents, and further values by a realizations in written English. The reader of Akkadian must rely on
subscribed number: tu, tu, til, tU4,tU5,etc. (A notation tux indicates a contextual indications to tell him whether he should read AN as a
value JtuJ assigned to a sign but not yet listed in the modern logogram 'sky' 9r 'god' or as a phonetic sign indicating the sound
sign-lists.) Such accents or numbers have no phonetic significance. JanJ or JilJ. Normally these indications suffice; very rarely, they
(2) Logographic values can similarly be indicated in alphabetic allow more than one reading, and so leave the text ambiguous.
form. Conventionally, logograms used in an Akkadian text are e. Further notes on the reading and transcription of Akkadian.
indicated by the Sum. word in capitals, with homophones again . (1) The phonetic values of signs are generally of the type CV
distinguished by indices: LUGAL 'king', LV 'man', KU6 'fish'. (consonant + vowel), Ye, or CYC: ba, ab, bab. The writing ba-ab
(3) Determinatives are conveniently represented in raised does not indicate a long vowel or two vowels, but the syllable Jbab/-
position, using their Sum. form: URU Assur and AN (i.e. D1NGIR, the (2) Most signs containing the vowel e or i are indeterminate,
Sum. reading of the sign AN in the sense 'god') Assur are .and may represent either of these vowels; this is universally true of
represented: uruAssur, dAssur (d is an abbreviation derived from CYC signs containing eJi (see §15). Choice of the reading is based on
Latin deus, 'god'). grounds extrinsic to the writing itself; thus PI-tu-u 'they are open'
(4) Phonetic complements are normally added to logograms in must, on grammatical grounds, be read pe-tu-u, not *pi-tu-u.
Sum. form (fl.-tum) or written in raised position or parentheses after (3) In cuneiform writing, a vowel sign repeating the vowel of a
an Akk. word: bitumturn, bitum(tum). preceding CY-sign (tu-u) may be used to indicate vocalic length;
(5) Depending on the purpose to be served, Akkadi~n tex.ts vocalic length is regularly so indicated only in the case of a long
written in cuneiform signs may be represented alphabetically. In accented final vowel resulting from contraction (§84e): pe-tu-u =
different ways: petu < *pqtil}u.
(i) The text may be represented as written, indicating signs one
(4) In normalizations, vocalic length must be indicated; two
by one and separating them by hyphen (if they belong to the same graphic indications of vowel length are normally used: when the
word) or space (if in different words) or position (determinatives and length is (i) morphological (e.g. a of the partigipial form parisum) or
(ii) the result of consonantal loss (*l]ifum > l]i'tum 'sin', §84d) it is
indicated by a macron C); when it is (iii) the result of vowel The multiplication-sign .x indicates one sign inscribed within
contraction (rabium > rabUm 'great', §84e) it is indicated by a another: thus KAx ME ~' d' t . '.
J"r L:r r riJb In lca es KAWIth ME wntten Inside it
circumflex n. '"f-j,LJ x/)-o
Syllabic length should be distinguished from vowel length: a x = an illegible, sign, or one of unknown reading.
syllable is said to be short if it consists ofa consonant and a short [ ] enclose a broken portion of the text.
vowel (1st syllable of /]tllaqum, 2nd of piirisum); it is said to be long ( : enclo~e something judged to be mistakenly omitted by
if it contains a long vowel or if it is closed by a consonant (1st and t h e anCIent scnbe.
last syllables of piirisunr, both syllables of dakum). { } ~r« » .enclose something judged to be mistakenly add d
(5) Doubled consonants are usually, but not always, indicated by the anCIent scnbe. e
in OB writing: 'he weighs out' may be written i-sa-qal or i-sa~aq-qal,
but in either case is to be normalized isaqqal.
(6) Initial ' (aleph, see §82b) is normally not indicated· in the
writing, and its non-appearanCl? in the writing system presumably
indicates its disappearance in speech; in OB, however, a word-initial
writing i-ii, a-ad, etc. appears to indicate the historical presence of
aleph, and not length: illak ( < *yi'allak), wr. i-il-la-ak; ul (* 'uI), wr.
u-ul.
(7) The signs a-a do not indicate jaj, or ja'aj but jajj or jajG)v j,
where V = any vowel. In general, the signs used to represent I'j, jjj,
jwj form a subsystem with special characteristics; the signs WA, 'A,
and lA, for instance, are unusual in representjng any vowel (wA =
jwaj, jwej, jwij, jwuj etc.) in being partly reversible (WA = jawj, 'A
= ja'j etc.), and in being partly interchangeable (WA = jjaj, IA =
ji'aj etc.).
(8) The following norms for word accentuation are reliably
derived from indirect evidence: 1. words of two syllables are
accented on the first (abum); 2. words of three or more syllables are
accented on the penultimate syllable if this is long (biki'tum, abUllum,
epiStum, cf. 4 above), otherwise 3. on the antepenult (muparrisum).
Exceptions: word accent falls on a long [mal vowel resulting from
contraction (rubum) and on the root syllable of medially weak verbs
(uki'n).
(9) Transliterated Akkadian is usually printed in italics. Roman
caps or small caps are used to indicate logograms (Sumerograms)
and signs whose reading is uncertain or unspecified.
The sign + is used to indicate composition of two simpler signs
in one complex one: thus sign (] ~ is· composed of IGI+ DIB
<jr-+ PiT'.
 §5. Nouns are inflected, showing three forms: nominative,
genitive and accusative (for their function see §9); the 'oblique case'
has a single form, with both genitive and accusative function. Status
rectus refers to the normal nominal formations not followed by a
genitive; for other 'states' see §16.

§6. Forms. In status rectus the following endings are appended

to the noun stem 1 (e.g. the stem *sarr-, giving sarrum 'king',
sarratum 'queen'); explanation of forms and terminology follows in
§§7-1O:
Masc. Fern.
Sing. nom. -um -(a)t-um
gen. -im -(a)t-im
ace. -am -(a)t-am
Dual nom. -an -(a)t-an
obI. -in -(a)t-in
Plur. nom. -ii (or -anii) -at-um
obI. -i (or -ani) -at-im
The adjective (e.g. the stem *dann-, giving masc. dannum, fern.
danna/um 'strong') has the same endings in the sing. and in fern.
plur.; in the mase. plur. the adjectival endings are -iitum (nom.),
-iitim (oblique case). InOB the adj. has no dual: an adj. modifying a
dual noun stands in the plur.

§7. Gender. There are two genders, masculine and feminine. In

general, the fern. is marked by -t or -at suffixed to the stem, and
nouns without this suffix are masc. The shorter form of the suffix

I By 'root' is meant the fundamental structure common'to cognate words:

*dmq is the root of dumqum. damqum and udammiq. kiln of kfnum and ikon. ab
of ahum and abbil. By 'stem' is meant (I) the base form ,of a given noun or
adjective, to which affixes are added: dumq-. damq-. ab-. kln-; (2) a verbal
conjugation, see §22.
(-t) is more commonly used (e.g. marum 'son', martum 'daughter'). 5. After the OB period, the case system underwent a simplifica-
The longer form (-at) is used with geminaty roots (i.e. roots whose tion analogous to that of late Latin. In this regard, each dialect
second and third consonantal radicals are identical, e.g. *dnn in must be studied in itself.
dannum 'powerful') and with the nominal formation pars 2 6. Some feminine nouns lack the -(a)t ending: ummum'mother'.
(kalb-at-um 'bitch'; see §65). (Nouns of the form pirs and purs add Some nouns which lack a fern. indicator in the sing. have it in the
-t, but the stem takes the secondary shape piris, purus; cf. ribi~tum plur.: abullum 'city gate' (fem.), plur. abullatum (fern.); eqlum 'field'
and pulubtum, §12.) (masc.), plur. eqletum (fem.).
7. Besides the three cases listed above, there are two further
§S. Number. There are separate forms for singular, plural and adverbial cases which occur with relative rarity, except in OB and
dual. The dual is no longer a freely used form in OB, but limited to SB poetry: the locative, with ending -um 'in, at', and the
nouns denoting or connoting parts of the body: fnan 'two eyes', terminative, with ending -is 'to, unto': qatukka < *qatum-ka 'in
sepan 'two feet'; in an extended sense: rfsan 'top' (from rfsum your hand', pubrussunu < *pubrum-sunu 'in their assembly',
'head'), emiiqan 'strength (of arms)'. For adjectives modifying duals, sepu'a < sepu"a < *sepum-ja 'at my feet (§84d), qerbum Biibilim
see §6 above. 'in (the middle of) Babylon', daris umf 'for length of oays'.
Adjectival stem + -is has adverbial--sense: kfnis 'firmly'. ~fter
§9. Case functions. The nominative is used as subject of a verb 1300 B.C. noun + -is comes to have a comparative sense: abilbiS
or predicate of a nominal sentence. The genitive is used after a 'like a flood', labbis 'like a lion'.
preposition or in relation to another noun (indicating possession,
agent, object of action). The accusative is used as object of a verb or §11. Nouns with vocalic stems. With the disappearance of '1-7
in adverbial uses (indicating time, place, specification). (§82j; , in this context marks a syllable boundary, whether
historically \.5 or w or J) in nouns or adjectives such as rabi'um
§10. Further annotations. 1. The masc. plur. endings -anu, -anf 'great', ruba'um 'prince', sumlu'um 'to fill'" contraction usually takes
appear in late OB in a small number of short words (especially ilum place according to the rules noted in §84e: rabi'-um > rabium >
rabUm, ruba'im > rubaim > rubem, rabi'am remains the normal OB
'god' and alum 'city') and become more widespread thereafter.
2. In the fern., -et and -et are conditioned variants of -at and form but later > rabdm. In the fern. sing. the vowel preceding , is
-at, when the noun has e < a: see §84f and g. Thus beltum 'lady'
lengthened (§84d): rabftum < *rabi'-tum, surbutum < *surbu'-tum.
(stem *ba'I-) has OB plur. beletum (Ass. belatum); so also erretum S. m. nom. rabi'um > rabUm ruba'um > rubCan SumI12m
'curse' (* 'rr), plur. erre/um; ezzum 'angry' (* 'zz), fern. ezzetum. gen. rabi'im > rabim ruba'im > rubem suinlim
3. Mimation (the addition of m to case indicators u, i, a) is acc. rabi'am > rabdm ruba'am > rubdm sumlam
characteristic of masc. sing. nouns, all fern. nouns except duals, and f. nom. rabftum
all adjectives. Nunation (the addition of n to case indicators a, f) is pI. m. nom. rabi'utum > rabUtum ruba 'u > rubU
characteristic of the dual. After the OB period, both mimation and obI. rabi'utim > rabutim ruba 'f > rube
nunation fall into disuse: sarrum > sarru, fnan > fna. f. nom. rabi'atum > raMtum
4. There is no definite or indefinite article; sarrum may be
translated 'a king' or 'the king' as context requires. §12. Typical variations in form between masc. and fern. or
between fern. sing. and plur. are due to such factors as vowel loss,
vowel insertion, and consonant assimilation:
2 The root *prs is used as a summary indication of forms: thus the pirs form

of *spr is the nominal stem sipr- or the full form siprum; its paris form is sapir· or
*damiq-um >,damqum 'g@od',f. damiqtum, m. pI. damqutum •.
sapirum. f. pI. damqatum (vocalic elision in m. and f. pI.: §84b)
 *pulb-tum > pulubtum 'fear', pI. pulbiitum; *rib,r-tum > rib4tum
'inundation', pI. rib,riitum (simplification of triple consonant
in sing. by vowel insertion: §83n)
*san-tum > sattum 'year', pI. saniitum (assimilation of n in ana (prep.): to kfma (prep.): as, like; (conj.):
sing.: §83e) arnum: sin, crime; punishment as, that, when
*libn-tum > libittum 'brick', pI. libniitum (vowel insertion; as- airum: place mabrum: front
similation of n). assum (prep.): because of, mar,rum, f. marustum « ma-
concerning; (conj.): because ru,rtum): sick, difficult,
§13. abum 'brother' and abum 'father' form the plural with awl/um: man painful
consonant reduplication: abbii, abbii. Mum (m.), pI. bftiitum (f.): nisii (f. pl.): people
house pusqum: difficulty
§14. The adjective normally follows the noun it modifies. dannum, f. dannatum: strong, rabum < rabium, f. raMtum:
The adjective may serve as a substantive; in this case it powerful great
normally retains adjectival declension (with masc. plur. -iitum), but erretum, pI. erretum: curse, rfmum: wild bull
note sfbum 'grey (-haired one), witness' with double plural JIM malediction sapbum, f. sapibtum: scattered
'witnesses' and iwiitum 'elders'. ezzum, f. ezzetum: angry sanum < sanium, f. sanftum:
A noun construction in Akkadian may sometimes be translated gitmiilum: perfect, noble second, other
with an adjectival phrase: zer sarriitim (lit. 'seed of kingship') 'royal ilum, pI. ilii or iliinii: god sarrum: king
offspring' . ina (prep.): in, among, from tambiirum: battle
within, with (instrumental) ummum (f.): mother
§15. On learning cuneifonn signs. Note that consonants final in isiitum (f.), pI. isiitiitum: fire wardum: slave, servant
a sign-valu~ are indeterminate, the same sign representing voiced (b, istu (prep.): from wai{um: difficult, hard, fierce
g, d, z), VOiceless (p, k, t, s) and emphatic consonants (q, t, ,r) of the kabtum, f. kabittum: heavy, zikarum or zikrum (§84b):
same locus of articulation; thus ad, at, and at are all expressed by honored, important (person) male, man
the same sign AD; its value may be represented most economically in kadrum: wild, fierce
sign-~ists as ad, representing the three possibilities ad/tit. Similarly
the sign IG may be realized as ig/k/q, IB as ib/p, uz as uz/s/,r etc. Cuneiform signs
Consonants initial in a sign-value are more clearly distinguished in
writing, but in OB distinct signs for the emphatics are not yet in (The first column gives the sign, in its Neo-Assyrian form; the
common use; these are usually represented by signs which indicate second gives common phonetic values, with post·OB values in
primarily the voiced or voiceless homorganic consonant. Thus parentheses; the last column gives logographic values.)
in~tial q is indicated by GA (to be read qa) and KI (read ql), t by TU
(tu), ,r by zu (,ru) or by SU. Signs Phonetic Logographic
W~have seen {§4e,2) that most signs containing i may also be
~ an AN = Anum 'the god Anum'
read with e: thus DI may be read di or de, and similarly LI, GI etc.
AN = samu 'sky'
There are. some exceptions: bi and be· are different signs, as are Ii
DINGIR = ilum 'god'
and te, ni and ne, si and se.
P.f\ na

~ um
 Signs

(bid) B = Mum 'house'

B.GAL = ekallum 'palace' NOMINAL DECLENSION, II: ABSOLUTE AND
CONSTRUCTSTATE.PRONONnNALS~XES

gal, (qaT) GAL = rabUm 'great'

. §16. Nominal states. In addition to the status rectus considered
bu, pu, (gid, qid, sir, sir) GID(.DA) = arkum 'long' in Lesson 1, the Akkadian noun appears in two other 'states': the
md MES (sign of plurality) 3 absolute state (status absolutus) and construct state (status
constructus). The latter is found in all Semitic languages, the former
a A(.MES) = mu 'water' (plur.) only in Akkadian and (with a different function) in the Aramaic
dialects.

§17. Absolute state. This is formally characterized by loss of

1. Decline sarrum, sarratum, erretum, dannum, ezzum, ruba'um, case endings: zikar < zikarum, sarrat < sarratum, sinnis (with loss
sanum. of f. -t) < sinnistum. It occurs with relative rarity, and' functions
2. Normalize (cf. §4c,5) and translate: a-wi-Iam. wa-ar-dim. chiefly in numerals and measures of length, weight, etc. which
ni-si sa6-ap-ba-tim. ar-nam kab-tam. sar-ru-um gi-it-ma-Ium. pu-us-qi accompany them (these will be discussed in §76) and in frozen
wa-aS-tu-tim. i-na sar-ri. Anum ra-bu-um. as-sum er-re-tim. ilii adverbial and adnominal expressions: sar la sanan 'king who camiot
rabUtum. ummum ra-bE-tum. i-na tam-ba-ri-im. ki-ma i-sa-tim be rivalled', ana dar 'forever', zikar u sinnis 'male and female', ~eber
ez-ze-tim. er-re-tam ma-ru-uS-tam. ri-mu-um ka-ad-ru-um. sarrum u rabi 'young and old'.
da-num. as-sum zi-ka-ri-im sa-ni-im. a-na bft sa-ni-im. is-tu bftim. i-na
§18. The construct state is the unaccented form of the noun
ma-ab-ri-im.
which immediately precedes another noun in the genitive (bel bltim
3. Translate into Akkadian: powetful kings. great men. the
'lord of the house') or a verbal clause in the subjunctive (awat iqbU
honored god. angry gods. another's house. in the fire. from the
'the word (which) he said', §37); the nominal form preceding a
battle. like a slave.
pronominal suffix is similar (bel-su 'his lord'), and will also be
4. Cuneiform:
discussed here.
Hrt g:Jr ~r- ~; P+t-!=rP-; In general it may be said that the noun in construct position

B-T Tr-<<< a;- Tr-<<< ; $~ rtf, T~;

takes the shortest form which is phonetically possible. Where
(according to the norm .of §83n) phonetic adaptation is needed to
avoid final biconsonance, the specific adaptation used will depend
Tf 0 FfJTT; ~ H'1 PiT 7;--<<< ~r- T~ ; on the origin of the word: we must distinguish e.g. a formation pars

HT j:t- f=rr- ; IT TH«' ; Ft= ~T FTm f1;-

(pirs, purs) such as mabrum (siprum, sulmum) from a formation paris
such as saknum < sakinum (cf. §84b) and from feminines such as
subtum, formed on a base sub- < *wsb + fern. -to. There follows a
3 Plurality may also be indicated by reduplication of the logogram for noun schematic overview of the forms normal in OB; for translation see
or adjective: thus DINGIR.MES, D1NGIR.D1NGIR, and D1NGIR.GAL.GAL all indicate ilil the vocabularies. .
'gods' (with rabi/tum 'great' added in the last phrase).
 1. Group with different forms before genitive and suffIx: c. final -t of monosyllabic fern. stems (sub-t-um) is usually
i. Before a genitive: replaced by -at .(Iubat awilim, subassu), but sometimes a helping
vowel (l,i,c and l,ii,c above) is employed (qfstiawflim, qfstaka).
a. mimation, nunation, and short case endings are lost: bel
bftim, ana bel bftim, assat awilim; long case endings are retained: 3. The above summarizes the formations found in OB, but it
belii bftim, belf bftim should be noted that in other dialects, and sometimes even in OB,
b. but biconsonantal stems (such as ab- 'father' < *'ab-) treatment may differ: what remains constant is the avoidance of
generally add -i for all cases: abi bftim, idi awilim final double consonance and the tendency to lengthen words that
c. polysyllabic fern. stems in -t- and monosyllabic stems which are shorter than usual, but the means taken can change.
end in a reduplicated consonant add -i for all cases (cf. §83n): nidinti 4. Survey of forms (cf. §84i on secondary length):
awilim, {uppi awflim, libbi awilim, ummi sarrim; by exception, the (i) Simplest type:
monosyllabic stem sarr- simplifies to sar: sar matim with genitive
d. bisyllabic mase. stems ending in double consonant simplify ---
it: kunuk awilim nom·l~
e. stems ending in a vowel may follow rule a above (rabi bftim, bel iilim bel-f beli-ja
kala matim), but the final vowel may be lost (rab bftim, kal matim), bel-Su beli-Su
and -a may be replaced by -i (kalO; long -a is usually replaced by the belii-'a
gen. ending -e < -a-i, cf. §84e (ruM'um, constr. rube). belii-Su

ii. Before suffIx (other than -i): aSsati-ja

aSsati-su
a. mimation, nunation, and short case endings in sing.
aSsiitu-'a
nom./ace. are lost: belsu, massu « *miit-su, §83f), but matatusu, aSsiitu-Su
fniiSu
b. short case endings are retained (and secondarily lengthened: (ii) Special types:
§84i) in gen. sing. and in fern. plur.: ana beIlIu, matatusu, ana libbum libb-f libbi-ja
matatisu libba-su libbi-Su
c. polysyllabic fern. stems in -t- and stems wlllch end in a kunukk-f kunukki-ja
reduplicated consonant add -a for nom.lace. sing.: nidintaSu, kunukka-su kunukki-su
maljr-f maljri-ja
{uppasu, libbaki, kunukkasu, ummasunu, sarrasu
maljar-su maljri-sll
d. biconsonantal stems (abum, idum), stems from roots with a
sipr-f sipri-ja
third weak consonant (marum < *mar'um, bfsum < *biijum) and sipir-su sipri-su
vocalic stems in -a (kalum < *kala-um) generally retain case endings Sulm-f Sulmi-ja
throughout sing.: abuSu, abisu, abaSu, bfsuSu, marusu, kalusu < Sulum-Su sulmi-su
*kala-u-su, rubUsu (but the i-stem banium forms banisu aceording to sakn-f sakni-ja
a above).. sakin-su sakni-su
Subt-f Subti-ja
2. Group with single form before genitive and suffIx (except -i): Subti-Su
Subassu
a. pars, pirs, purs (maJjr-, sipr-, sulm-) repeat their first vowel: qiSt-f qiSti-ja
maJjar awilim, sipirSu, sulumkunu qiSta-Su qiSti-Su
b. forms such as saknum < *sakinum resulting from vowel nidint-f nidinti-ja
elision (§84b) restore the lost vowel: sakin matim, sakimu nidinta-Su nidinti-s~
 with genitive
§20. Possessive pronominal suffixes are ~se~ with prepo~itions
(§54,2) and nouns; with the latter the! may mdlc~te possessIOn or
nom. I ace. I gen. nom.
I ace. gen. other functions of the genitive (objecuve gen., SUbjectIvegen.). The
biinUm < biinium biini/ban awilim banf < • bani-i biinf-ja forms are:
biini-Iu biinf-Iu Singular Plural
biinit-i biiniti-ja
biinissu biiniti-Iu
1st person -I, -(})a -ni
2nd m. -ka -kunu
kala (kali, kal) ·kalf kalf-ja
2nd f. -ki -kina
miitim < ·kala-i
kalil-Iu kalil-Iu kali-su
3rd m. -su -Sunu
3rd f. -sa -sina
rube alim rube rube-ja
< ·ruba-i gen. < ·ruba-f The 1st sing. suffIx takes three forms in standard OB: ~iaft~r .a
rubil-Iu rubil-Iu rube-Iu noun in nom./acc. sing., -ja after gen. sing./oblique plur., but thi~ IS
ab-i abi-ja reduced to -a after nom. pI. (transcribed belUa 'my lords', or Wlth
abu-Iu aba-Iu abi-Iu explicit notation of the syllable boundary, belira) Thus bell 'my
miir-i miiri-ja lord', aSsatu'a 'my wives', ana belija 'to my lord', ana belija 'to my
miiru-Iu miira-Iu miiri-su
~'. ~
Note (§83f)that dental/sibilant +s> ss: *mat-su > miissu s
land', *res-sa > ressa 'her head'.
For· the learner, it is important to recognize the markers
distinguishing one form from another in this sub-system, and all
Vocabulary
forms in it from the case endings of the status rectus: thus abi
(bltim) and (uppi (awllim) are not necessarily genitive, nor (UppaSu abum, pI. abbii: father e~emtum, pI. e~metum: bone
necessarily accusative; subtisu cannot be nominative or accusative; aJ.Jum,pI. aJ.JJ.Jii:
brother J.Julqum:lost object
massu cannot be genitive. assatum (stem *'an!-): wife idum: arm, side
awiitum, pI. awatum: word Inum: eye
§19. In place of the construction construct + genitive (bel biinium, biinum: builder, maker itti (prep.): with; ittlsu 'with him'
matim) a periphrasis may be used: status rectus + sa + genitive beltum, pI. beleturn: lady, mistress (§84i)
(belum sa matim, ana belim sa matim). sa '(the one) of derives from belum: lord, master, owner kalum: totality, entirety
the determinative pronoun SU (§63). blsum: possession kunukkum: cylinder seal
This periphrasis must be used when the principle noun would dilrium, darum: (ever)lasting libbum: heart, center, middle
be separated by an adjective from the genitive: ·sar dannum matim dlnum: judgment, legal case dM arduk: the god Marduk,
is impossible, and must be replaced either by sarrum dannum sa ekallum « Sum. E..GAL): palace patron of Babylon
matim or by sar matim dannum 'mighty king of the land'. The sa eli: on, upon; ellSU 'on it' (§84i) marum: son
construction is also frequently used to avoid ambiguity when the eqlum (m.), pI. eqletum (f.) (*1}ql): matum (f.), pI. matatum: land
construct state has the same form as the status rectus (e.g. the nom. field miSarum (*jsr): justice
pI. belif), or to avoid a stylistically heavy construct chain (thus mar erresum (·~rJ): (tenant-)farmer nidintum, nidittum: gift
sarrim sa mat /fatti 'the prince of Ratti-land' avoids the cumbrous er~etum: earth qatum (f.): hand
mar sar mat /fattl).
qlstum: present, gift . sarratum: queen
ri'utum: shepherdship sarriitum: kingship
rubii'um, rubum: prince, noble siprum: work
~el:Jruni,f. ~el:Jertum:small subtum:seat, dwelling 1. Normalize and translate: be-el sa-me-e u er-~e-tim. a-ra-an
~ibtum, construct ~ibat (*w~b): sulmum: wholeness, health di-nim. i-na qa-at mar a-wi-lim. as-sa-at a-wi-lim. as-sa-su. warad
..interest (on capital) sumum: name, offspring ekallim. sar mi-sa-ri-im. li-ib-bi dMarduk. zerum da-ri-um sa
~lrum, f. ~lrtum: exalted SUqurum, f. Silqurtum (*wqr): very sar-ru-tim. mar a-wi-lim ~e-el:J-ra-am.sa-Iu-us-ti eqlim. ~i-ba-su. it-ti
saknum « *sakinum): governor costly, precious be-el-ii-sa. be-Ie-sa. e-li-su. it-ti-su-nu. re-u-si-na. be-el-ni; e~emti
salustum: one third (f. of the (uppum: (clay-)tablet warad a-wi-lim. sum-su ~i-ra-am. i-na li-ib-bi-su. a-na be-li-su. bfs-su
ordinal salsum 'third') u: and (E-SU). zilla-suo a-na as-sa-ti-su. a-wa-ti-ia su-qu-ra-tim. di-ni. ma-su.
sama'ii, samu (m. pl.): sky, zerum: seed a~na ni-si~su. er-re-sum. er-re-su. be-ell:Ju-ul-qi-im. l:Ju-Iu-uq-su.
heavens zittum: share (of properly) 2. Translate into Akkadian: the man's son. with the man's son.
his son. with his son; the man's brother. the man's work. the man's
gift. the man's wife. the man's dwelling. his tablet. their seal. your
heart. our maker. her son. my brother. his father: my possession.
their bones. my word. her small queen. with my share. his tenant
Signs Phonetic farmer.
Logographic
3. Cuneiform:
ir, er
~
Kl'..(
nJrr-~ ~~ ~ Tf~.(Tl-;
ti, ti

~ ia, also ie, ii, iu ~ kT< tff Tf ~ ~; F1= ~T

~ (tur) TUR = ~el:Jrum'small' ~t Fi=r F$ Tf ~I-- -<Tv-- rf£f Fmr ~;
ad
DUMU = marum'son'
n r<T t:mr Faf·; ~ K'r ~.~.$:1f
~
FTIr~ ga, qa n ~. H-f Tf ~r- <~ ; Ft=- Ht;:rot HT<
~T id, ed A = idum 'arm, side' ~; nrfr TT~~l< ~
~ wa, we, wi, wu; pi, pe GESTU = uznum 'ear'
<1"- si, lim
IGI = piinum 'front', pI. 'face'
LIM = flmum'thousand'
 and is normally translated by an English present or future ('he
builds, is building, will build'); (2) the 'preterite' (iprus) expresses an
action as taking place at a single point in time, and is most often
translated by a past narrative tense ('he built'); (3) the 'perfect'
(iptaras) represents the verbal action in temporal relation to another
action or to the present time, and is usually translated by a past
tense ('he built','he has built'); (4) the 'stative' (paris) expresses a
§21. The verb: general. Akkadian has some purely nominal state ('he is old') rather than an action or process ('he becomes
stems such as ab-'father', kalb- 'dog', with no adjectival or verbal old'). In addition to the four tenses, each stem has an imperative, a
cognates. Generally, however, words with verbal function lend nominal form (the infmitive), and two adjectival forms (participle
themselves freely to the formation of cognates with nominal or and verbal adjective).
adjectival functions, and in the sa~e way nouns or adjectives can
cross functional lines. Thus we find the verb isriq 'he stole', the §24. Verb types and vocalic classes. Akkadian verbs divide into
adjective sarqum 'stolen', the noun sarriiqum 'thief; from such a two basic groups: those having an originally verbal function of
group of words we may isolate a root common to all: the expressing action or process, which we may call action-verbs, and
consonantal sequence *srq, which (as both its form and the asterisk verbs derived from adjectives and expressing the inception or
indicate) is an abstraction never attested as such. Most such roots in existence of a state, which we may call state-verbs.
Akkadian are triconsonantal, but biconsonantal and quadri- Action-verbs are found in four classes c/laracterized by
consonantal verbs are also found. different stem-vowels (the stem-vowel is the vowel preceding the
As in other Semitic languages, we distinguish the 'strong' verb final radical in finite forms); the classes are designated by the stem
(paradigm: pariisum 'to separate') from the various types of 'weak' vowel of the G pres. (iparras) and the G pret. (iprus).
verbs which undergo phonetic modification (assimilation of n [§83e], alu class (iparras iprus 'separate')
disappearance of '\:7 [§§82jand 84c-f], etc.) and from irregularly a class (i~abbat i~bat 'seize)
formed verbs. u class (irappud irpud 'run')
§22. Stems. As in Hebrew or Arabic, Akkadian verbs are class. (ipaqqid ipqid 'entrust')
conjugated in several subsystems called 'stems'; these are
The relation of these patterns to verbal meaning is not rigid, and a
distinguished by lack or presence of reduplicated and infixed or shift from one vowel class to another is not infrequent; nonetheless
prefixed elements. There are four main stems, usually termed G, D,
the following general tendencies are observable: the alu and a
S, N or I, II, III, IV (G, from German 'Grundstamm', signifies the
classes contain transitive verbs; the u class intransitives; the i class
basic stem; D refers to the doubled middle radical which transitives whose result is produced by a momentary action, cand
characterizes this stem; Sand N indicate affixed elements sand n);
some intransitive verbs of motion.
the four stems correspond to Hebrew Qal, Prel, Hifil and Nifal.
State-verbs are·predominantly of the i type, but the stem vowel
Further stems can be formed from these by infixing -ta- or -tan-.
a. is also found: damiiqum 'to become good': idammiq, idmiq;
The infixed stems are referred to as Gt or 1/2, Gtn or 1/3, Dt or II/2,
pasiibum 'to be at peace, calm down': ipaSsab, ipsab.
Dtn or II/3, etc.
§23. 'Tenses'. In each stem we find four finite 1 forms, usually §2S. The preterite (iprus, i~bat, etc.) is formed by adding
called tenses: (1) the 'present' (iparras) expresses a continuing action, prefixes and suffixes to a base -prus- (-~bat-, -pqid-). It normally
represents a simple past action (i~bat 'he seized') or the inception ()of
a state (idmiq 'he improved'). The forms of pariisum follow:
 Sing. 3c. iprus 3m. iprusii as seberum. erebum see §84f-h). Because of its double character as
2m. taprus 3f. iprusii verbal and nominal form, the infinitive may be used in verbal
2f. taprusl 2c. taprusii constructions with accusative object (these will be discussed in §75)
lc. aprus lc. niprus or in nominal constructions such as construct state + genitive; ina
is used to express time, ana finality:
(In the other vocalic classes, the proper stem vowel should be
substituted throughout for u: i~bat. ta$bat, ta~batf; irpud, tarpud.) ina pariisika 'when you separate' (lft. 'in your separating')
Note that in OB the 3rd sing. form is common to masc. and give me a boat ana rakiibija 'that Imay ride in it' ('for my
fem. ('he/she separated'); other dialects preserve a distinctive fem. riding')
form taprus 'she separated'. ana sakiip nakrim 'in order to overthrow the enemy' ('for the
A 3rd person dual iprusii is also found, but is generally replaced overthrowing of the enemy').
by the plural. .
§29. The (active) participle has in the G-stem the form piirisum,
§26. The present of action-verbs represents action as with normal adjectival declension (f. piiristum, m. pI. piirisiitum, f. pI.
continuous: irappud 'he runs, is running, will run'. In state-verbs, piirisiitum). The ptc. normally functions as a noun, i.e. it governs a
the present has an ingressive sense: iballu{ 'he comes to enjoy good genitive rather than an accusative: piilib ilim 'godfearing (person)'.
health, he will get well'. State-verbs (§24) do not form a ptc. (*diimiqum); its place is taken by
The present is characterized by reduplication of the middle the corresponding adjective (damqum).
radical; its conjugation parallels the preterite:
Sing. 3c. iparras Plur. 3m. iparrasu, §30. The verbal adjective has in the G-stem the form parsum
2m. taparras 3f. iparrasii « *parisum), with adjectival declension. The verbal adj. of
2f. taparrasl 2c. taparrasii action-verbs is normally passive in sense: haMlum 'to treat unjustly',
Ic. aparras Ic. niparras awilum bablum 'a wronged man'; compare the verbal adj. from
state-verbs damqum 'good', bal{um 'living'.
with regular substitution of other stem vowels in irappud, ipaqqid.
§31. A nominal sentence is one without a finite verbal form as
§27. The imperative, expressing positive commands, is formed predicate. It is often characterized by an independent pronoun
on ~h~'pret~rite base *prus. *~bat, *rpud,*pqid. In the masc. sing., (§54,4) or the enclitic -ma (§40,3):
an InItIal bIconsonantal cluster is resolved by insertion of a vowel
(§83n); this is usually the same as the stem vowel (purus. ~abat. Adad sarrum-ma 'Adad is king'
rupud, piqid), but in some a class verbs the vowel i is inserted (limad ul abl atta 'you are not my father'
'learn!', pilab 'fear!', rikab 'ride!', tikal'trust!'). When an ending is sal/miitum sa awil Esnunna da~tum-ma 'the alliances of the
added, the vowel preceding it is elided. ruler of Eshnunna are treachery'.
sing. masc. purus ~abat limad rupud piqid
§32. A verbal sentence normally has the order: Subject - Object
sing. fem. pursf ~abtl limdl rupdl piqdf
- Indirect object - Verb: sarrum eqlam ana awllim iddin 'the king
plur. camm. pursii ~abtii limdii rupdii piqdii
gave the man afield'. The final position of the verb, which is
(The form taken by negative commands will be seen in "§47.) unusual in Semitic, is probably due to Sumerian influence.

§28. The infinitive is a declined verbal noun which is patterned

pariisum in the G-stem (for phonetically conditioned variants such
 aliikum (pres. illak, pret. illik; paqiidum (I): to care for (ace.), to Logographic
further forms will be seen in entrust (ace.) to (analdat.)
§68):to go pariisum (alu): to cut, divide
dajjiinum: judge paSatum (z): to erase, efface
i~um: tree, wood pum: mouth (construct state: pi)
kaspum: silver purussii'um, purussum: decision; zu lamiidum 'to learn'
kaiiidum (alu): to reach, arrive purussiim pariisum: to make a
at, conquer decision GAL = basum 'to be'
mab~um (a): to beat, strike ragiimum (u): to claim, raise a
mu (plur. < mii'ii): water legal claim
nadiinum (pres. . inaddin, pret. rittum (f., *rl}t): wrist, hand
iddin < *indin: §83e): to give; ~abiitum (a): to seize su, (qad) Su qiitum 'hand'
(ana kaspim) nadiinum: to sell sakiinum (alu): to put, place, set
nakiisum (pres. inakkis, pret. ud, U4, tam, pir, (par, lab, U4 umum 'day'
saqiilum (alu): to weigh (out),
ikkis: §83e): to cut down, cut pay lib, bis, tu) dUTU = dSamaS (sun-god)
off sariikum (alu): to present, give
namkurum: possession (*mkr, cf. sariiqum (I): to steal BABBAR = pe~um 'white'
§83c) seberum (i, pres. iSebbir, teSebbir, dlSKUR = dAdad (storm-god)
n~iirum (pres. in~~ar, pret. eSeb/;lir;pret. iSbir, teSbir, esbir;
i~~ur: §83e):to guard, keep 1M tiuum 'clay'
v. adj. sebrum; cf. §84gh): to
nlsum: oath (lit. life); usually in break 1M siirum 'wil).d'
nls ilim: (oath) by the life of a summa (conj.): if
god, nls sarrim and the like zakiirum (alu): to speak, say,
KU = ellum 'pure, holy'
nub§um: abundance name KU.BABBAR = kaspum 'silver'
paliibum (a): to fear, reverence
GUSKIN (written KU.GI) =
burii~um 'gold'
za, ~a, sa

1. Normalize and translate: is-ru-uk. im-ba-a~. ik-su-ud. ip-si-i{.

mi-sa-ra-am i-na pI ma-tim as-ku-un. sum-ma da-a-a-nu-um
pu-ru-sa-am ip-ru-us. a-wi-lum namkur ~lim i~-~~-i.q .. b~t(bls)-su
i~-ba-at. i-sa-ak-ka-nu. i-na-~a-ar. i-pa-aq-ql-du. m-Is I-hm l-za-kur.
i-ra-ag-gu-um. i-se-eb-bi-ru.. i-~a-am i-na-ak-ki-su. ritta-su i-na-ki-su.
kaspam i-sa-qa-Iu. bit-su a-na kaspim i-na-ad-di-in. pa-li-ib i-Ii.
sa-ki-in me-e nu-ub-sim a-na ni-si-su. pa-qi-id bi-tim. i-na a-Ia-ki-su.
a-na ka-sa-dim. bi-tum na-ad-nu-um.
2. Conjugate in pret., pres. and imp. and give ptc. and verbal G-STEM OF STRONG VERB (II). VERBAL SUFFIXES.
adj.: kasiidum, sariiqum, seberum. VE~VE.SUBJUNCTIVE
4. Translate into Akkadian: you raised a claim. he reverences
the gods. he struck the man. my lord broke his tablet. I entrust my
father to the gods. he placed his gift before the god. he is weighing §33. The stative is a conjugated form of the verbal adjective
out silver in his father's house. he effaced my words. when you parsum « *parisum). It designates atemPorally a state or the
arrive. in order to guard his house. the seized man. lasting effect of an action: damiq 'he is (was, will be) good'
5. Cuneiform: (state-verb), paris 'it is (was, will be) decided' (action-verb). In
action-verbs it is usually passive in sense (~abit 'he is in captivity'),
but occasionally active (bitam ~abit 'he possesses a house').
Fi rFf ~'; The stative of action-verbs is formed on a base paris, in which
t+t ~ ; H-t ~8'f ; the i is elided when an ending is suffixed. State-verbs also usually
have the base paris, but may have the base parus or paras: mar~ 'he
11 Ht mrr H+ 8<1'* I! ~ ; is sick' < marii~um (a), rapaS 'it is wide' < rapiiSum (I). The forms
of the stative are:
rtt ABt ; ~ <-H ~ ~ Sing. 3m. paris Plur. 3m. parsii
3f. parsat 3f. parsii
2m. parsiita 2m. parsiitunu
2f. parsiiti 3f. parsiitina
Ic. parsiiku Ic. parsiinu

Any noun or adjective may be used with stat. endings and

function as a predicate:
sarriiku 'I am king', sar 'he is king' < sarrum (noun)
rabiiita, raMta 'you are great' < rabUm (adj.)
damqii 'they are good' < damqum (adj.) or damiiqum (vb.).

Non-final -a- of the stative endings > e in accordance with

§84f: bel, belet, beleta, beleti, be/eku, be/ii, be/ii, be/etunu, beletina,
be/enu.

§34. The perfectis formed by infixing -t(a) after the first radical.
Though this tense shares forms with the stems that infix -t(a)-, it
must be clearly distinguished from them. Like other tenses, the
perfect expresses aspect of action, whereas the derived stems have a
lexical significance.
 The G perfect has the following forms: 3. Note that when an ending is added, the final vowel of the
Sing. 3c. iptaras Plur. 3m. iptarsu base form is elided: *iptaras-u > iptarsu.
2m. taptaras 3f. iptarsii
2f. taptarsf 2c. taptarsii §35. Pronominal suffixes, accusative and dative, may be added
lc. aptaras lc. niptaras to all finite forms of the verb, indicative or subjunctive, and to the
imperative: isruku 'they gave', isrukusu 'they gave him/it', isrukusum
In dependent temporal and conditional (§39)Clauses,when the 'they gave to him'. The forms are as follows:
main verb is future, imperative or volitional (§42),the perf. indicates
a futurum exactum (Le. a future prior to the future of the main Accusative Dative
clause): lc. -ni -am
inuma gerretum iptarsii 'when the caravans (shall) have left' 2m. -ka -kum
istu ~iibum su iktasdakkum ~iibam sati ana ~er abika {urdam 2f. -ki -kim
'when those men (shall) have come to you, send those men 3m. -su -sum
to your brother' 3f. -si -sim
Ie. -niiiti -niiiSim
For use of the perfect in past conditional clauses see §39. 2m. -kunuti -kunusim
2f. -kiniiti -kiniiSim
In independentclauses, the perf. has the following use!!: 3m. -sunuti -sunusim
(a) in OB we often find a perfect after one or more preterites, 3f. -siniiti -siniisim
and usually connected to them by -ma; this sequence, pret. + -ma +
perf. (the so-called sequence of tenses or 'consecutio temporum'), 1. The 1st sing. dat. form -am is used only after endingless
expressespast actions performed in sequence: verbal forms (isruk, tasruk, asruk, nisruk: e.g. isruk-am 'he gave to
me'); after -f of the 2nd fern. sing. verb, it is reduced to -m
ibliqma i~~abtusu 'he fled but they caught him' (tasrukf-m 'you gave to me'), and after -u, -ii of the 2nd and 3rd
ana GN asniqma ii/am sati asbupma ~~abat 'I reached GN, plur. verb, it is replaced by -nim (isruku-nim 'they gave to me').
and overran and seized that city' 2. Note again that dental/sibilant + s > ss (§83f)in ipqissu <
*ipqid-su, imbassu < *imb~-su and similar forms.
(b) the perfect (like the pret.) may be used as an 'epistolary 3. Dat. and acc. suffixes may be used together, with daL
tense', expressing actions from the temporal viewpoint of the letter's preceding; in this case final -m of the dat. assimilates to a following
recipient, not its sender (this usage is often introduced by the consonant: isrukusussu < *isruku-sum-su 'they gave it to him'.
adverbs anumma 'herewith' or inanna 'now'); translation is best 4. Loss of mimation in the dat. occurs toward the end of OB;
given in the present: this brings about loss of distinction between some forms of dat. and
(uppf anniam astaprakkum 'I send this letter of mine to you' acc. (ni, ki, su, sz), and is accompanied by increasing confusion
anumma astaprakkum/aSpurakkum 'I herewith write to you' between dat. and acc. suffixes in general.
inanna attardakkum 'I now send to you'.
§36. The ventive.A special form of the verb, usually called the
1. For the assimilation of t of the infix to the first radical in ventive, is formally identical with verb + 1st sing. dat. suffix
forms like i~~abat < *i!jtabat, igdamur < *igtamur, see §83h. -am/-m/-nim; choice of form follows the norms given in §35,1
2. The stem vewel of the perf. is identical with that of the G (iprus-am, taprusf-m, iprusu-nim). The form seems to be a
pres.: iptaras, i,y,yabat,irtapud, iptaqid. development from the dat. 'to me', but the original dat. sense of the
suffix has been lost. With verbs of motion, the ventive ending may §38. The subjunctive. Finite verbal forms (pret., pres., perf.,
indicate direction 'hither' (illik 'he went', but illikam 'he came'), and stat.), when they are used in dependent clauses, stand in the
it is from this sense that the name ventive derives; in most instances, subjunctive mood. The negation of dependent clauses is expressed
however, the ending appears to have a stylistic rather than a lexical by Iii, whereas the negation of independent clauses is usually
significance;sentences like ana :jerija takaSsad 'you will arrive to me' expressed by ul (see §50).
(motion hither, no ventive marker), ana :jerika akaSsad-am-ma 'I will The subj. is formed by adding -u to verbal forms which do not
arrive to you' (motion thither, ventive marker), and (emam have an ending (iprus, taprus, aprus, niprus, paris, iparras etc.);
limm-m-ma suprl 'find out the information and write!' (no motion, verbal forms with an ending (-I, -ii, -ii, -at, and the ventive endings)
ventive marker) are common. remain unchanged, and have therefore a common form in indic. and
With verbs of motion and other verbs, the ventive is especially subj.:
common before -ma and pronominal suffixes, dative and accusative, iprus 'he separated', sarrum sa iprusu 'the king who separated',
especially 1st sing. acc. (i:jbat-an-ni 'he seized me') and all dat. iniimaiprusu 'when he separated'
suffixes except 1st sing., with which it would be identical iprusii 'they separated', sarrii sa iprusii 'the kings who
(isruk-ak-kum 'he gave to you', but isruk-am 'he gave to me'). Final separated', assum iprusii 'because they separated'
-m of ventive -am, -m and-nim assimilates to a following consonant: ikSudam 'he arrived', sarrum sa Iii iksudam 'the king who did
i:jbatii-nin-ni, taSrukl-s-sum. not arrive', warki sarrum ikSudam 'after the king arrived'
adi allakam 'until 1 go (there)' baU( 'he is in good health', sarrum sa bal(u 'the king who is in
a(arradakkuSsuma < *a(arrad-am-kum-su-ma 'I will send him good health'
to you' bal(at 'she is in good health', sarratum sa bal(at 'the queen
ummaniitum ipta(riinim ana ON ikSudiinim 'the troops left and who is in good health'
reached ON' eqlum nadin 'the field is given', klma nadnu 'under the
conditions of the grant' (lit. 'as it was/is given').
1. Since dat. suffixes 'to me' and ventive endings are formally
identical, it may occasionally be unclear which is intended.
a
§39. summa 'if' introduces a nominal clause or clause in the
indicative; the negative is Iii. The pres. and stat. in a summa-clause
Generally, if a verb is found with clear dat. suffixes (isruksum etc.),
have their normal range of meaning; the pr~t. indicates temporal
-am/-m/-nim may be taken as dat.; if it is not (thus *irappudiiSum is
priority to the main verb, and the perf. appears to have much the
not found) the endings may be taken as ventive.
same sense, though some scholars claim for it an additional
2. Loss of mimation occurs toward the end of OB, so that in
hypothetical nuance. In lawcodes, to fit usage in European
later periods the ventive endings are -a and -ni, with no special
languages, pret. and perf. are sometimes translated as present.
ventive form in the 2nd fern. sing.
summa isriq/istariq 'if he stole'
summa bltam ipluSma istariq 'if he broke into a house and
'§37. Some conjunctions (subjunctions) which introduce
dependent clauses are infima 'when', liima 'before', warki 'after', stole' (consecutio temporum, §34)
summa nakrum ana :jerika piinam istaknam 'if the enemy turns
assum 'because'. The verbs in such clauses are in the subjunctive
mood (§38). Relative clauses also are in the subjunctive; these are in your direction' (futurum exactum, §34).
mostly introduced by sa 'who, whom, which' (the use of sa will be §40.Other conjunctionsare coordinating, and do not necessitate
discussed more fully in §63);in OB the construction noun in status use of the subjunctive.
constrJ.!Ctus+ verb in subjunctive expresses a relative clause: (em 1. There are two apparently homonymous conjunctions u.
almadu 'the news which 1 learned' (§18). u 'and' « *wa) is a simple coordinating conjunction uniting
sentences, phrases, or single words. ii 'or' « *aw) unites single sarriiqum: thief Ii: or
words (nouns or verbs). The two conjunctions are not graphically satiirum (aju): to write u/: not
distinguished in cuneiform, but must be distinguished by context. siqlum: shekel = ca. 8.3 grams waliidum (pres. ullad, pret. iilid):
2. Iii ... lU 'either ... or' unites phrases and single words.: lU tamkiirum: merchant to bear, give birth to (ace.)
kaspam Iii burii~am ii Iii mimma sUmSu '(if he stole) either silver or tariidum (aju): to send (a person) warki: after
gold or anything whatsoever'. temum (*tin): news, report,
3. The enclitic particle -ma has two main functions besides that decision
of marking nominal sentences (§31). (a) Affixed to a single word, it
is a particle of emphasis: aniikuma 'I myself', ina miiSimma 'on that
same night'. (b) Affixed to the verb of one clause and preceding
another verbal clause, it has conjunctive force; unlike the simple
coordinating conjunction u, however, it implies a temporal or
logical sequence between the two clauses. It may often be translated Signs Phonetic , Logographic
'and, and then', but other translations may be required by the
context: rr- nu

ikSudamma se'am istariq 'he arrived and stole the barley' (§34) ~1 ri, re, (da!), tal, tal
~iibam atrudma guSiirii ul iksudii 'I have sent workers, but the
beams have not arrived' M al

awf/f sarutim tatarradma ipaUariinim 'if you send rich men, ~ 00, ta
they will desert'
~ ma
supurma bii'irf lisniqiinikkum 'write so that they will muster
military auxiliaries for you'. sa
~
¢ mi, me, ~il GE6 = miisum 'night'
GE6 = ~almum 'black'

adi (prep.): until, as far as, kittum (f. of kfnum): truth, <1~ di, ti, de, te SlUM = sulmum 'health'
together with; (conj.): as long justice; pI. kfniitum: justice sA in sA.sA = kasiidum 'to
as, until lama: before reach'
ana mfnim, ammfni(m): why? Iii ... Iii: either ... or
aniiku: 1 -ma: emphatic particle; connective KI = er~etum 'earth'
anumma: now, herewith particle KI = asrum 'place' (also as
baliitum (u): to live, be in health miirtum: daughter determinative: Babilumki)
gimillum: favor nar11m « N~.RU.A): stele
baliiqum (z): to be lost, destroyed, rfmum: beloved DUR = wasiibum 'to sit,
perish dSin: the moon-god dwell'
iniima: when sinniStum: woman
ktam: thus, as follows sa: who, whom, which (see §37)
kirum < *kiri'um: orchard, sapiirum (aju): send; send (a
garden letter), write ('to' ;= dat.)
 LESSON 5
1. Normalize and translate: a-wi-lum sar-ra~aq. sum-ma miiru-su
~e-be-er. sinnistum u-ul as-sa-at. eqlum ki-ma na-ad-nu-ma na-di-in. Gt-STEM. MODALS. DEMONSTRATIVES
sinnistum sa miirl wa-al-da-at. a-na-ku maNia~ku. iz-za-kar. AND INTERROGATIVES
ib-ta-li-iq. ir-ra-ra-ad. i~-~a-ba-at. i~-~a-ba-as-si. a-nu-um-ma Ri-im-
dSin ar-rar-da-ak-kum. a-na Gi-mil-dMarduk as-tap-ra-am. sum-ma
miirum a-ba-su im-ta-ba-~ ritta-su i-na-ak-ki-su. sum-ma a-wi-lum §41. The Gt-stem is formed by infixation of -t(a)- in the G-stem.
miirat . a-wi-lim im-ba-~ kaspam i-sa-qal. is-rur-sum. am~mi-ni The Gt is used mainly to express (a) reciprocal (sometimes reflexive)
is-pu-ra-am. ki-a-am is-pu-ru-nim. tu-ur-da-ni-is-su-nu-ti. kasap action:
is-qu-lu. kasap tamkiirum is-qu-lu. a-wa-at iz-ku-ru. asar il-li-ku. a-di
mabiirum 'to face, encounter', mitburum 'to face one another'
ba-al-ra-at. re4-em kirim su-up-ra-am. a-wa-at mi-sa-ri-im sa i-na
magiirum 'to please, agree', mitgurum 'to agree with one
narim as-ru-ru. dSama.s ki-na-tim is-ru-uk-sum.
another'
2. Conjugate in the stative: baliiqum. damqum, belum.
sa/um 'to ask', situlum 'to deliberate',
3. Conjugate in the perfect: sariirum, rariidum. baliiqum,
baliirum. (b) in verbs of motion, motion away from (separative sense):
4. Translate into Akkadian: He is a thief. Marduk and Anum
are angry. it is lost. I have spoken. they have spoken. he sent you~ aliikum 'to go', atlukum 'to go away'
he sent the man to you. he gave to them. he gave them. he went. she eli1m 'to go up', etli1m 'to go up from, to lose'.
came. after he struck the man he wrote to me. if he struck either a
king or a slave he will perish. he cut the wood and then broke (it). Forms: Pres. iptarras iptaqqid irtaggum
Pret. iptaras iptaqid irtagum
5. Cuneiform:
Perf. iptatras iptatqid irtatgum
Ptc. muptarsum muptaqdum murtagmum
TTk1 1M; <ur~ k1 J:fr ~ ; n <rJt f. muptaristum muptaqittum murtagimtum
Imp.
~ M Sf J:P; n ~r- ~ ¢ ~ H/(i A;ff- ; Inf.
pitras
pitrusum
pitqid
pitqudum
ritgum
ritgumum
V.Adj.
~ TK« ~r- ~ ar ~ ; ~ fBrr ftJr ~; Stat.
*pitrusum
pitrus
*pitqudum
pitqud
*ritgumum
ritgum
Ffff~~; Tf~~~; Tf#~; 1. Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen
~TT~; ~ftn U1~ in the G. Thus pres. iptarras, taptarras, etc.; pret. (identical in form
with G perf.: §34 wit~ note 3) iptaras, pI. iptarsu < *iptaras-ii; imp.
pitras, fern. pitrasf, plur. pitrasii; stat. pitrus, pitrusat.
2. Pres., pret., perf. and imp. have the stem vowel of the G
pres.; in the remaining forms, all verbs have the same vocalization.
3. Note that in all derived stems (stems other than G) of the.
regular verb, the infinitive, verbal adj., and stative have the same
base form.
 4. For metathesis of initial d/t/sMz with infixed t in Gt forms §45. The particle Iii has a further sense which must be clearly
without prefix (e.g. ti~batii < *~itbatii 'grasp one another!', tidkusat distinguished from the precative: preposed to a verb without crasis,
< *ditkuSat 'is severed'), see §83i. For assimilation of t to first it serves as a particle of emphasis:
radical in forms with prefix (e.g. igdapuS < *igtapuS 'he has grown Iii akSud 'I indeed reached, I did reach' (emphatic)
mighty'), see §83h. compare luksud 'may I reach, I want to reach!' (precative).
5. In each simple stem, the forms of the perfect are identical
with the t-stem preterite. One must determine whether such a form §46. The vetitive expresses a negative wish, and is found in all
is (for example) a G perf. or a Gt pret. on the basis of lexical persons. When addressed to or said of other persons, it has the
attestation and context. Thus imtal:J~iiin a military chronicle will character, not of a command (noli facere!) but of a strong request
normally be taken as Gt pret. 'they fought' in view of the (ne facias, ne faciat) to superiors or equals. It is expressed by the
well-attested Gt mitl:J~um, but il:Jtabal will betaken as G perf. 'he particle aj (before a vowel) or e (before a consonant) and the
has wronged', since a Gt *l:Jitbulum is not attested. preterite:
aj iml:Jur'may he not receive!'
§42. Volitional(modal) constructions.There are two forms which aj amr~ 'may I not fall ill!'
express positive volition: the cohortative and the precative. Two e tatrudassi 'may you not send her!', 'don't send her!'
forms express negative volition: the vetitive and the prohibitive.
§47. The prohibitive, or negative command, is formed by
§43. The cohortative expresses exhortation in the 1st person preposing the negative Iii to the present, and is found normally in
plural; it is formed by preposing the particle i to the preterite: the 2nd or 3rd person. A negative imperative is expressed by this
i nimgur 'let us agree'. form: the imperative form (§27)may not occur after a negative.
Iii tapallal:J 'don't be afraid!'
§44. The precative expresses a wish (may ... !); it is formed by libbaka Iii imarr~ 'let your heart not be grieved!' >

preposing the particle Iii to the stative or the preterite. (compare ul tapallal:J 'you are not afraid', libbaka ul imarr~
Iii + stative expresses a desired state, and is found with all 'your heart is not grieved').
persons:
§48. Questions may be indicated by an interrogative pronoun
Iii baltiita 'may you be in good health!' (who?, what?), adjective (which?), or adverb (why?, etc.). When
Iii diiri 'may it be lasting!'. these are not present, the interrogative character of the sentence
may be indicated in writing by lengthening the last syllable of the
Iii + preterite expresses a desired action, and is found in OB
most important word: eqletim i-~a-ab-ba-tu-u u-ul i-~a-ab-ba-tu-u (in
only with the 1st person sing. and 3rd person sing. and plur. The
place of declarative i-~a-ab-ba-tu) 'can they take possession of the
particle Iii unites with the initial vowel of the verbal form; in
fields or notT. Often, however, a question is not graphically
Babylonian the resulting vowel is always lu- in 1st person sing., li- in
distinguished from a declaration; depending on context, sarrl SU
3rd person sing. and plur.: may mean 'he is my king' or 'is he my king?'.
luksud 'may I attain!'
liml:J~ 'may he strike!' §49. Demonstratives and interrogatives. The demonstrative
lipqidu 'may they entrust!' pronouns are annum (annium), fem. annltum 'this' and ullum
(ullium), fem. ullitum 'that', with normal adjectivaldeclension.They
Note that the 1st sing. precative is often best translated 'I wish may be used independently (annltam liqbi 'let him say this') or
to', 'I must', or by an emphatic future: luml:Ja~'I want to strike, 1 modify a noun (sarrum ullum 'that king'). 'That (person or thing
will strike'.
already mentioned)' is expressed by the anaphoric 3rd person labU'um: old re'l1m (G ptc. of *ri): shepherd
pronoun su (m. s. nom.), suati (m. s. ob1.), siati (f. s. ob1.),'sunuti magarum (a/u): to agree to ~ibtum, construct ~ibit (*~bt):
(m. pI. ob1.); these may be used independently or modify a noun. (ace.), welcome;Gt agree with agricultural holding, property
(Full declension of su will be presented in §54). (ittl) someone about (ana) saliimum (I): be whole, healthy
The interrogative pronouns are mannum 'who?' (gen. mannim, mannum: who? su, suiiti, siiiti: that; sunuti: those
ace. mannam) and mfnum 'what?' (gen. mfnim, ace. mfnam): mannum mfnum, minl1m: what? (§49)
iksudam 'who arrived?', mfnam i~bat 'what did he seize?'. Note also mustalum (*S'l): prudent ullum: that
ana mfnim, ammfnim 'why?'; mfssu 'what of that?' « *mfn-su 'its . qaqqadum: head (also serves as watar (status absolutus used as
what?'). There is also a secondary form of mmum with shift of stress reflexive pronoun: qaqqadl = adv.): further, excessively
and length: minum. 'myself); qaqqadum kabtum: dZarpanftum (dSarpanftum):
The interrogative adjective ajjum 'whicJ;1?,what?' is normally 'honored self, honor' goddess, spouse of Marduk
used as a modifier (ina ajjftim matim 'in what land?'), but may also
be used independently (ajjl1m ikSudam 'which one arrived?').
Signs
§50. Negation. There are two main words which express
negation in OB, ul and Iii. ul is used to negate declarative sentences
and interrogative sentences which do not contain an interrogative
rW ka KA = pum 'mouth'
pronoun, adjective, or adverb. Iii is used to negate subordinate DUG4 = qabum 'to say'
clauses (§37), conditions (§39), commands (§47), interrogative
GU = sasum 'to cry'
sentences which contain an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or
adverb, and individual words or phrases: INIM = awiitum 'word, affair'
ul ambur 'I did not receive' or 'did 1 not receive?' zD = sinnum 'tooth'
ul tapallab 'you are not afraid' or 'are you not afraid?'
la
Iii tapallab 'don't be afraid!' ~
ul izkur 'he did not say'; awuum sa la izkuru 'the man who did Ii, Ie
not say' ~
ru, (sub) SUB nadl1m 'to throw'
ammfnim Iii tatrudassu 'why have you not sent him to me?' ~
awuum Iii mustiilum 'an imprudent man'. SUB maqiitum 'to fall'

~ ab
Vocabulary t1m ta, to
ajjum: which, what? karabum (a/u) to bless, greet, ~ Ii,sam D = sammum 'plant'
annum: this pray (for = dat.)
KUS = ammatum 'cubit'
arb is: quickly Iii: !lot (§50)
baqiirum (a/u): to claim labiiSum (a): to put on, wear; Gt ~ nim, num, (nu)
(legally) to clothe oneself, put on
dabiibum (u): to speak (+ ace.); D to clothe someone urr lu, (dib, dab) UDU = immerum 'sheep'
battum (usually fern.), pI. (ace.) with (ace.); S to clothe DAB = ~abiitum 'to seize'
battiitum: staff, scepter (metaphorical use)
DIB =. etequm 'to pass'
 LESSON 6
1. Normalize and translate: sum-ma re'um it-ti be-el eqlim la D, S, Dt, St-8TEMS. INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS
im-ta-gar. sarrum mu-us-ta-lum. ki-ma abu-ka su-ma-am ra-bi-am
is-ta-ak-nu. il-ta-ab-su. i-na ma-bar dZar-pa-ni-tum li-ik-ru-ba-am. ~
pu-ru-sa-si-na li-ip-ru-us. ba((a-su /i-is-bi-ir. ~i-bi·is-su-nu la-bi-ra-am §51. D and S-stems and their t and tn-stems have a uniform
ki-ma ~a-ab-tu-ma lu ~a-ab-tu. dMarduk qa-qa-dam ka-ab-tam vocalic pattern in all strong verbs, unlike the G and N-stems, which
li-is-ku-un-ka. lu-u sa-al-ma-ta. la wa-tar i-ba-aq-qa-ar. la il-la-ak. e distinguish verbs by vocalic class.
ta-ap-la-ab. la t61-pa-al-la-ab. a-wi-lum su-u. a-ra-an di-nim su-a-ti.
wardam su-a-ti. sarrf su-nu-ti. sinnistam si-a-ti. an-ni-tam ar-hi-is §52. The D-stem is characterized by reduplication of the middle
su-up-ra-am. a-na ma-ni-im lu-ud-bu-ub. a-na ma-an-nl-im radical, and by the prefix-vowel u- in pres., pret. and perf. The
a-sa-ap-pa-ar. D-stem has two basic senses: (1) in both state-verbs and
2. Give the paradigm of the Gt stem of mabiirum, following the action-verbs it may indicate the factitive, i.e. the causative of the
outline of §4l,b above. Conjugate mabiirum in Gt pres. and perf. state denoted by the G stative:
3. Translate into Akkadian: he clothed himself. he clothes damiq :he is good', dummuqum 'to make good'
himself. he has clothed himself (perf.). clothe yourself! don't clothe salim 'he is friendly', sullumum 'to make friendly, conclude
yourselfl may he clothe himselfl let us clothe ourselves! they did not peace with'
agree with the thieves. we did agree. that slave is not honored. is this lamid 'he has learned', lummudum 'to teach';
man not a king? what did those shepherds steal? why did you not
write to me? did you not write to me? (2) with action-verbs the 0 may express multiplicity of action or its
4. Cuneiform: object (the so-called Poebel Piel):
isbir 'he broke (one object)', webbir 'he broke (many), he
-pm. ffiF ~ i:W ~ FEm ; I+f .JJ.Tf~ ~ tm shattered (one)'
rA m:: ; r,!±:l ~ Tf H1< ; Hf Tf 1=1 ; sepfja issiq 'he kissed my feet', sepfja unassiq 'he kissed my feet
(repeatedly)' .
rf:T ~ $ ;tIT m; :t+- (IIr Tf <TI- l-<T ;
The Dt-stem has the basic sense of passive to the D-stem:
Tf ~ H-f -<Tf:l: <t=S ~ Tf >-<r< ; saliimum 'to be whole', sullumum 'to make whole', sutallumum
r-Fr Fmi ~ ~; sr rytf iA-- ~ ; 'to be made whole'.

F1=~ ~~; ~ mr ~ttm; ~~ Forms:

D
Pres. uparras
Dt
uptarras
~f ~ <nF ~8T ~ ~8W Pret. uparris uptarris
Perf. uptarris uptatarris
Ptc. muparrisum muptarrisum
Imp. purris putarris
Inf. purrusum putarrusum
V.Adj. purrusum *putarrusitm
Stat. purrus *putarrus
 §S3 LESSON 6 47

Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen: 8 8t

thus D pres. uparras, tuparras, tuparrasl, uparras; uparrasu, u.sapras u.stapras/ustaparras
Forms: Pres.
uparrasii, tuparrasii, nuparras; precative 1st sing. luparris, 3rd&ing. Pret. u.stapris
usapris
liparris.
Perf. u.st~pris u.statapris
Ptc. mu.saprisum mu.staprisum
§53. The S-stem is characterized by the prefix s(a) and the Imp. supris sutapris
prefix-vowel u-. Its vocalic pattern is parallel to that of the O. The Inf. suprusum sutaprusum
basic sense of the 8-stem is causative, i.e. the subject causes a second V.Adj. suprusum sutaprusum
person or thing to perform the action or process specified by the Stat. suprus sutaprus
verb's G-stem:
Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen:
ikSudam 'he arrived', usaksidassu 'I caused him to arrive' thus 8 pres. usapras, tusapras, tu.saprasl, u.sapras; usaprasu, usaprasii,
arpud 'I ran', tu.sarpidanni 'you caused me to run' tusaprasii, nu.sapras. (For the change of OB ust- to ult- in later
Babylonian, see §83,1.)
In state-verbs, the 8-stem may also express the factitive, like the 0:
§54. The independent pronouns have three forms:
amru~ 'I fell ill', u.samri~anni 'he caused me to fall ill'
Nom. Gen.-Acc. Oat.
The St-stem has two uses, corresponding to two different forms S. lc. aniiku jati jiiSim
of the present; all other forms are the same for both uses. (1) the 8t 2m. atta kfJti (kata) kiiSim
may serve as a passive to the 8-stem (8t\). In this use the present 2f. atti kati kiiSim
appears in the short form ustapras, without gemination of the 3m. su suiiti (suiitu, sati/u) suiisim (siiSim)
middle radical; since the 8, verbal adjective and stative are already 3f. Sz iiiiti (suiiti, sat!) siiisim (suiiSim, siiSim)
passive in sense, the passive 8t has no verbal adjective or stative: PI. lc. nlnu niiiti niiiSim
ustalpit 'was destroyed' (cf. sulputum 'to destroy'); 2m. attunu kunuti kunusim
, - 2f. attina kiniiti *kiniisim
(2) more common is the so-called lexical 8t (8t2), a general term for 3m. sunu sunuti sunusim
those cases in which the 8t-stein stands" in various non-passive 3f. sina siniiti *siniisim
relations (or in no clear relation) to the corresponding G and other
stems. In the present appears the geminated form ustaparras: 1. It is clear from the paradigm that masc. and fem. forms often
coalesced; introduction of endings -a, -u in some text groups is a
miirl siprim u.sta~bit 'I have gathered messengers' (causative to secondary development resulting in new distinctive forms of the
reciprocal Gt of ~abiitum 'to grasp one another, be joined') masc. Mimation in the dative is sometimes lost in OB, and regularly
~iibam itti ~iibim sutemid 'have the troops join the (other) thereafter; with its loss, the semantic distinction between dative and
troops!' (causative to reciprocal N of emedum 'to be joined, accusative forms is increasingly lost.
come together') 2. Use with prepositions. Some prepositions are used with
niiram ustesiram 'I kept the canld in good order' (adds pronominal suffixes (ittika; cf. §20; §84i), others with independent
extension in time to eserum 8 'fo put in order') pronouns in the genitive (klma jatl). ana is exceptional: it is
utustamarr~ 'he will not trouble himself (marii~um 'to be ill') normally used pleonastically with an independent pronoun in the
sutiibulum 'to interpret, calculate' (wabiilum 'to carry'). dative (ana jiiSim taddinam 'you gave to me').
 3. Use with verbs. An unemphatic pronominal subject is
expressed by the verbal form itself; an unemphatic pronominal
object is expressed by suffixes (§35).An independent pronoun'added
to these indicates emphasis: Signs
atta bfi'irf annikf'am siniq 'you yourself muster troops here!'
jati gimlanni 'do me a favor!' H- bal
atta mar~iita 'you yourself are ill'. ~ mu
4. Use in nominal sentences. Predication of the type 'you are a MU zakiirum 'to speak'
(good) king' takes two forms, the stative (§33) and the nominal
MU -iI4, -ias 'my'
sentence with -ma or independent pronoun (§31). The stative· can
only be used when the predicate is unqualified (sarriiku 'I am king'); ag
the nominal sentence with independent pronoun can only be used
sum, (tag)
when the predicate is qualified: sarrf atta 'you are my king', sar
miitim atta 'you are king of the land'. il
5. We have seen (§49)that the forms of the 3rd person may also
be used adjectivally in nominative, genitive, and accusative (bft
awflim suiiti 'the house of that man'). bi, be, pi, pe, (kai, kOs, gas')
ni, ne, i, Ii, zal, (~al)
Vocabulary
abbuttum: slave-lock (a hair-style Meslam: name of a temple (Sum.)
xxx '30'
characteristicof slaves) mimma sumsu: anything what-
Aja: a goddess, spouse of Sha- soever, everything (lit. 'what- dXXX ;" Sin (moon god)
mash ever its name')
ME = plural determinative
iilum: city rapiiSum (I): be broad; D make
(short form of ME~,
bu/lu!um (D): to heal, give life to broad, abundant
signlist, Lesson I)
gigunum < *gigunii'um: 'terrace- saniiqum (I): to come close; G
temple' and D to check, control MI, MUNUS = sinnistum
gu/lubum (D): to shave, shave sarrum: false, lying 'woman'
ofT ~ubfitum: garment, mantle
bu/luqum (D): to destroy sadiilum (I): be wide; D widen
iSdum: foundation (often dual) se'um: barley
kamiirum (aJu) G and D: to pile suklulum (S): to perfect, com-
up, heap up plete
Kis: a city sursudum (S): to found firmly 1. Normalize and translate: a-wi-lam ub-ta-al-li-i[. ab-bu-ti
lamiidum (a): to learn; D to tertum, pl. teretum (*w'r): com- wardim ug-da-al-li-ib (cf. §83h). ki-a-am u-lam-mi-da-an-ni.
teach, inform mand; (extispicy) omen mu-kam-me-er nu-ub-si-im. mu-ra-ap-pi-is mi-im-ma sum-su a-na
mere§tum (*~rt): cultivation;umma: thus (says) Mes-lam. a-al-su u-ba-al-la-aq. as-sum se-e-im sa Us-sa-an-na-qu.
field warqum: green, yellow-green mu-sar-si-id su-ba-at uruKiSki. sar-ru-tam da-ri-tam sa ki-ma sa-me-e
Ii er-~e-tim is-da-sa su-ur-su-rja. mu-sa-al-bi-is wa-ar-qi-im gi-gu-ne-e
dA-a. mu-sa-ad-di-il me-re-eS-tim. mu-sa-ak-li-il te-re-lim. su-ma
i-il-Ia-ak. um-ma su-u-ma. sa-ar-ru-tim su-nu-ti. ki-ma ia-ti. a-na
ka-si-im. LESSON 7
2. Give the paradigm of the D, Dt, Sand St-stems of sapiirum. N, tn, SD-STEMS. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Conjugate the same verb in D pret. and S perf.
3. Translate into Akkadian: he healed them. they were healed.
he broadened the foundation. farmers perfect the earth. who is like §55. The N-stem is marked by na- prefixed to the verbal root in
you? we are judges. we are your judges. he clothed me with a the imperative, infinitive, verbal adjective and stative, and in the
garment. they clothed me with a garment. he perished. he destroyed other forms by infixed -n- which is assimilated to the following
the city. it was I (see §54,3) who destroyed it. it was I to whom they consonant.
gave the silver. The basic function of the N-stem of action-verbs is passive to
4. Cuneiform: the G-stem (ibabbal 'he wrongs', ibbabbal 'he is wronged'); rarely
reflexive (imlik 'he advised', immalik 'he deliberated') or reciprocal
(i~batu 'they seized, na~butu 'they were quarreling [grasping one
Tf M~ I-f:f rpg-;
~).+- T-T ~ ~ j another]'). The N-stem of state-verbs usually expresses an ingressive
<p;r If p ~ ~~ ¢ ~ Hi- ffic; i-~"!f~<; (nadru'they rage', innadru 'they went on a rampage'). A deponent N
also occurs with the sense of the normal G-stem (naplusum 'to see',
4t.&qf- a ~.rM; FtITra $ FmF ~; transitive).
The vocalic system of the N-stem is mixed: verbs of the a/u
~·mr~~~; ~t-~~ class, the a class and generally also the u class show stem-vowel a in
~r- <TH-1T<r <J.M 4rTr; ~ ~ Ffr <TfT:: j1SfT pres. and perf., i in pret. and imp. Verbs of the i class retain their
characteristic vowel throughout. The final vowel of the pret. is
TIo- l-1T<T ~ ~ .di8T ; ~ ~r- H'1<' ~; elided before an ending: ipparis + u > ipparsu.
~ ~ <TH-1r<r <TI- ibir ~ ~ kT< F!3'f ;
~ <rrtm ~ A'r far H1'<f ""'r ; ~ a f$rt k'T< ;
Pres.
a/u
ipparras < *inparras immabb~ ippaqqid
IT ~ ~.(1'~ A~ ; l{::fiI ~ $ ~;
Pret. ipparis < *inparis immabi~ ippaqid
~ ~ ~; ~ j:r ff=r Perf. ittapr(JS < *intapras ittamba~ ittapqid
Ptc. mupparsum < *munparisum mummab~um muppaqdum
Imp. napris nambi~ napqid
Inf. naprusum nambu~um napqudum
V.Adj. naprusum namb~um napqudum
Stat. naprus nambu~ napqud

§57. The tn-stems. All four basic stems can be augmented by an

infix -tan- (Gtn = 1/3, Dtn = 11/3, Stn = III/3, Ntn = IV/3). The
infix is most easily recognized in the present, whereas in other forms
cn- of the infix is either assimilated to the following consonant or §58. The Sn (III/II) is a relatively rare form, found mainly in
suppressed completely to avoid the succession of three consonants poetry. It is characterized by the insertion of -s- of stem III between
(§83n). the conjugational preformative and the verbal root of stem II
The vowel system of Dtn and Stn is the same in all verbs, and is (u-s-parras, u-s-parris, etc.).
analogous to that of D and S. The stem-vowel of pres., pret., perf.
and imp. in Gtn is the same as that of the G pres., in Ntn the same §59. Review of vocalization in the strong verb.
as that of the N pres. 1. G perf. and all finite forms of Gt and Gtn have the
The tn-stems are habitative-iterative in meaning, i.e. they stem-vowel of G pres.
indicate action as habitual or repeated. This connotation may be 2. Verbs of the vocalic class i normally retain their
rendered by an auxiliary verb or by an adverb -'again and again, characteristic vowel throughout the Nand Ntn-stems, but those of
continually', etc. classes a/u and a, and generally u, form an ablaut variation in N
irappud 'he runs', irtanappud 'he keeps running' (different final vowels in ipparras and ipparis etc.); the Ntn is
aiappar 'I write', astanappar 'I constantly write' formed with the vowel of the N pres.
3. The D and S stems and their t and tn-stems have a uniform
Gtn vocalization for verbs of all vocalic classes.
Pres. iptanarras uptanarras 4. Forms with vowels subject to elision when an ending is
Pret. iptarras < *ip-tan-ras uptarris added (cf. §84b) are iptaras (G perf. and Gt pret.), ipparis (N pret.),
Perf. iptatarras < *ip-ta-tan-ras uptatarris purus (G imp.), paris (G stat.).
Ptc. muptarrisum < *mup-tan-risurn muptarrisum
Imp. pitarras < *pi-tan-ras putarris §60. Indefmite pronouns are formed from the interrogatives
Inf. pitarrusum < *pi-tan-rusum putarrusum *man and *min by reduplication or the addition of -ma. The basic
V. Adj. pitarrusum putarrusum independent pronouns are mamman/mamma 'someone, anyone' and
Stat. pitarrus putarrus mimma 'something, anything', both indeclinable. The adjectival
pronoun ajjumma (f. ajjitumma, m. pI. ajjutumma, f. pI. ajjatumma)
Ntn 'some' may also be used as a substantive 'someone, something'.
Pres. ittanapras < *in-tana-pras ustanapras From mimma there developed the form mimmu < *mimma-u (gen.
Pret. ittapras < _*in-tan-pras uStapris mimme/u, ace. mimma/u), used with genitive or pronominal suffixes:
Perf. *ittatapras < *in-tan-ta-pras ustatapris mimmusu 'something of his, his property'.
Ptc. muttaprisum < *mun-tan-prisum mustaprisum mamman {urdam 'send me someone'
Imp. itapras < *ni-tan-pras sutapris mimma sa i/putu 'whatever he touched'
Inf. itaprusum < *ni-tan-prusum sutaprusum mamman ul/lii 'no one', mimma ul/lii 'nothing'
V. Adj. *itaprusum ~utaprusum mimma (adverbial, reinforces negation) 'in any way, at all':
Stat. itaprus sutaprus mimma Iii tapallab 'do not fear at all'
Note that Gtn pret. is formally identical with Gt pres.; Dtn and
Stn differ from Dt and St formally only in the pres. When a form The indefinite relative pronoun is mala 'as much as, all that':
common to two stems is found, the stem to which it belongs must kaspum mala i~batu 'all the silver that he seized'.
be determined by sense and context and by grammatical criteria;
thus liptarras must (because it is precative, see §44) be Gtn pret., not
Gt pres. '
ajjumma: some mar~um (a): to be sick, difficult, 1. Normalize and translate: ma-la in-na-ad-nu. in-na-ad-di-in.
Dagan: an Amorite and West grieved in-na-ad-di-iS-fum (§83e). u-ul is-sa-ak-ka-an. it-ta-~-bat. li-iz-za-mir.
Semitic deity mimma: something, anything sattukkl im-ta-na-ba-ru. li-im-ta-ba-ru. Ia-Su-ub-dDa-gan a-na I-ma-arki
dullum: work, ritual mimmu-, mimme-, mimma- + ka-a-ia-ni-iS is-ta-na-ap-pa-ar. a-na du-ul-li blti-Su is-sa-na-ab-bu-ur. a-na
Elli/: a god possessive suffix: see §60 a-bi-ia as-ta-na-ap-pa-ar. a-na ba-la-ti-ka mu-sa-am u ur-ra-am
ibaSsi: there is (other forms of miiSum: night ak-ta-na-ra-ab. a-na mi-nim li-ib-ba-ki im-ta~na-ar-ra-a!i.Anum u dEllil
baSUm willbe seen in Lesson 8) nakiidum (u): to beat (of heart), a-na d M arduk ip-pa-al-su-fum. mi-im-ma sa is-qU-lu.mi-im-ma bi-sa-mn.
Imar (or, more commonly, be disturbed sum-ma a-wi-lum sa mi-im-mu-Su bal-qu mi-im-ma-Su bal-qa-am i-na
Emar): a city in northern Me- naplusum (N; aju): to look at qa-ti a-wi-lim 4-~a-ba-at. mi-im-ma awm sa-ru-tim la ta-ta-ar-ra-ad.
sopotamia (favorably) ma-la iz-ku-ru. mi-im-ma ma-la iz-ku-ru. mi-im-ma li-ib-ba-ka la
JaSiib: (Amorite name-element sabfirum (u): to turn, turn to, i-na-ak-ku-ud. ka-ab-tum u ru-bu-u-um ma-am-ma-an sa qa-qa-di la
from *[wb 'return, answer') seek, concern oneself 'about u-ka-ab-bi-tu u-ul i-ba-aS-si.
kabiitum (I): to be heavy; D to (ana) 2. Give the paradigm in N and tn-stems of~abiitum (see §83i);
make heavy, to honor sattukkum « Sum.): ration paqiidum; kaSiidum.
kajjiinis: constantly (Mari); regular offering 3. Translate into Akkadian: his name was erased. my name was
mabfirum (aju): to receive sarUm < sarium: rich, wealthy continually erased. he himself was struck. no one keeps striking
mala: as much as urrum: light, day him. he learned nothing. day and night he was always concerned
mamman: someone, anyone zamiirum (u, also aju): to sing about his silver. he constantly destroys cities. they continually
taught me. they looked upon me (with favor).
4. Cuneiform:
Signs Phonetic Logographic ~~. 1f~~~ ~ ¢ .~8T ~ ~ I+- Ttr
4t=AJff,~ ~ H>-~'~ ~ki' ~ KT.(~
~
'P'T<f
tu
bu, (bag, pag)
KU4

MUSEN
= erebum 'to enter'
= i~~iirum 'bird'
t:Hf I-Fr ~ ; <tt: Aqr. a 'Tt "'rr- ~
pa, (bad) UGULA = waklum 'overseer'
~ PIT ~~ 4rTf ~ F£m' ~ Ftrr ~;
~
bauum 'scepter'
~ ~ t:r tE trrr ; ~~ ~ ~ 11< ~ ;
A bi, be
GlORI

DUG =
=

tiibum 'good, sweet' FE a

<TH-ffi' ~ j TT~ 11A ~
UI.A = plural determinative ~ iim k1' ~¢ <r~ j Jfl: l:=Qj I+f ~~
A»m- ab, eb, ib, ub ~ ~ R8' ; ~ 'w-- ~ ~; t! ff H"r..6f»fff ~ W;
~~.i ul Tf >--<'T iIIT t:<' ~ .J8T ; Tf ~ lj:f $ -<n} '1+8' ;
{TrU3i u V.TV = waliidum 'to give ~ J'm p.; '1liT fPr b ; ~ A>lFfJ ~
birth to, bear'
~ W Jm; ~ ..J8T J:j l:i ~ P. ;
ur, lig, taS, (tiS) kalbum'dog'
~ UR =
$:r r¥ p2:f ; , 0 ~ HT<T i=T
fT< ba KU6 = niinum 'fish'
 §62 LESSON 8 57

Pres. ibanni isemme imannu ikalla

LESSON 8 Pret. ibni isme imnu ikla
2m. tabni tesme tamnu takla
VERBS ill WEAK. SA 2f. tabni tesmeji tamni takli
lc. abni esme amnu akla
3m. ibniiiju iSmu imnu iklu
§61. Weak verbal forms are generally phonetic modifications of 3f. ibniiijii ismeiijii imnii iklii
regular formations. One's reading and interpretation of such forms
2c. tabniiijii tesmeajii tamnii taklii .
will be facilitated by a rapprochement to the corresponding forms of
lc. nibni nisme nimnu nikla
the strong v~rb:
Perf .. ibtani isteme imtanu iktala
iklu < ikla'ii (cf. iprusU) Ptc. banum semum miinum kiilr1m
banum < * banijum (cf. piirisum) Imp. bini sime munu kila
uttakkar < *untakkar (cf. uptarras) f. bini sim€ji muni kili
usiikil < *usa'kil (cf.uSapris), etc. pI. biniiijii simeiijii munii kilii
§62. Verbs third weak (Le. with a weak third radical) are by far Inf. banl1m semum manum kall1m
the largest class of weak verbs. They include all verbs which in V.Adj. banl1m seml1m manl1m kall1m
related languages have as third root consonant the appropriate Stat. bani semi manu kali
I
representatives of Proto-Semitic " h, ~, : g, w, j. In Akkadian these Pret. Subj.: ibniuju, tabniuju, tabni, abniuju, .ibniiiju, ibniiijii, r
fall into four classes with endings -i, -U, -a, -e: ibni 'he built', imnu 'he tabniiijii, nibniuju.
counted', ikla 'he withheld', iSme 'he heard'. Etymological grounds 'I
would lead us to expect a long final vowel (iSma' > iSme, cf. §84d), D Dt S N
but in Akkadian this vowel remains long only before pronominal
:I
Pres. ubanna ubtanna usabna ibbanni
suffIxes and -ma (iSmema, cf.§84i), but is shortened when fmal (iSme)

!
Pret. ubanni ubtanni uSabni ibbani
and before vocalic endings. When vocalic. endings are added, Perf. ubtanni ubtatanni ustabni ittabni
contraction usually takes place save in the sequences ia, ea, and iu, Ptc. mubannl1m mubtannl1m musabnum mubbanum
"

which frequently remain uncontracted in OB: isme + ii> iSmu, zaku !

Imp. bunni butanni subni nabni
+ iiku > zakiiku, iqbi + am > iqbiam or iqbiim (§84e). Inf. bunnum butannl1m subnum nabnum
Of the four vocalic classes, that in -i is the most numerous, and V.Adj. bunnum *butannum subnum *nabnl1m
there is a tendency for verbs of other classes to tx;-assimilated to it. Stat. bunnu *butannu subnu nabni
The G stative, except often in the -u class, has final -i. The G
participle has the form paris with the usual contractions, but in the §63~ Determinative-relative pronoun. Old Akkaqian possessed a
status constructus biini is sometimes replaced in OB and regularly determinative pronoun with the sense 'he of', 'she of', etc. It could
thereafter by ban (§18,I,i,e). For the shift a > e in verbs of the -e be followed by a noun in the genitive, or by the latter's functional
class, see §84f. . equivalent, a verbal form in the subjunctive. It receives case endings
In D and S-stems, the etymologically expected final vowel gives only in mase. sing., all forms being in the construct state:
way to -'a in the present, -i in the preterite, analogous to uparras,
uparris in the strong verb. 'In the N-stem, the present and perfect masc. 'sing. su (nom.)
retain the characteristic vowel (pres. ibbanni, ippette, immannu, fern. sing. sat
ikkalla), but the preterite has -i universally. masc. plur. siit
fern. plur. siit
 saliimum (I): to be reconciled tazzimtum (*nzm): complaint
This survives in OB in various functions: with, be friendly, be in good (tazzimtaka: a complaint
I. There are remnants of the declined su serving as a relations by/about you)
determinative pronoun in personal names and a few frozen salum (-I): to plunge (into the tebUm (-I): to rise up; S to raise
expressions: Su-Sin 'He of Sin', Sat-Aja 'She of Aja', sa resim, plur. river[-god] = did [ace.]) up
sut resim 'royal official(s)' (lit. 'the one/those of the head'). semum (-e): to hear tiibum: good, sweet, pleasant; eli
PN tiib: it is pleasing to PN
2. Indeclinable sa serves as a determinative pronoun in surqum: stolen object
periphrases for the construct chain: awiitum sa sarrim 'the word,
that of the king' =, 'the king's word' (§19). sa may also be used
without a nominal antecedent: sa pa(iirim 'ransom money' (lit. 'that
of releasing').
3. Indeclinable sa functions also as a relative pronoun (§37). Logographic
This sa is in origin the aceusative of relation ('in regard to
which/whom') and may functionally stand for nom., ace., gen., or as, rum, rU, (dil, til) ina 'in' (pseudo-logogram)
dat. In the latter two functions (sometimes also as ace.) it is (zir, kul, qui, gul) NUMUN = zerurn'seed'
specified by a pronominal suffIX: 'in regard to whom ... his/to
him/him' correspond in translation to 'whose/to whom/whom': zi, ze, si, se, ~i, ~e ZI = napiSturn'life'
sarrurn sa illiku 'the king who went'
miitum sa uballi(u(ia) 'the land which he healed'
sarrurn sa ana miitiiu erubu 'the king into whoseland I entered'
awflum sa tatakkaluium 'a man in whom you have confidence'.
EN = belurn 'lord"
dEN.ZU = dSin (moon god)

banum (-I): to make, create, kalum(-a): to retain, hold back,

~ AT dar, tar
build withhold ~ ur
baSum (-I): to be; S to cause to
exist; N to come to be,
kussum <*kussium:
seat
throne,
m e
appear, grow (ingressive) lequm (-e): to take ~ &.Ir. l1Ji sar, (sar) SAR = satiirurn 'to write'
dajjiinutum: judgeship manum (-u): to count, reckon, KESDA = rakiisum 'to bind'
episturn: deed consider, recite ~ ~\'.~ sir,bir
gamiilum (I): to spare, show Mera: an archaic name for the '- &r- -< iSg (in dISg-tar)
mercy city Mari
badum (-u), stat. badi: to rejoice; petum (-e): to open ~ se
D make happy rabUm (-I): to become great, Jtlr ib, eb
id: the god 'River, Canal' grow; D to raise (children); S
IStar: a goddess (also a common to make great
noun 'goddess') rasum (-I): to acquire
istu (conj.): since, after redum (-i/e): to lead, bring
 Exercise
1. Normalize and translate: zir sar-ru-tim sa dSin ib-ni-u-Su. sa
su-ur-qa-am i-na qa-ti-su im-IJu-ru. su (archaic for sa) ig-mi-Iu ni-si
Me-raki• sa ep-se-tu-su e-li Us-tar ta-ba. ~e-eIJ-re-ku-u. is-li7mu-u.
il-qe. i-Ie-qe. il-te-qe. il-qu-u. ip-te. it-te-ep-te. marl-sa u-ra-a-ba. is-tu
marl-sa ur-ta-ab-bu-u. i-ba-as-su-u. uS-tab-si. ib-ba-as-su-u. it-tab-si.
ilu u-sar-bi-u-su. mu-IJa-ad-di li-ib-bi Us-tar. dDa-gan ba-ni-su. did
i-sa-al-li-am-ma. i-na kusii da-a-a-nu-ti-Su u-se-et-bu-u-Su. i-na bi-ti-su
ik-ta-la-su. ir-de-am. ir-te-de. ir-ta-si. i-ma-an-nu-si. es-te-ne-me-e §64. Verbs with a second weak radical or 'medially weak
ta-zi-im-ta-ka. ta-zi-im-ta-ka la eSI5-te-ne-me. verbs' include both hollow verbs (medial wlJ) and verbs with
2. Give the paradigms of baSUm and petum. medial '1-5 (cf. §82j).
3. Translate into Akkadian: he takes. they take. he took. take! 1. Hollow verbs correspond to *kwn, *qjs etc. in the traditional
he was taken. he makes my heart happy. make them happy! the man analysis of Semitic languages, and the forms of such verbs have
who withheld his silver. the lying woman who raised my sons. he traditionally been analyzed as variations, due in part to phonetic
recites. did he not open? changes and in part to analogy, from the pariisum type: thus info
4. Cuneiform: *kawanum > kuanum (Ass.) > kfmum (Bab.); pres. *ikawwan >
ikuan (Ass.) > ikiin (Bab.); pret. *ikwun > ikun. Most recent
scholars however prefer to analyze such roots as biconsonantal with
~ ~ ~T~~ medial long vowel u or lor a: *kun 'be firm', *qlS 'present', *biis
~ ~ ~t Q A8T~TUB; 'be ashamed'; this interpretation is thought to be more accurate on
iff: <Tr- T~ }t:rr 4H q:'Tt <~ ~; a synchronic level, and it better accounts for such irregular forms as
usdlk (cf. uSapris). The notation of vocalic length in general use
T r=rr.J ~ l+f «',<; ~ p::rr ~ rflJ ri3 today is based on interpretation as a vocalic root: thus stat. kln (not
kin < *kawin).
rn ~ ~.(~T taT ~.; 2. Verbs with medial radical aleph. A small number retain a
strong consonantal 'and are conjugated like other strong verbs, e.g.
h'.1 ~ Prr ~ ~ i+f ~ -p::rr iff <H:m ~ ; da'apum 'to knock down', pres. ida"ip (SB). Most verbs of this type
rli ff ..of~ rID J.Er ; 1Br ~ t-- !f Ffr!F ; however regularly lose ' and are conjugated on the pattern of the
hollow. verbs. Since original '3-5 has the usual reflex of a to e, they
~~~Fm=; ~<p9:; *=~~; fall into two classes which may be described as having roots with
~-pJ~; m~~ mJ=}t:Jr~rytj; medial ii and i: *siil 'ask', *bel'rule'.
3. In the D and S-stems of medial weak verbs the final root
~ ~ ~ .(T}- ; Hi ~ t:mF ~~ ~ )It; consonant is doubled before a vocalic ending (e.g. pret. ukln, plur.
ukinnu). In the G-stem and N-stem such gemination (combined in u
~ff<~<1* ~1irr~ <M; and i hollow verbs with a vowel change resulting from
~ ~ ~ ~ ~~; ~~ JErHr*"A~ vowel-insertion in endingless forms: iku-a-n > ikiin) is characteristic
~ jf ~ 1!r- Frm= ~ ; ~ l-1 ~ Rr~ of the present, but not the preterite or perfect (thus G pres. ikiin, pI.
ikunnu, but pret. ikun, pl. ikunu). (Note that there is doubling of
~i ~ $ tt3; Ff= a 'r-lf ~ <T~; final root consonant in these verbs in the same forms where the
strong verb doubles the middle radical.)
FErn' m# ~11f-t!m Ji:Pl
 4. AHw lists these verbs in their OB form: uncontracted Pres. iddak, pI. iddukku, iqqfaijiqqM, issd!
qiiisum, but contracted kfmum, biisum, belum. CAD lists all four in , Pret. *iddik, iqqfs, iSsiil, ibbel
the contracted form. Perf.
Ptc. *muddikum, *mwsiilum, *mubbelum
G Pres. Pret. Perf.
Imp.
ikan ikun iktun Inf. *nadukum
takan takun taktun V.Adj. -
takunni takUni taktuni Stat. *nadiik
akan akun aktun
ikunnu ikunu iktunu §65. Nominal typology. There are several nominal-adjectival
ikunnii ikunii iktunii formations in Akkadian, which correspond generally to semantic
takunnii takunii taktunii categories.
nikan nikun niktun
The most important are:
iqiaijiqas, pI. iqissu iqis iqtfs
1. the adjectival formations:
ibM, pI. ibassu ibas ibtas
ibel, pI. ibellu ibel ibtel paris, fern. parist: normal form of adj. and verbal adj.:
isal, pI. isallu isiil istiil *damiqum> damqum, fern. damiqtum 'good'
Ptc. dii'ikum, bii'iSum, qii'isum, sii'i!um, *be'ilum *ka'inum (cf. §64,4) > klnum, fern. kittum 'firm, just'
Imp. kun (f. kuni, pl.. kunii), qis, bas, bel, siil *patium > petinn, fern. petftum 'open(ed)'
Inf. kanum, qiiisumjqasum, biisum, belum, salum paras, fern. parast:
V.Adj. klnum, qfsum rapsum, fern. rapaitum 'broad'
Stat. kln (pI. ki'nu), qfs, bas, bel ~ebrum (Ass. ~abrum), fern. ~ebertum 'small'
parus, fern. parust:
Pres. *iktiin, pret. iktiin, ptc. muktfnum, info kitiinum lemnum (OA lamnum), fern. lemuttum 'bad'
Pres. ukiin, pI. ukannu . mar~um, fern. marustum 'sick'
Pret. ukln, pI. ukinnu purrus, fern. purrust: verbal adj. of D~stem, adj. denoting
Perf. uktin, pI. uktinnu corporal defects:
Ptc. mukinnumjmuklnum kubbutum 'heavy'
Imp. kln, pI. kinnii sukkukum'deaf'
Inf. kunnum suprus, fern. suprust: verbal adj. to S-stem and. elative (i.e. a
V.Adj. kunnum heightening in the meaning of the simple form):
Stat. kun, pI. kunnu surbinn < *surbu'um 'very big', cf. rabium 'big'
. Pres. usdiik, pI. uSdakku, *wbel sumr~um 'very sick', cf. mar~um 'sick'
Pret. usdik, pI. uSdikku. *usbel
Perf. ustadik 2. the nominal formations:
Ptc. mwdikum or muSdikkum
Imp. sudik, pI. sudikkii pars, fern. parsat: primary and some deverbal nouns:
Inf. 'Sudiikum kalbum 'dog', kalbatum 'bitch'
V.Adj. "- mar'um > miirum 'son', miirtum 'daughter'
Stat. sudiik, pI. sudukku *'anpum > appum 'nose'
 pirs, fern. pirist: -ut: afformative of abstract nouns:
. rib-rum, ribi-rtum 'inundation' sarrutum 'kingship', cf. sarrum 'king'
gimrum 'totality' swutum 'testimony', cf. swum 'witness'
*sirk-tum > siriktum 'gift' -f: relational afformative including gentilic:
purs, fern. purust: abstracts from adjectives: mabrfum, mabrum 'first', cf. mabrum 'front'
dumqum 'good' . assurfum, assurum 'Assyrian', cf. the city-name Assur
pulubtum 'fear' subarfum, subarum 'Subaraean', cf. the country 8ubartum.
paras: G infinitive:
*~adiiLum > edesum 'to be new'
*laqii~um > leqfim 'to take'
parfs, fern. parfst: substantivized verbal adjectives:
kanikum 'sealed document' abUbum: flood sfmtum (*Szm): fate
samfdum 'fine flour' Barsipa: the city Borsippa Szrum: flesh; sfram {ubbum: to
puras, fern. purast: animals, diminutives, other nouns: dakum (med. u): to kill; S to give joy to ('make pleasant
pubiidum'lamb' have a person murdered the flesh or)
rubii'um, rubUm 'prince' EliilUtum: 'Ellil-ship' sumru-rum: sick, very ill
-rubiirum 'servant' Eridum: the city Eridu tarum (med. u): to return; ana
musiilum 'mirror' kanum (med. u): to be firm; D to aSrisu turrum: to restore (to
parras, fern. parrast: habitual activity, profession: make firm, fast, to prove its place)
qarriidum 'hero' kissatum: entirety, universe tilium: tell, remains of a city; tilii
nappiibum 'smith' matum (med. u): to die; S to abubim: old tell, tell from the
kassiipum, fern. kassiiptum 'sorcerer, sorceress' cause the'death of, murder flood
purrus, fern. purrust: infinitive D and fern. action-noun: mutum: husband {iiibum, (abum (med. I): to be
bussurtum 'message' riiibum, rabum (med. I): to good, pleasant, sweet; D to
mapras, fern. maprast: place or instrument: replace, substitute, make make pleasant
*markabtum > narkabtum (§83c) 'chariot' restitution wa'iirum, warum (med. " a
*ma'rabum > nerebum 'entry' riiisum, rMum (med. I): to class): to go off, D to send,
*mawsabum > musabum 'dwelling' (§84a) rejoice; D to make rejoice command, instruct
tapriis, fern. taprast: reciprocal action: Sipparum: the city Sippar zazum (med. u): to divide,
tambiirum 'battle' samum A (med. a): to' buy receive a share of (an
tiibiizum 'battle' siiimum, samum B (med. I): to inheritance)
taprfs, feIn. taprfst: D-stem action-noun (infinitive): fix, determine zerum (med. e): to' hate
tamlum 'filling'
tedistum 'renewal'
3. the affixes:
-iin: nominal/adjectival afformative in which some scholars see
an individualizing force:
niidiniinum 'seller', cf. niidinum 'seller'
rabiiinum 'mayor', cf. rabium 'great'
sarriiqiinum 'thief, cf. sarriiqum 'thief
 2. To what noun-type do the following nouns belong: erresum
'tenant-farmer'. sarriiqiinum 'thief. saknum 'governor'. nemelum
'profit'. tepti'tum 'opening'. Slmtum 'fate'.
Logographic
3. Translate into Akkadian: he kills. they kill. he killed. they
killed. he has killed. they have killed. he causes to die. they cause to
be, bad, (bid, pid, mid), BAD = petum ~to open' die. he caused to die. they caused to die. he restores. they restore. he
til, US,(sun, ziz) restored. they restored. after she made his life pleasant, she divided
101M :: kabtum 'heavy'
(the inheritance) with him.
SUN, SUMUN = labiirum 'to 4. Cuneiform:
become old'
TIL = qatum 'to be ended'

~ ug
az
~
uS, Us, (nid) NITA zik(a)rum 'male'
~
ir, er
~
gid, kid, qid, lil, sib, sab, dEN.LtL('Lord Storm') = the
~
sub4 god Ellil
1;( kur, qur, mad, sad, (nad, KUR = miitum 'land'
lad, gin, kin)
KUR (+ vowel) = sadiim
'mountain'

1fT te, (e4

<~ (zur), ~ur AMAR = biirum 'calf

dAMAR.UTU = dMarduk

l. Normalize and translate: id-da-ak. mu-(i-ib /i-ib-bi dMarduk.

mu-ki-in iSdi Sipparim. si-ir ni-si u-(i-ib. i-ri-a-ab. a-sa-am. is-ta-am.
i-ta-ar a-na be-li-su. ma-su a-na tilli a-bu-bi-im /i-te-er. mu-te-er Eridim
a-na as-ri-su. i-zu-uz-zu. i-zu-zu. u-ul i-za-az. i-du-uk-ku. sum-ma
sinniStum mu-sa i-ze-er. ml/.-sa uS-di-ik. uS-ta-mi-it. mu-ri-iS Bar-si-pald.
u-wa-e-ra-an-ni. sa-i-im si-ma-at miitim. a-na dMarduk Ellilu-ut kiSsat
ni-sl i-si-mu-sum. zikramam II sinniStamam ma-am-ma-an la i-sa-a-am.
 LESSON 10 69

uljljaz Dt utaljljaz Dtn *utanaljljaz

uljljiz utaljljiz utaljljiz
utaljljiz utataljljiz *utataljljiz
muljljizum mutaljljizum mutaljljizum
uljljiz *utaljljiz utaljljiz
uljljuzum utaljljuzum *utaljljuzum
uljljuzum
uljljuz *utaljljuz
uiakkal St uitakkal Stn uitanakkal
§66. Verbs with initial radical aleph are affected by the loss or uiiikil ustiikil ustakkil
transmutation of the aleph. They fall into two groups: an a-group in uitiikil ustatiikil *uitatakkil
which the vowel a remains unchanged, and an e-group in which the musiikilum muitiikilum mustakkilum
loss of '3-5 (§82j) is accompanied by a change of a to e (§84f). sukil sutiikil sutakkil
sukulum sutiikulum sutakkulum
§67. The a-group. sukulum *sutiikulum *sutakkulum
1. Initial ' usually disappears without trace in the writing sukul sutiikul sutakkul
('akiilurn > akiilurn), but initial * 'i- or * 'u- becomes a- in G imp. and innaljljaz Ntn ittanaljljaz
GtjGtn imp. and info (* 'ukul > akul, * 'itkaS > atkaS, *'itljuzurn > innaljiz ittanljaz
atljuzurn). In OB the G pres. and D pres. and pret. are usually ittanljaz
marked by double writing of the initial vowel (i-ik-ka-al = ikkal, munnaljzum
it-up-pi-ii = uppis; cf. §4e,6). nanljiz
2. Between vowels (pres. G; pres., pret. and ptc. D) , and the nanljuzum
vowel following it are elided: *i'akkal > ikkal, *u'ahhaz > uhhaz. nanljuzum
w
3. Before a consonant, initial v' (short vowel .+ aleph)w> v nanljuz
(long vowel): *i'kul > lkul, *u'taljljaz > utaljljaz, *uia'kil > uiiikil,
but S pres., Stn prs. and Ntn pres. form vCC: *usa'kal > usakkal, §68. The verb aJakum (*hlk) belongs to the above class of verbs,
*ustana'kal > uitanakkal, *ittana'kal > ittanakkal. but is abnormal in that " when final in a syllable, is assimilated to a
4. In the N-stem, *n' > nn (*in'aljljaz > innaljljaz); by analogy, following consonant in the G, Gt and Gtn-stems (*i'lik > illik,
*na'ljiz > nanljiz and *itta'ljaz > ittanljaz. compare *i'kul > lku/):
The following paradigm follows the usual order pres., pret.,
Pret. Perf. Imp.
perf., ptc., imp., inf., verbal adj., stat.
G illak illik ittalak alik
G ikkal, takkal Gt ftappal Gtn ftanakkal Gt ittallak ittalak ittatlak atlak
lkul, tiikul ftapal ftakkal Gtn ittanallak ittallak ittatallak
ftakal *ftatpal ftatakkal
iikilum miitaplum *miitakkilum The S-stem is regular:
akul atljaz atakkal
usiilik (like usiiki/)
akiilum atljuzum atakkulum
sulukum (like sukulum)
aklum *atljuzurn *atakkulum
akil *atljuz *atakkul
 §69. The e-group is parallel in formation to the a-group, but
and Gtn forms without conjugation-prefix (*nitqurum > itqurum,
with the vowel shift a > e (§84f). Due to systematic levelling, e *nitaqqar > itaqqar). (Where n is augment to an original biradical
replaces a even in verbal forms without *a'3-5 or *'3-5a; thus root, as *ndn, Ass. retains the original root in the imp. din.) From
utappis (*ul}tappif) > uteppis on the analogy of *tabappas >
naqiirum 'to destroy':
teppes. Examples from epesum 'to do' (a/u, sometimes u) and erebum
'to enter' (u). G Gt D S N
inaqqar ittaqqar unaqqar uSaqqar innaqqar
G Gt Gtn D S N iqqur ittaqar unaqqer usaqqer innaqer
ippeS fterrub fteneppes uppas uSeppes inneppes ittaqar ittatqar uttaqqer uStaqqer ittanqar
!pus fterub fteppes uppis usepis innepis niiqirum muttaqrum munaqqirum musaqqirum munnaqrum
ftepeS *ftetrub *fteteppeS uteppis ustepis *ittenpes uqur itqar nuqqer Suqqer naqqer
episum muteppisum muppisum muSepisum munnepsum naqiirum itqurum nuqqurum suqqurum nanqurum
epus etrub *eteppes uppis supiS naqrum *itqurum nuqqurum suqqurum nanqurum
epesum *etrubum iteppusum uppusum supusum *nenpusum naqer *itqur nuqqur suqqur nanqur
epsum uppusum supusum
epis *etrub *eteppus uppuS supus

Tense conjugation:
abiizum (a/u): to take, seize, take eserum (I): to be straight, in
Pres. Pret. Perf. Compare: in marriage order, be a success; S to put
irrub frub fterub ikul akiilum (a/u): to eat - in order; St to keep in order,
terrub terub teterub tiikul aliikum (pres. illak, pret. illik): to lead aright
terruM teruM teterbf tiikulf go; ana sfmtim aliikum: to die ezebum (I): to leave, leave
errub erub eterub iikul amiirum (a/u): to see behind; kuizukkam suzubum:
irrubu frubu fterbu ikulU apiilum (a/u): to answer, satisfy, to cause to leave a sealed
irrubii frubii fterbii ikulii pay document
terrubii terubii teterbii tiikulii E-abzu: a temple kispu (pl.): sorcery
nirrub nfrub nfterub nikul E-babbar: a temple nadum (-I): to throw, cast; 'to
ebebum (i): to be pure, holy throw murder on' = accuse
§70. Verbs with initial radical j inflect like the e-group of verbs I edesum (I): to be new; D to of murder
. (i class). Thus in the G-stem enequm 'to suck' (*janiiqum) has pres. renew nakiirum (I): to be foreign, be in
inniq, tenniq, enniq, inniqu, pret. fniq, perf. fteniq, imp. eniq, stat. epesum (*a/u or u: ippes/ippus, enmity, be estranged from
eniq; eSerum 'to be straight, prosperous' has S pres. uSeSser, pret. !puS; OB N-stem inneppes, (ittz)
useser (cf. §84h), perf. usteser, N pres. inneSser, pret. inneser. innepis, ittenpes alongside OB, natiilum (a/u): to look at, see
SB, NB inneppus, innepus, nertum: murder
§71. Verbs with initial radical n follow the pattern of pariisum, ittenpus"): to do, make suluMum « su.WU): ritual
but with assimilation of the first radical to a following consonant erebum (u): to enter; S causative cleansing, hand washing,
(*indin > iddin; note however that assimilation does 'not take place eresum A (I): to ask for ritual
in some forms of the N-stem), and with loss of initial n in the G eresum B (I): to cultivate (a field) suttum, pI. suniitum: dream
imperative (*nidin, *nidnf > idin, idnf; *nuqur > uqur) and in the Gt warka (conj.): after
 3. Translate into Akkadian: he saw a dream and left his
country. who brought the liar into,the king's palace? the king's
daughter purified the temple. Samas,.you lead the people aright. he
renewed the foundations of the house. if that man accused me of
murder, he will be slain. after he had taken the woman as wife, he
was estranged from her. why was the temple not purified?
ABZU = apsUm 'subterranean 4. Cuneiform:
water'; E-abzu: name of
temple FF ~ rp.. ~ k4' ~ ~*;
~ in ~a b~ ~ ~ rn ~ p ~ <IFF;
~ ne, bil, pil, bi, (re) l'f "1n A Tf ~ H'r ~ ~ <}- AHt ; 1HEl' ~
flir-- mar ~ ~Ff: ~; ~ a "p:I~ ~ .&k
fA qar, gar, kar ~ ~ 8i~ tdI'; ~ ~ FfTr-;
~~ uz ~ q<f ~1>lT j ~T ~ <1* ~;
~ sa. (lib) SA = libbum 'heart' ~ A»ffi W ~j ~ ~~r}fff-;

A.SA = eqlum 'field' 1T I-tT <\r- ~ ~ ~ ~T F!=rrr rf:1' ~;

-<1"r- ~ ~ Tf i&- ~ Tt ~ <Tr-.&:~ ~
AK kam, (gilm), qam

m dam. ram DAM.GAR

'merchant'
= tamkarum
~ ~~~;
~~~~~<ir-;
$~~~;
~~r--~;
'1 •
IT irr-It v{S< <\Y- ~ ~ 1ffi~j
1f kt P i<T r!3. lllI }ff- .(fr-

1. Normalize and translate: a-na i-sa-tim in-na-ad-di. sum-ma

ne-er-tam e-li-su id-di. sa e-li-suki-is-pi id-du-u. i-na-ad"du-u-si.
it-ta-di-in. i-na-ad-di-in. id-di-in. it-ta-an-di-in. i-na-di-iS-si. eqletim
id-na-su-nu-si-im. i-di-in. i-di-iS-sum. su-ut-tam it-tu-ul. it-;ta-ki-ir.
tamkaram i-ip-pa-al. i-ta-mar. i-bu-uz. i-ib-ba-az. a-na did i-il-Ia-ak.
a-na si-im-tim it-ta-Ia-ak. it-ta-al-Ia-ak. wa-ar-ka a-bu-um a-na
si-im-tim it-ta-al-ku. sum-ma ku-nu-uk-kam u-se-zi-ib. i-ir-ri-iS.
i-te-ru-ub. u-se-er-re-eb-si. i-pu-uI. a-wa-a-tim si-na-ti ep-sa.
mu-ub-bi-ib su-Iub E-abzu. mu-ud-di-iS E-babbar. a-na su-te-Iu-ur
ni-si.
2. Give the paradigm and G pret. conjugation of ezebum.and
nadiinum.
 Paradigmatic forms below are from wabalum 'to bear',
wussurum (D) 'to release', wasiibum 'to dwell', waliidum 'to give
birth to'.
Gtn
) vv
ubbal ittanabbal uwassar
ubil ittabbal uWaSser
ittabal (itbal) *ittatabbal utaSser
wiibilum muttabbilum muwaSsirum
§72. A small number of verbs with fllSt radical ware i class bil itabbal wuiser
state-verbs with a triradical root: thus waqiirum 'to be costly', wabalum itabbulum wuisurum
wasiimum 'to be fitting'. These are generally conjugated in the wuisurum
G-stem like verbs I j (§70): pres. iqqer, pret. fqer, stat. waqar/wasim wuisur
(but perf. ftaqer varies from Ij fteniq). In the derived stems they are
conjugated like I w action verbs (§73). N
uiabbal/useSseb iwwallad
§73. The majority of verbs I ware action-verbs formed by usiibil/uiesib iwwalid
prefixing w(a)- to an original biconsonantal root: thus for wabiilum uitiibil/ustesib
'to carry' waSiibum 'to sit, dwell' the original root appears in the - musiibilum/musesibum
imperative (bil, sib) and in nominal derivatives (biltum, subtum < subil/siiSib
*sibtum). The formation of secondary verbs with a variant augment subulum/susubum
is typical of the class (tabalum, taSiibum). subulum/ siiSubum
In the G-stem, there is ablaut alternation between pres. (ubbal) subul/susub
and pret. (ubi{); in some dialects the latter forms the expected
plur. ubilu, ventive ubilam,but in OB the normal form has short G pres.: ubbal, tubbal, tubbalf, ubbal; ubba!U, ubbalii, tubbalii,
prefix and vowel subject to elision: (ubil,) ublu, ublam. The precative nubbal.
follows the norm seen in §44: !Ubil 'may I carry!', lwil 'may he G pret.: ubil, tubil, tubilf/tublf, ubil; ubilu/ub!U, ubilii/ublii,
carry!'. The perf. is normally formed on a triradical base (ittabal), tubilii/tub/ii, nubil.
analogous to I n verbs, but occasionally OB has itbal, formed on the
biconsonantal root. §74. Initial", sometimes disappears in OB, and regularly after
The D-stem normally retains strong forms uWaSsar, uwasser, OB (§84c). CAD lists such words in their SB form (abalu, ardu),
utasser. Outside of OB, however, contraction sometimes takes place, AHw in their OB form (wabalum, wardum).
giving rise to forms partly indistinguishable from G: uisar pres.,
uiser pret. §75. Infinitive constructions. (1) We have seen that the infinitive,
S-forms without prefix appear with su- (inf. subulum). In the introduced by ~a preposition, often serves as a temporal or final
forms with prefixes, usubil appears only in poetry; the prose forms clause (§28). The infinitive may be construed as a noun, with a
are assimilated to those of verbs I '(uiassab, uiiiSib) or I j (usesseb, following genitive or pronominal" suffix representing the logical
usesib). object or subject:
In the N-stem, n + wbecomes ww in OB (" in SB): *inwalid > ana epes bftim 'in order to build a temple'
iwwalid. ina kasiidija 'when I arrive'.
 §76 LESSON 11 77

st. recto m. f. st. abs. m. f.

Alternatively, it may be construed as a verb; in this case, when the
order is Object - Preposition - Infinitive, the object is put in the 5. bamfum bamiStum bamiS bamsat
accusative: 6. sessum sediStum sesset
(uppf anniam ina semem 'when (you) hear this tablet of mine' 7. sebUm sebettum sebe sebet
raggam u .renam ana bulluqim 'to destroy the evil and wicked' 8. ·samiinum ·samiintum samiine samiinat
9. tisUm ti/eSitum tise tillt
but when the order is changed to Preposition - Object - Infinitive, 10. drum esertum eser eseret
the object is attracted into the genitive: '
The numerals I and 2 are adjectives which usually precede and
alia sugftim aljiizim 'to marry a sugftum-woman'
agree in gender with the noun they qualify. 3-10 are nouns which
ana eburim kamiisim 'to gather the harvest'.
usually have the chiastic concord common in Semitic: feminine
The logical subject appears as a nominative in a verbal construction,. forms are used with masculine nouns and vice-versa. 20-50: drii,
whether it precedes or follows the preposition: salasii, erbii, bamsii. Various constructions are found in the
different dialects; thus, to express 'five lords':
(uppum Hma kaiiidim 'when the tablet arrives'
kfma awuu sunu Iii naparkim 'so that those men may not defect', bamSat belu/belum (apposition, abs. state + pI./sing.): the
normal OB construction is bamsat belu
but mixed verbal and nominal constructions with accusative object belu bamistum (apposition, pI. + status rectus)
and genitive suffIX indicating logical subject are frequent: belu bamsat (apposition, pI. + abs. state)
(uppam ina semeka 'when you hear the tablet'. bamsat belf/belim (construct state of numeral + gen. sing./pI.)
belu bamSim/bamistim (construct state of thing + gen. of
(2) Infinitive absolute. A finite verbal form is given emphasis by numeral).
the infinitive of the same root with locative(?) ending -um, and
usually with the enclitic -ma: Since numerals are not usually phonetically written in Akkadian
texts (see §85), it is frequently impossible to specify which
sapiirumma aipur 'I certainly sent'.
construction is intended.
With measures, the normal construction is: numeral in absolute
(3) le'um 'to be able' and verbs meaning 'to say, command',
state + measure in absolute state + thing measured in apposition,
such as qabUm, may take an infinitive in the accusative as
case being determined by function in the sentence:
complement:
saliis sut qemum (or qemim, qemam) '3 seahs of flour'.
baliiq iilisu liqbi 'let him command the destruction of his city'
kullasunu aqbi 'I told (you) to hold them' The ordinal numerals from 3 on are adjectives in parus form,
pfbassu apiilam ul ile"i 'he cannot fulfil his feudatory duty'. and usually precede the noun they modify:
1st piinum, f. piinftum; malJrUm, f. mabrftum; iSten
2nd sanum, f. sanftum
st. rect. m. st. abs. m. 3rd salsum, f. salustum
I. istenum iSletum iSlen iStiat, iSlet 4th febUm, f. rebUtum
2. sinii sittii sinii sittii 5th bamsum, f. bamustum
3. saliisum salastum salas salasat 6th sdsum, f. sedu.stum
4. erbUm, arba'um erbettum erbe erbet 7th sebUm, f. sebUtum
 8th samnum, f. samuntum
9th tisum, f. tisutum
10th esrum, f. esurtum

Both ordinals and cardinals are often expressed in writing by Logographic

the Sumerian phrase 'number + KAM (or KAM)':
MU 3.KAM 'third y~ar' or 'year three', 'three years'. SI = qarnum 'horn'

Multiplicatives are expressed by the cardinal with adverbial SI.sA = eserum 'to be
suffix -f- and pronominal sufflX; the preposition adi may precede: prosperous'
(adl) sinfiu 'twice'. tab

Fractions are expressed by the fern. forms of the ordinal: (sar) LUGAL = sarrum 'king'
salustum = 1/3. In writing, the Sumerian phrase IGI.x.GAL is du, tu, (gub, qub) GIN = alakum· 'to go'
employed to express fractions: IGI.8.GAL = 1/8. Note also the dual
sittan, oblique sittfn '2/3'. GUD izuzzum 'to stand'
ruM wabalum 'to bring'
~ dan, kal, lab, (lib, rib) KALAG = dananum, dannum
'(to be) strong'

arba'um: four (§76) sattum, pI. sanatum: year ~

enium: weak sittan: 2/3 <~ lam
erbUm, f. erbettum: four (§76) wabalum (ubbal, ubi/): to carry
esrum: ten ~ zum, ~um, sum, ~
waladum (ullad, ulid): to bear,
babalum (a/u, also I): to oppress, give birth to
wrong ~
wasabum (uisab, usib): to sit,
iSten, f. istiat, istet: one, first • (tu)
dwell
kibratum (pl.): world regions watarum (ittir, ftir): to be
mana'um, manUm (wr. MA.NA): excessive; S to make
mina (cf. §88) excessive, multiply
nawarum (I): to be bright; D to wuisurum (D): to release, let go 1. Normalize and translate: za-e-ri-Iu u-wa-aI-sa-ar. u-ta-aI-sar.
enlighten, shed light on za'irum: hostile (used as noun: amat-su sa marf ul-du-sum. it-ta-Ia-ad. ium-ma marf la u-li-id.
rebUm: fourth enemy) sum-ma marf u-li-sum. ub-Iam. ub-ba-Iu. ui-sa-ab. u-sa-te-ru-su.
dan-nu-um en-sa-am a-na la ba-ba-li-im. a-na ma-tim nu-wu-ri-im.
a-na si-ir ni-si tu-ub-bi-im. pu-ru-se-e ma-tim a-na pa-ra-si-im.
ki-ib-ra-at er-be-tim. sar ki-ib-ra-tim ar-ba-im. a-di 30-su
i-na-ad-di-in. IGI.3.GAL. i-na re-bu-tim sa-at-tim. MuA.(AM. sa
sa-at-tim is-ti-a-at. si-'it-ti-in i-na-ad-di-in sa-lu-ui-tam i-le-qe. 4 slit
se'am. 2 qa se'am. 1 MA.NA kaspam. y~ MA.NA kaspam. 10 siqil
kaspum. e-es-ri-su aI-tap-pa-ra-ak-ki-im.
 2. Give the ~aradigm of waliidum in G and N-stems .
.3. Translate 1Oto Akkadian: he dwells in the land of Ratti they
earned me to he~ven. since he was born he has said nothi~g. he
made: me carry hIS throne and his scepter. he increased the regular
offenngs.
. ~: Translate into Akkadian, using both nominal and verbal QUADRILITERAL VERBS. IZUZZUM.
1O~mtlVe constr.uctions: to destroy his enemies. when the king DOUBLY WEAK VERBS
arnves. as y~u nse up. 10 order to construct the house.
5. CuneIform:
§77. Quadriliteralverbs in Akkadian are generally taken to fall
p~ ~ ~\K« ~~t.~~; into two classes:
1. The §..group: the first radical is s, and a liquid (I, r) or nasal
_ -<PI. n:rr ¢n ~ <Tr-+-Wr ~ -dl-ff- j (m, n) is in fourth or third and fourth position: suqallulum 'to hang',

~+- ¢m rffj« ~ a~ Tf'" tf: ~~ A~;

subairurum 'to fall into a numbed silence, be silent', suqammumum
'to be still', suparrurum 'to spread out' (tr.). These are usually
</j.-Tm \>l(Tf; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Tt~ conjugated in one stem, similar to D, and its -ta- and -tan-
derivatives:
rf:r ff< ~ <T~ ; < -pur .qy -+ ;
~f:r ~~ ~~ m; Pres.
Pret.
Perf.
usqammam, pI. usqam(m)ammii
usqammim
*ustaqammim
~ j::: ~ ~ ~ <W Al-tT-; ~~ mt~ Ptc. *muSqammimum
~ ill- P- ~ ~ ; ff ~ I-ffi ~ FtilF +r-~; Imp. suqammim
Inf. suqammumum
~ FIm j.--~; ~.~ $T ~; Afr~~; Stat. suqammum (also sabur, pI. saburrii).
~ ~ ~ ~~;. 11~ ~~ ~ 4-rwr ~rff-;
Tf<DF <<<.;1 *Ht~<M~; Note the weak verbs supelum 'to exchange'; sukenum 'to bow down'
(OA supa"ulum, suka"unum). These undergo the usual alterations of
~ ~ rli<T~~~ ~ ~~j
medial weak verbs:
~~~.(f~~ ~~~~ Pres. uspel, pI. uspellii
Pret. uspel, pI. uspelii
Perf. ustepel, pI. ustepelii
Ptc. muske/lnum.

2. The N-stem group: the second radical is always lor r, and

forms are found in two stems, N (with ingressive sense) and S
(causative), with their iterative-tan- stems. They normally indicate
motion: nabalkutum (*blkt) 'to cross over, transgress, revolt',
napalsubum 'to prostrate oneself, naparsudum 'to flee', naparkum (-u
class) 'to stop, to cease work', neqelpum (-u class) 'to drift,
float)', napalkum (usually -i class) 'to be open(ed) wide'. Their
forms are:
Pres. Pret. Perf. Imp.
N Ntn
G izzaz izziz ittaziz iziz, izizzii
Pres. ibbalakkat I it ittanablakkat
Pret. Gt ittazzaz
ibbalkit ittabalakkat
Gtn ittanazzaz itazzaz, -zza
Perf. ittabalkatlit ittatablakkat
Ptc. mubbalkitum muttablakkitum
S uszaz uSziz suziz, suzizzii
Imp. *nabalkit All forms double the final consonant before an ending: izzazzii,
Inf. nabalkutum uszazzii, etc.
V.Adj. nabalkutum
Stat. nabalkut §80. Doubly weak verbs combine the characteristics of two of
the types of weak verb discussed above. Thus idum 'to know'
S Stn (*jada'um) forms the preterite ide, with the modifications of I j
Pres. usbalakkat uStanablakkat (iniq) and III e (isme). (Note that when two normally weak features
Pret. uSbalkit uStablakkit occur as successiveradicals, one of them, usually the middle radical,
Perf. uStabalkit is most often treated as a strong consonant, e.g. e'elum, nawiirum.
Ptc. musbalkitum lawl1m, le'um.) Some of the more commonly found verbs are:
Imp. subalkit
Inf. subalkutum elum 'to go up' (I " III I): pres. il/i, pret. iii, perf. iteli, imp. eli,
V. Adj. subalkutum Gtn pret. itel/i, S pres. uSelle, pret. uSeli, perf. usteli;
wa.fum 'to go out' (I w, III I): pres. Uof.ri,pret. ii.fi, perf. itta.ri,
Stat. subalkut
imp. .ri, S pres. use.r.ri,pret. use.ri, perf. uSte.ri;
. §?8. Ir:regular N-stem. A small group of geminate verbs (i.e.. warum 'to lead' (I w, III u): pret. iiru, S pres. usarra, pret.
wIth IdentIcal 2nd and 3rd radical) have an irregular Nand usari;
Ntn-~tem. They are probably not to be considered quadriliteral, and idum 'to know' (I j, III e): this verb and the following one have
are lIsted by the modem dictionaries under the corresponding only one tense, pret. in form and stative in meaning
G-stem, when that is extant (thus naballulum 'to slink' is given (compare Latin cognovi, German ich weiss): ide. tide, ide,
under baliilum). They are characterized by doubling of the second tidea etc., irregular ptc. miidum (form mupras);
radical in N infinitive and stative, and doubling of the final radical isum 'to have' (I j, III u): pret. isu;
before endings in other forms. Thus nasallulum 'to crawl ofT' (most le'um 'to be able' (II ',III ell): pres. ile"ilile, pret. We, ile;
forms not attested, but restored from similar verbs; plural se'um 'to seek': like le'um;
morphemes added in parentheses): . qu"um 'to await' (D): pres. uqa"a, uqa (plur. uqa"u), pret.
uqa"i, uqi.
N Ntn
Pres. issallal(lii) ittanaslal(lii) §81. 'All' is expressed, not by an adjective, but by gimrum,
Pret. issalil(lii) kalUm, kissatum or other nouns meaning 'totality'. These may
Perf. ittaSlal(lii) ittataSlal(lii) precede in construct relation to the noun to which they refer (gimir
Ptc. mussalillum muttaSlillum miitim 'all the land'), or follow it in apposition, usually with
Inf. nasallulum iiaslullum pronominal suffix (matum kalusa 'all the land', ana miitim kalisa 'to
Stat. naSallul(ii) the entire land').
alpum: ox numiitum: household goods 1. Normalize and translate: ~a-bu-um ka-lu-.su. gi-mi-ir ma-ti-im.
b'irum: divination niirum: light gi-mi-ir ~a-bi-im sa ma-a-tim ka-li-sa. ru-bu-um sa ni-iS qa-ti-.su dAdad
eliim (-0: to go up; Gt + ina: to qu"um: to await i-du-u. mu-se-~i nu-ri-im a-na ma-at Su-me-ri-im II Ak-ka-di-im . .sum-ma
forfeit (§41,b) sarriitum (f. pl.): lies, deception ne-er-tam e-li-.su id-di-ma 1a uk-ti-in-.su. .sum-ma da-a-a-nu-um di-in-.su
enum (-I): to change (tr.) ~iibum (collective): soldiers, i-te-ni. i-te-el-li. a-na wa-~e-em. iilam u-se-e~-~-u-su. mi-sa-ra-am i-na
gimrum: totality workmen ma-tim a-na .su-pi-im. a-na nu-ma-at be-el bftim i-in-.su is-si. .sum-ma
idl1m (-e): to know Sibiitum: testimony a-wi-lum i-na di-nim a-na si-bu-ut sa-ar-ra-tim u-~i-a-am. a-ra-an di-nim
isum (-u): to have se'l1m (-ell): to seek it-ta-na-aS-si. sa U4-mi-.su iz-za-zu a-na E-babbar. i-na .su-ut-ti-ia
izuzzum: to stand; + dat.: to -su: its, his; when used with dBelet-bi-ri iz-zi-iz-za-am. i-na pa-ni bi-ti-ia ta-az-za-az. a/pii sa
stand before, come before; + expressions of time, has a ma-ab-ri-ka iz-za-az-zu, e-es-me-e-ma at-ta-pa-al-sa-ab· a-na Babilimld
analina piin(l): to stand in the demonstrative or distributive a-al-la-ak II ab-ba-la-ka-tam.
service of, to serve force: ina iimfSu 'at that time, 2. Translate into Akkadian: he will revolt. they caused them to
le'l1m (-em: to be able at the proper time'; Umfsu revolt. he is silent. he falls silent. he fell silent. the whole country
nabalkutum: to cross over, '(throughout) his days, all his knows. he is not able to go out. he stood by me. they are waiting for
transgress, revolt life' the king.
napalsubum: to prostrate oneself wapl1m (-I): to become visible; 3. Cuneiform:
naSum (-I): to raise, bear, carry; S to make visible, glorify
'raise the eye to' = covet warum (-u): to lead ~ -dn ~ ~.,ll+ffi 8r<r~ ~1f ~ ~;
nfsum: lifting; nfs qiitim ('raising w~um (-I): to go out; Fi= ~ ~~ K"f( ~ Hf- ffi ~ 814 ~~it-l::nTj:1;
of the hand'): prayer S causative
~<~~ ff~kff ~ ~~~~
~ FmF-~ffb; ~fr n~1i=
F!= ~ <1~ ~ .,dqr l't Kt <rr- ~r-- ~
Signs Phonetic
11 -<TP+n'<r ~ ~ ~ ~~ nQ ;
~ eri, iri, ri, re URU = iilum 'city' ~ a ~ ~-rmr mrr; flIT tr- ¢rrr Mrr
~ KA = biibum 'gate' ~ ~ Fmf r<f<' ~ Hf Aqr ~ ~ ~;
KA.DINGIR.RAki Babilumki
= ~ ~ rTf}A- t:t- rm AI1f- Tf~ ~ ~ ,g Tl- ~.4i~
'Babylon' (etymologized as
biib ilim I ili)
<~ ~~ ~Aijf:; ~ ~ bi=r mt ~
~~~ ~<T~~ ~ ~H1<~~j
~ ~i, ~e,zi, ze
~i GUD = alpum 'ox' ~ a ~ IT l't v- ~ <1Ft ~ ~
ijf: j krr ~f:rJL
t¥ nin NIN = beltum 'lady'
~ jfT ~ ~

:?Rrr el, ils SIKIL = ellum 'pure, holy;

If ~ ill- ~ .dlff-; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~trn:::m=-~ j

¢ fgjr ~ b ~ k:1 ~ r-t>- Tf k9" ~ ~ ~~;

~ iT J:t= P ti Tf ~ Tfk1 rmr ir;

~~ ij:-~ ~ ~1<~ ~~ ff~

a. Vowelsare a, i, u, e. They should be pronounced as in Latin

or German. They can be long or short; for conventional indications
of length see §4e,4. Of the vowels, a, i, u are Proto-Semitic; e is a
reflex of either a or i. Other vowels (such as 0, ii) do not appear
directly in the writing system, but their existence in some stage of
the spoken language has been argued.
b. Consonants are " b. P. d, t, t, g, k, q, b, I. r, m, n, z. s, ~, s, j,
w. Their approximate pronunciation is deduced from other Semitic
languages. Semiticconsonants not familiar to the speaker of English
include the following (for ease of reference the traditional Hebrew
name of the consonant is given): '(aleph), a glottal stop, like the
glottal closure between the two words of English 'oh oh!'; the
'emphatic' consonants t, q and ~ (teth, qoph, ~ade), equivalent to t,
k, s pronounced with throat constriction; b(lost in Hebr.) is
sounded like ch in Scots 'loch'; s (shin), pronounced like sh in
English; j (yod) has the sound of English y: in transcriptions most
scholars use the symool j, but some use y, to represent this sound
(jiiSim 'to me', rarely yiiSim), but in transliterations the symbol i is
generally used: ia-si-im. g is pronounced as in 'go, game'. The
remaining consonants are pronounced roughly as in English.
As compared with other Semitic languages, the consonantal
system of Akkadian has undergone a simplification, through the
merging of several groups of sounds. Though the inadequacies of a
writing system adapted from Sumerian may conceal phonemic
distinctions that were still felt, at least in some areas, it is generally
considered that by the OB period Akkadian had lost the original
consonants d, 1, </' ~' : g, h, Ij., So The consonantal evolution from
Proto-Semitic may be indicated as follows:
 c. Dentals (d, t, t remain in Akkadian)
4 > z: Arab. 'u4nz Hebr. 'ozen, Akk. uznum 'ear'
L > s: Arab. Laur, Hebr. sor, Akk. surum 'bull'
!(~) > ~: Arab. :?ill,Hebr. ~el, Akk. ,rillum 'shadow' a. In §82 we have discussed the relation of Akkadian con-
rJ (Ii-) > ~: Arab. 'arrJ,Hebr. 'ere,r, Akk. er,retum 'earth' sonantal phonemes, taken individually, to those in other Semitic
d. Labials (b, p remain) languages, a relation traditionally conceived as 'the development of
Akkadian from Proto-Semitic'. In the present section we see some
a
e. Palato-velars (g, k, q, remain) inner-Akkadian patterns of consonantism aependent on environ-
g > ': Arab. garaba, Hebr. 'ereb, Akk. erebum 'to set ment. Some of these patterns are typical of Akkadian in all periods,
(of sun)' as compared to other Semitic languages; these are conveniently
stated as developments from a reconstructed Proto-Semitic or
f. Sibilants (z, s, ~, s remain) Proto-Akkadian. Others (where this is stated) are typical ofparticu-
S > s: Arab. kid, Hebr. kiires, Akk. karsum 'belly' lar dialects of Akkadian.
g. Liquids (I, r remain) b. Geers' law of dissimilation. Unlike other Semitic languages,
h. Nasals (m, n remain) Akkadian does not tolerate a root with two emphatic consonants,
and dissimilates one of them (~is retained in preference to q and t, q
1. Laryngeals in preference to t):
, rem~ins in some words, but has a tendency to disappear, *qa.riirum > ka,riirum 'to bind'
With consequent vocalic alteration (this is true also of *qutturum > qutturum 'to fumigate'
, developed from g, " h, or 1) *qatnum > qatnum'thin".
'. Arab. ~ami'a, Hebr. ,riime('), Akk. ~amUm 'be thirsty'
Arab. sa'ala, Hebr. sii'al, Akk. sa'iilum 'ask' c. Barth's law.of dissimilation. A nominal preformative ma- (or
Arab. ra's, Hebr. rO(')S, Akk. reSum 'head' its variant me-), when preceding a root containing a labial (b, p, m)
': Arab. samra, Hebr. siima: Akk. semum 'to hear' dissimilates to na- (ne-):
h: Arab. nahr, Hebr. niihiir, Akk. niirum 'river' *mdrkabtum > narkabtum 'chariot'
1): Arab. 1)adaLa,Hebr. 1)iddes, Akk. edesum 'be new' *maktamum > naktamum 'cover'
*mapaarum > napaarum'total'
j. From the Akkadian point of view, consonants of multiple
*ma1)paSum > nepesum'ritual'.
origin may be classified according to their counterparts in other
Semitic languages: d. '1-5 (§82j) is retained in some words as a strong consonant,
': I = *', 2 =*h, 3 = *1), 4 = * " 5 == *g (wand j are but more normally is subject to disappearance, with consequent
sometimes termed 'aleph six' and 'aleph seven'; while there is no changes in vocalization. The development' of j and w is analogous to
regular development w > ' or j > ',the terminology is convenient that of ' (see below, §84c-f).
inasmuch as wand j underwent a developmentanalogous to that of '). e. n often assimilates to a following consonant:
z: 1.- *z, 2 *4.
~: 1 *,r, 2 *L, 3 *4. * 'anta > atta 'you'
s: I *s, 2 *~, 3 *i. * 'anpum > appum 'nose'
but note - at least in written form - kan.fu. iddin-su (also
iddiS-su), nidintum (also nidittum).
 f. Dental (d, t, t) or sibilant (s, ~, s, z) + s of pronominal suffix m. In Babylonian from MB on the geminated middle radical of
regularly > ss: a verb, when it is voiced b, d, g, or z, frequently dissimilated to a
*miit-su > miis-su 'his land'
nasal (written m or n) + the simple consonant, representing mb, nd,
*imbaf-su > imbas-su 'he struck him' 1Jg,nz:
*eres-su > eres-su 'his desire'. inabbi > inambi 'he names'
inaddin > inamdin, inandin Uinandin/) 'he gives'
_ Note that aSsimilated forms may be written 'historically' imaggar > imangar Uimaugar/) 'he agrees'
(mat-su, m~-~t-su) as well as 'phonetically' (ma-as-su, ma-su); both
inazziq > inanziq 'he becomes angry'.
types of wntmg represent /massu/.
n. An initial or final double consonant is avoided: either the
g. After DB, m before a dental, s, ~. q or k may be written n consonant is simplified (*sarr- > sar 'king') or a resolutory vowel is
(representing n before dental, u before velar): introduced (*prus > purus, *(uPP- > tuppi'tablet', *kalb > kalab
(em-ka or (en-ka 'your report'. 'dog', *bilt > hilat 'burden'). Medial triconsonance is similarly
resolved by consonantal simplification or vocalic epenthesis
h. t of the verbal infix -ta-, whether in the perfect tense, the (*ni-tan-prusum > itaprusum 'to undergo constant separation',
t~ste~s or the tn-st~ms, is partially assimilated to a first radical g *pulb-tum > pulubtum 'awe', *rib~-tum > ribi~tum 'inundation').
(I.e. It becomes VOIced d) and wholly assimilated to d t and
sibilants other than s: ' .'
*igtamru > igdamru 'they have finished'
*a(tardam > a((ardam 'I have sent'
*a~tabat > af~abat 'I have ·seized'
*iztakar > izzakar 'he has said'.
a. The Proto-Semitic diphthongs au and ai normally > ii and i:
i. In verbs whose first radical is d, t, z, s, or ~,metathesis of that *laurum > surum 'bull'
radical and infix t takes place in Gt and Dt-forms without prefix: *baitum > bitum 'house'
*~itbutu > ti~butu 'they are grappling' *saptain > saptin 'two lips'.
*zitkar > tizkar'speak!'.
b. When two short open syllables come in succession in word
j. d and t before t > t: interiors, the vowel of the second is normally elided:
*ma'adtum > ma'attum 'much'. . *kasid-iiku > kasdiiku 'I reach'
. *wiilidtum > wiilittum 'mother' *iptaras-ii > iptarsii 'they divided'
*muballittum > muballittum 'cage'. *damiq-um ? damqum 'good'
k. band p can assimilate to a following rh of -ma:
but before I' the elision need not take place (zikarum or zikrum
erub-ma or erum-ma 'I entered'. 'male').
When three short open syllables come in succesSion,the vowel
1.In MB and later, a sibilant before another sibilant or a dental of the second or third is elided:
appears as l: DB usziz 'I stationed', ai(ur 'I wrote', assi (also assi) 'I
called' = MB ulziz, al(ur, alsi. *pitarusum (Gt inf.) > pitrusum (Bab.),pitarsum (Ass.).
 c. Vocalization consequent on the disappearance of word-initial *garabum > Ass. erabum, Bab. erebum 'to set'
, (above, §82j and §83d): *ba7at > Ass. belat, Bab. belet 'lady'
(i) "-5 usually disappears with no vowel lengthening: *halakum *talqal], > Ass. talqe, Bab. telqe 'you took'
> alakum 'to go'. *taSamma' > Ass. taSamme, Bab. tdemme 'you hear'.
(ii) j similarly disappears, but initial ja- > e or i: *jaspur > This assimilation of a to e takes place even when there is an
ispur ~hesends', *janaqum > enequm 'to suck', *jada'um > idum'to intervening consonant in III 'nouns of the form pars:
know'.
(iii) w is usually preserved in OB writing, but may be lost: *zar'um > zerum 'seed'
wabaliim or abalurn 'to carry'. *qaml],um > qemum 'flour'.

d. Loss of *"-7 at the end of a syllable is accompanied by g. In Babylonian, a in the proximity of r or· b often > e; a in
compensative lengthening of the preceding vowel: preceding or following syllables is also then assimilated to e:
*igrub > frub 'it set' *arrJatum > er~etum 'earth'
*ba7um > belum 'lord' arratum > erretum 'curse'
*jajSir > * ijsir > fsir 'he went straight'. sabarum > seberum 'to break'
qarabum > qerebum 'to approach'
When nouns III "-7 lose ' the opened syllable is lengthened, or tabum > tebum 'to come near'.
reclosed by a secondary consonant gemination:
h. In verbal forms whose writing allows us to .distinguish
*zar'um > zerum 'seed'
between e and i (see §4e,2 and §15), an i preceding syllable-final r or
*kw(um > kii~um or k~~um 'cold' b often> e in OB; the same shift may be presumed where the
*bisjum > bfsum 'possession'
orthography alone does not indicate it clearly:
*minwum > mfnum 'counting'.
utammib > utammeb 'he seized'
e. Vowels put in immediate contact within a word by loss of "-7 utirrii > uterrii 'they caused to go back'.
are normally contracted. Some vowel combinations, however,
resisted contraction for a longer time; thus the sequences ia and ea i. Addition of a pronominal suffix (including ventive -nim) or
(and iu in archaizing prose or poetry) frequently appear -ma effects a lengthening of a preceding short vowel (ana beli-su >
uncontracted in OB. In most cases the contracted vowel is a long ana belfsu 'to his lord') and preserves final length that would
grade of the original second vowel, the most important exception otherwise be lost (ifti 'with', ittfsu < *ittai-su 'with him', so too e/i
being ai > e: 'upon', warki 'after'; qibfma 'say!', cf. §62).The present Introduction
follows CAD in using the macron to note retained length (qibfma),
rabium normally> rabUm 'great' (nom.)
but not to mark secondary lengthening (ana belisu is written, to be
rabiam may> rabfim (acc.)
ruba'um > rubum 'prince' /
read ana belfsu) ..
purussa'im > purussem 'decision' (gen.). j. In Assyrian, a short vowel a in open post-tonic syllable is
f. Loss of original 1]" " g (rarely h) is accompanied by a change normally assimilated to the vowel of the nominal or verbal ending
of a to e in the same syllable; in Babylonian, a in preceding or (Assyrian vowel harmony):
following syllables is assimilated to e: Bab. naptanum 'meal', NA naptunu, gen. naptene
*ba7um >belum 'lord' ;Dab.i~batii 'they seized', Ass. i~butii.
*isma' > *isme> isme 'he heard'
 ~$1p' BARA.ZAG.GAR = Nisiinum (March-April)

~~<r* GUD.SI.sA = Ajarum (April-May)

~Fmf SIG4.GA = Simiinum (May-June)

~ J-<i SU.NUMUN Dumuzi (June-July)
~ ~~ 0/ NE.NE.GAR

P3I ~ rlfT KIN.dINNIN = Uliilum (Aug.-Sept.)

r 1. DIS; AS, DILl "k 600. GIS+ U

<Tlf4Tf DU6.KO = Ta/esrftum (Sept.-Oct.)

.( 10. U x> A I 3600. SAR

~ ~ Tf APIN.DUg.A =
=
Ara!Jsamna (OB Kiniinum?) (Oct.-Nov.)
Kislfmum (Nov.-Dec.)
T 60. GIS ~ 36000. SAR x U
~ ~~~ GAN.GAN.E

ft:! ~ ~ ~ AB.BA.E = rebetum (Dec.-Jan.)

~ Tt ZIZ.A(.AN) = Sabiitum (Jan.-Feb.)
IT 2 or 120 (also 2/60) 1< 70 ~ ~ ~ SE.KIN.KUD = Addarum (Feb.-March)
W 5 or 300 \( r< 670
88. Weight measures.
if 9 or 540 T1' TIo- 2 ME = 200
~ 50 n -<1;- 2 LlM = 2000 ~ SE = uUatum 'grain' = ca. 1/20 gram

(ME and LlM are pseudo-logograms from Akkadian me'atum '100', JII.lil GIN = siqlum'shekel' = 180 SE = ca. 8.3 g.
lfmum'lOoo'.) ~ ~ MA.NA = manum 'mina' = 60 GIN = ca. 500 g. (1 lb.)

§86. Year dates are indicated in OB by a name given to each ~ GO, ~ Ffff GUN = biltum 'talent' = 60 MA.NA = ca. 30 kg.
year; thus 'the year after the walls of Mari were destroyed' = the
33rd regnal year of Hammurapi. In Assyria each year was named
after a royal official, the year being called 'the limmu (eponymate)
of PN'. In MB and NB texts the year is identified by the formula
~m SU.SI = ubiinum 'finger' = ca. 1.6 cm.
MU 3.KAM PN '3rd regnal year of PN'. Fm=
§87. Month dates are given in the formula UD 15.KAM rlr~
ituSE.KIN.KUD '15th day of Addarum'. Month names, like many of "tV GAR (= nindanum? nindakkum?) = 2 GI = ca. 6 m.
the measures given below, were subject to local variation; the most
standard names and measures are listed here. The month names are lET ES = aSlum 'cord' = 10 GAR = ca. 60 m.
usually written in Sumerian, preceded by the determinative ITI, ITU ~ uS 'sixty (GAR)' = 6 ES = ca. 360 m.
= warbum 'month'; they are often abbreviated, only the first ·sign
~ ~ DANNA = berum 'double-hour' = 30 uS = ca. II km.
(BARA, GUD, etc.) being written.
~ SAR mus/sarum 'garden' = 1 GAR2 = ca. 36 m.2
~ IKU ikum 'field' ::; 100 SAR ::; ca. 3600 m.2

«' tmr BORikU::; biirum ::; 18 IKU = ca. 6.48 hectars

~ ~ Or ~ ~ BOR-gum2iku ::; 10 BORiku ::; ca. 64.8 hectars
'<> $ SARiku = 6 BOR-gunuiku = ca. 3.9 km. 2 abbuttiun: 6
abUbum: 9
biinium. biinilm: 2
banilm: 8
erbum: II
erebum: 7s, 10
'r$> ~ SAR x Uiku ::; 10 SARikU = ca. 39 km.2 abum: 2, 2s baqiirum: 5 ereSum A and B: 10
Adad: 3s Barsipa: 9 Eridum: 9
adi: 4 baSilm: 3s, 8 erresum: 2
aljiizum: 10 beltum: 2, 12s erretum: I
aljum: 2 belum: 2, 8s er~etum: 2, 4s
SILA qum 'quart' = ca. 1 liter Aja: 6 bfrum: 12 e~emtum: 2
ajjum: 5 bfSum: 2 derum: 10, 11s
BAN siitum 'seah' ::; 10 SILA = ca. 10 1. ajjumma: 7 bftum: 1, Is drum: 11
akiilum: 10 burum: 9s etequm: 5s
2 BAN, BANMIN aliikum: 3, 10, lIs ezebum: 10
alpum: 12, 12s dabiibum: 5 ezzum: 1
3 BAN, BANES iilum: 6, 12s Dagan: 7
amiirum: 10 dajjiinum: 3 gamiilum: 8
4 BAN, BANLIMMU gigunilm: 6
ammatum: 5s dajjiinutum: 8
5 BAN, BANIA ammini(m), ana minim: 4 dakum: 9 gimillum: 4
amtum: lIs daniinum: lIs gimrum: 12
piinum/parsiktum ::; 6 BAN = ca. 601. ana: I dannum: I, lIs gitmiilum: 1
diirium, diirilm: 2 gullubum: 6
( T NIGlDA ::; 1 piinum, f .NIMIN 2 piinii, fr NIES
aniiku: 4
annum: 5 dfnum: 2
ljabiilum: 11
Anum: Is dullum: 7
3 piinii, ff NILIMMU ::; 4 piinii) anumma: 4 ljadum: 8
apiilum: 10 t-abzu: 10 ljaliiqum: 4; D: 6
GUR ::; kurrum 'kor' ::; 5 NIGlDA ::; ca. 300 1.
apsum: IOs t-babbar: 10 ljallum: 5, 7s
arba'um: II ebebum: 10 ljulqum: 2
Amounts of grain etc. are given (as are numerical notations ljurii:fW7l:3s
arljis: 5 edisum: 10
generally) from greater units to lesser. The number of GUR is arkum: Is ekallum: Is, 2
indicated by horizontal wedges without the sign GUR, the number of arnum: I eli: 2 id: 8
NIGIDA by vertical wedges without the sign NIGlDA, the number of aSrum:I,4s Ellil: 7, 9s idum: 2, 2s
Ellilutum: 9 idUm: 3s, 12
SILA by standard vertical numbers + the sign SILA. The sign GUR aSsatum: 2
assum: 1 ellum: 3s, 12s ilum: 1, Is
frequently appears at the end of the measures, marking tl1em as elum: 12 [mar: 7
awiitum: 2, 5s
measures of solid capacity. Examples: awuum: 1, 11s enSum: II immerum: 5s
enum: 12 ina: I, 8s
5 (gur) 4 (nigida) 3 ban 4 sila GUR "W frJf= ff ~ ~ Babilum: 12s epesum: 10 fnum: 2,2s
biibum: 12s epiStum: 8 inuma: 4
2 (gur) 2 (nigida) 5 sila GUR l+-TVf~~ balii/um: 2s, 4; D: 6 eqlum: 2, 10s 4~urum: 7s
1 ban 5 sila q-l'ff~
98 AKKADIAN VOCABULARY AKKADIAN VOCABULARY 99

i.yum: 3, 38 -ma: 4 nirtum: 10 rubii'um, rubiim: 2 sarrum: 1, lis /ariidum: 4

iSiitum: 1, 108 magiirum: 5 nidintum, niditturn: 2 sarriitum: 2 /emum: 4
iSdum:6 rnaJ;arum: 7 niSii: 1 saIJiirum: 7 sarum: 7 /iiibum: 9
[star: 8 malJiqum: 3 nEYum (nEYqiitim): 12 saliimum: 8 siirum: 38 /iUum: 3s
iSten: 11 ma~rum: 1 nEYum (*n!}S): 3 saniiqum: 6 sasiim: 5s /uppum: 2
iStu: 1, 58; conj.: 8 mala: 7 n~um: 3 sap~um: 1 sattum: 11
iSiim: 12 mamman: 7 numiiturn: 12 sarriitum: 12 sa/arum: 4, 88 u: 2
itti: 2 manti'um, maniim: 11 niinum: 78 sarrum: 6 seberum: 3 ii:~
izuzzum: 118, 12 mannum: 5 niirum: 12 sattukkum: 7 semiim: 8 u/: 4, 48, §50
maniim (noun): 11 Sin: 4, 68, 8s se'um: 6, 88 u/lum: 5
jaSiib (Amorite): 7 maniim (verb): 8 palii~um: 3 sinniStum: 4, 68 se'um: 12 umma: 6
maqiitum: 58 ptinum: 28 Sipparum: 9 siiimum, siimum B: 9 ummum: 1
kabiitum: 7 mariqum: 7 paqiidum: 3 siinum: 88 slbiitum: 12 iimum: 38
kabtum: 1, 9s M arduk: 2, 98 pariisum: 3 sikarum: 68 urrum: 7
kadrum: 1 mar;yum: 1 paSii/um: 3 $abiitum: 3, 58 suntum: 9 uznum: 2s
kajjtiniS: 7 martum: 4 pe~: 38 $iibum: 12 sinnum: 58
kalbum: 78 marum: 2, 28 petiim: 8, 98 $almum: 48 siprum: 2 wa'iirum: 9
kaliim (noun): 2 matum: 2, 98 piim: 3, 5s !iarpanftum: 5 siqlum: 4, lis wabiilum: 11, lis
kaliim (verb): 8 matum: 9 purussiim: 3 $e~rum: 2, 2s Sfrum: 9 waklum: 7s
kamiirum: 6 Mera: 8 puIqum: 1 $ibtum (*w$b): 2 sitttin: 11 waliidum: 4, 78, 11
kiinum: 9 mereStum: 6 $ibtum (* $bt): 5 sizbum: 2s wapiim: 12
kariibum: 5 Meslam: 6 qabiim: 58 $frum: 2 -5U: 12 wardum: 1, 28
kaspum: 3, 38 mimma: 7 qaniim: 88 $ubiitum: 6 Sii: 5 warka: 10
kaSiidum: 3, 4s mimma sumfu: 6 qaqqadum: 5 Subtum: 2 warki: 4
kf'am: 4 mimmiim: 7 qamum: lis sa: 4 suklulum: 6 warqum: 6
kibriitum: 11 mfnum, miniim: 5 qatiim: 9s sadiilum: 6 Sulmum: 2, 4s wariim: 12
kfma: 1 mEYarum: 2 qiitum: 2, 38 sadiim: 9s SuluMum: 10 wiirum: 9
kiriim: 4 mu: Is, 3 qfStum: 2 sakiinum: 3 summa: 3 waSiibum: 4s, 11
KiS: 6 muStiilum: 5 qu"iim: 12 saknum: 2 SumTU$um:9 waS/um: 1
kiSpii: 10 miiSum: 4s, 7 saliimum: 5 sumum: 2, 6s wa,yiim: 12
kiSsatum: 9 mutum: 9 rabiim (adj.): 1, Is salum: 8 Siiqurum: 2 watar: 5
kittum: 4 rabiim (verb): 8 saluStum: 2 Surqum: 8 watiirum: 11
kunukkum: 2 nabalkutum: 12 riibum: 9 samii'ii, samu: 1s,2 Sursudum: 6 wuSsurum: 11
kussiim: 8 nadiinum: 3 ragiimum: 3 SamaS: 3s Suttum: 10
nadUm: 58, 10 rakiisum: 8s sammum: 5s zii'irum: 11
Iii: 48, 5 nakiidum: 7 rapiiSum: 6 samnum:·68 tam~iirum: 1 zakiirum: 3, 6s
labiirum: 9s nakiirum: 10 roSiim: 8 samu: 1s,2 tamkiirum: 4, 108 zamiirum: 7
labiiSum: 5 nakiisum: 3 riiSum: 9 siimum A and B: 9 tarum: 88, 9 Zarpanftum: 5
labfrum: 5 namkiirum: 3 rebUm: 11 sanum: 1 tazzimtum: 8 zazum: 9
llima: 4 napals~um: 12 rediim: 8 sapiirum: 4 tebiim: 8 zerum: 2, 8s
lamiidum: 38, 6 napiStum: 88 re'um: 5 saqiilum: 3 tertum: 6 zerum: 9
lapiitum: 68 naplusum: 7 re'utum: 2 sariikum: 3 tillum: 9 zik (a) rum: 1,98
leqiim: 8 nariim:4 riiibum: 9 sariiqum: 3 zittum: 2
le'um: 12 na.yarum: 3 riiiSum: 9 sarriiqum: 4 tiibum: 78, 8
libbum: 2, IOs naSiim: 12 rfmum A: 1 sarratum: 2 /iibum: 9
lfmum: 28 na/mum: 10 rfmum B: 4
Iii ... Iii: 4 nawiiruin: 11 rittum: 3
 INDEX OF SIGNS 103

~ 3 <t=1 5 LM 4

INDEX OF SIGNS 1" 9 <t:=$ 11

~
5

'f 8 <p 9 ~ 6
(numbers indicate the lesson in which the sign is introduced) ~r-- 1 <t=ri 7 m 11

r-
~q<T 10 <11- 2 l~ 12
8 ~
pt- 6 '-U
6

8
~
t::$
9

6
~r 9 <1>+-11<T6 m 10
(
~ 3 <Tr{1lT 7 t~ 11
~ 3 ~4T 8 P' 6
,qr-- 2 <Tit=- 4 h
~ 3 "Hr 11 rn= 6
.¢m
~
11=TT~
10 <W 4
~ 2
10 ~ 11 ~ 9
A 7 <ff 3 UB 7
I-tT- 1 ~
~ 6 7
.&.;+ffi 7
«< 6 Tt
~ 5 ~ 5 ~ 3
$.4t- 3 T>-- 6 ff 3
'i=IT 12 ~ 9 ~~ 12 )..>r-< TK.«
r¢::T 2
10 1 ff< 7
~ 9 ~ 4
< 8 1-BJ 8 UL§f 11
$ 5 ~ 12 W 10
<tt= 4
~ 7
~ 1 m 8

~ 5 ~ 5 mr 9

~ 6 ~ 1 R'a= 5

t:m 5 ~ 2 tm~ 2

H 9 ~ 2 t::m 11

~ 1 ~ 2 mrr
;-<.f 8
~ 12 tIT
HI< 2 ~ 10 ~ 11

V 4 ~ 11 ~ 8

*1 7 ~ 8 ~ 10

*T~ 3 D
pp
3 ~ 2

1it2f 8 10 ~ 4

,*4 8 ~ 8 sr
Sr-
4

~<T 4 ~ 6 I

~ 8 ~ 11 ~ 4
 SIGN-VALUES 105

kur: 9 NIMIN: §91 sal: 6 sum: 6

KOS: 5 nin: 12 sar: 8
NITA: 9 se: II ta: 5
la: 5 nu: 4 se: 8 tab: II
INDEX OF SIGN-VALUES lab: II nu: 5 si: II tag: 6
, lad: 9 num: 5 si: 8 tal: 4
(numbers without § indicate sign-li~ts in the lessons) i la~: 3 NUMUN: 8
I sib: 6 tam: 3
lam: II SIG4: §87 tar: 8
Ie: 5. pa: 7 si~: 9 taS: 7
a: I di: 4 gi: 8 IGI: 2 I li: 5 pag: 7 SIKIL: 12 te: 9
A: 2 dib: 5 gid: 9 i~: 7 i li: 6 par: 3 SILA: §91 ti: 2
ab: 5 dil: 8 gid: I ii: 2 lib: II pe: 2 SlUM: 4 tit: 9
ABZU: 10 dim: 8 GlORI: 7 IKU: §90 lib: 10 pe: 6 sin: 6 tim: 8
ad: 2 DINGlR: I GIN: II it: 6 lig: 7 pi: 2 sir: I tis: 7
ag: 6 DIS: §85 GiN: II its: 12 li~: 3 pi: 6 sU: 3 tu: 7
a~: 7 du: II gin: 9 im: 3 lit: 9 pid: 9 SU~4:9 tu: 3
al: 4 DOG: 7 giS: 3 in: 10 lim: 2 pil: 10 sum: II TOM: II
am: 3 DUG4: 5 GiS: §85 ina: 8 lu: 5 pir: 3 SUMUN: 9 tur: 2
AMAR: 9 DUMU:2 GlS+u: §85 INIM: 5 LO: II pu: I sun: 9 tuS: 4
an: I dur: 4 giz: 3 ir: 9 lU4:2
ar: 6 GO: §88 ir: 2 LUGAL: II qa: 2 .fa: 3 la: 4
as: 8 e: 8 GO: 5 iri: 12 lum: 2 qad: 3 .fal: 6 la: 5
az: 9 E: I gub: II is: 6 qal: I .fe: 12 (al: 4
eb: 8 GUD: 12 iS8: 8 • ma:4 qam: 10 .fe: 8 lam: 10
ba: 3 ed: 2 gul: 8 ISKUR: 3 mad: 9 qar: 10 #: 12 Ie: 4
BABBAR:3 eg: 3 GUN: §88 m: §87 mar: 10 qe: 4 .fi: 8 Ie: 10
bad: 9 e~: 7 GUR: §91 iu: 2 me: 6 qi: 4 .fit: 4 le4: 9
bag: 7 el: 12 GUSKIN: 3 iz: 3 me: 4 qid: 9 .fu: II Ii: 4
BAN:§9I em: 3 IZI: 10 meS: I qid: I .r": 3 Ii: 2
be: 9 en: 8 ~a: 7 mi:4 qu: 4 .fum: II lit: 8
be: 6 er: 9 ~ad: 7 ka: 5 Mi: 6 qub: II .fur: 9 lu: II
bi: 6 er: 2 ~al: 6 KA: 12 mid: 9 quI: 8
I IU: II
bi: 10 eri: 12 ~e: 7 kal: II mil: 6 qur: 9 sa: 4
bid: I eS: 6 ~i: 7 KALAG: II mim: 6 sa: 10 u: §85
bid: 9 ES: §89 ~ir: 8 kam: 10 mu: 6 ra: I sad: 9 14: 5
bit: 10 ez: 3 ~is: 3 kar: 10 MUNUS: 6 rag: 6 sal: 6 u: 7
bu: I ~u: 7 kas: 6 MUSEN:7 re: 4 sam: 5 U4:3
BOR: §90 ga: 2 kas: 6 re: 12 sar: 8 ud: 3
BOR-gumi: §90 gal: I i: I ke: 4 na:1 ri: 4 SAR: §85 UDU: 5
GAL: 3 i: 6 KESDA:8 nad: 9 ri: 12 sar: II ug: 9
da: 4 gam: 10 i14: 6 ki: 4 ne: 10 rib: II SARxU: §85 UGULA:7
dab: 5 GAR: §89 ia: 2 kid: 9 tie: 6 ru: 5 se: 8 u~: 7
dal: 4 gar: 10 ias: 6 kin: 9 ni: 6 ru: 8 si: 2 ul: 7
dam: 10 gas: 6 ib: 8 ku:4 nid: 9 rum: 8 sib: 6 um: I
dan: II ge: 8 id: 2 KO: 3 NIES: §91 sir: I ur: 7
DANNA:§89 Gf(;: 4 101M: 9 KU4: 7 NIGIOA:§91 sA: 4 sir: 8 ur: 8
dar: 8 GEME: II Ie: t KU6: 7 NIUMMU: §91 sa: 3 su: 3 URU: 12
de: 4 GESTU: 2 ig: 3 ku/: 8 nim: 5 sa~: 9 sub: 5 Us: 9
0\0\
"'0
.. -
~~~rJ~~
 Paradigm of Strong Verb

Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. Imp. Inf. V.Adj. Stat.

G a/u iparras iprus iptaras piirisum purus pariisum parsum paris

a i~abbat 4bat i~~abat ~iibitum ~abat ~abiitum ~abtum ~abit
u irappud irpud irtapud riipidum rupud rapiidum
ipaqqid ipqid iptaqid piiqidum piqid paqiidum paqdum paqid
Gt a/u, a iptarras iptaras iptatras muptarsum pitras pitrusum pitrus
u irtaggum irtagum irtatgum murtagmum ritgum ritgumum ritgum
iptaqqid iptaqid iptatqid muptaqdum pitqid pitqudum pitqud
Gtn a/u, a iptanarras iptarras iptatarras muptarrisum pitarras pitarrusum pitarrus
u irtanappud irtappud irtatappud murtappidum ritappud ritappudum ritappud
iptanaqqid iptaqqid iptataqqid muptaqqidum pitaqqid pitaqqudum pitaqqud
0 uparras uparris uptarris muparrisum purris purrusum purrusum purrus
Ot uptarras uptarris uptatarris mujJtarrisum putarris putarrusum
Otn uptanarras uptarris uptatarris muptarrisum putarris putarrusum putarrus
S usapras usapris ustapris musaprisum supris suprusum suprusum suprus
Stl ustapras uStapris uStatapris mustaprisum sutapris sutaprusum sutaprusum sutaprus
St2 ustaparras ustapris ustatapris mustaprisum sutapris sutaprusum
Stn ustanapras ustapris ustatapris mustaprisum sutapris sutaprusum
N a/u, a, u ipparras ipparis ittapras mupparsum napris naprusum naprusum naprus
ippaqqid ippaqid ittapqid muppaqdum napqid napqudum napqudum napqud
Ntn a/u, a, u ittanapras ittapras *ittatapras muttaprisum itapras itaprusum itaprus
ittanapqid ittapqid *ittatapqid muttapqidum itapqid itapqudum itapqud
So usparras usparris musparrisum suparris suparrusum