Fluid Mechanics:

Fundamentals and Applications

4th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala

Lecture Slides by Mehmet Kanoglu
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Chapter 8

INTERNAL FLOW

McGraw-Hill | 2
Internal flows through pipes, elbows, tees, valves,
etc., as in this oil refinery, are found in nearly
every industry.
3
 Objectives
• Have a deeper understanding of laminar and
turbulent flow in pipes and the analysis of fully
developed flow
• Calculate the major and minor losses associated
with pipe flow in piping networks and determine
the pumping power requirements
• Understand various velocity and flow rate
measurement techniques and learn their
advantages and disadvantages

4
 8–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and
cooling applications and fluid distribution networks.
The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through
a flow section.
We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to the pressure
drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts.
The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping power requirement.

Circular pipes can withstand large pressure differences

between the inside and the outside without undergoing any
significant distortion, but noncircular pipes cannot. 5
Theoretical solutions are obtained only for a few simple cases such as fully
developed laminar flow in a circular pipe.
Therefore, we must rely on experimental results and empirical relations for
most fluid flow problems rather than closed-form analytical solutions.

The value of the average velocity Vavg at some

streamwise cross-section is determined from the
requirement that the conservation of mass
principle be satisfied

The average velocity

for incompressible
flow in a circular pipe
of radius R

Average velocity Vavg is defined

as the average speed through a
cross section. For fully developed
laminar pipe flow, Vavg is half of
the maximum velocity. 6
8–2 ■ LAMINAR AND Laminar flow is encountered when
highly viscous fluids such as oils flow
TURBULENT FLOWS in small pipes or narrow passages.

Laminar: Smooth
streamlines and highly
ordered motion.
Turbulent: Velocity
fluctuations and highly
disordered motion.
Transition: The flow
fluctuates between laminar
and turbulent flows.
Most flows encountered
in practice are turbulent.

The behavior of
colored fluid
Laminar and injected into the
turbulent flow flow in laminar
regimes of and turbulent
7
candle smoke. flows in a pipe.
Reynolds Number At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial
The transition from laminar to turbulent forces, which are proportional to the
flow depends on the geometry, surface fluid density and the square of the fluid
roughness, flow velocity, surface velocity, are large relative to the viscous
temperature, and type of fluid. forces, and thus the viscous forces
cannot prevent the random and rapid
The flow regime depends mainly on the fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent).
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces At small or moderate Reynolds
(Reynolds number). numbers, the viscous forces are large
enough to suppress these fluctuations
and to keep the fluid “in line” (laminar).

Critical Reynolds number, Recr:

The Reynolds number at which the
flow becomes turbulent.
The value of the critical Reynolds
number is different for different
geometries and flow conditions.

The Reynolds number can be

viewed as the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces 8
acting on a fluid element.
For flow through noncircular pipes,
the Reynolds number is based on
the hydraulic diameter

The hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/p

is defined such that it reduces to
ordinary diameter for circular tubes. 9
For flow in a circular pipe:

In the transitional flow

region of 2300  Re  4000,
the flow switches between
laminar and turbulent
seemingly randomly.
10
8–3 ■ THE ENTRANCE REGION
Velocity boundary layer: The region of the flow in which the effects of the
viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.
Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity changes are
significant.
Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the
velocity remains essentially constant in the radial direction.

The development of the velocity boundary layer in a pipe. The developed

average velocity profile is parabolic in laminar flow, but somewhat flatter or 11
fuller in turbulent flow.
Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the point
at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline.
Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region.
Hydrodynamically developing flow: Flow in the entrance region. This is the
region where the velocity profile develops.
Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance
region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged.
Fully developed: When both the velocity profile the normalized temperature
profile remain unchanged.

In the fully developed flow

region of a pipe, the velocity
profile does not change
downstream, and thus the
wall shear stress remains
constant as well. 12
The pressure drop is higher in the entrance regions of a pipe, and the effect of the
entrance region is always to increase the average friction factor for the entire pipe.

The variation of wall shear stress in the flow direction for flow in a pipe 13
from the entrance region into the fully developed region.
Entry Lengths
The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the distance from
the pipe entrance to where the wall shear stress (and thus the friction
factor) reaches within about 2 percent of the fully developed value.

The pipes used in practice are

hydrodynamic usually several times the
entry length for length of the entrance region,
laminar flow and thus the flow through the
pipes is often assumed to be
hydrodynamic
fully developed for the entire
entry length for
length of the pipe.
turbulent flow
This simplistic approach gives
hydrodynamic entry reasonable results for long
length for turbulent pipes but sometimes poor
flow, an approximation results for short ones since it
underpredicts the wall shear
stress and thus the friction
factor. 14
8–4 ■ LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES
We consider steady, laminar, incompressible flow of a fluid with constant
properties in the fully developed region of a straight circular pipe.
In fully developed laminar flow, each fluid particle moves at a constant axial
velocity along a streamline and the velocity profile u(r) remains unchanged in
the flow direction. There is no motion in the radial direction, and thus the
velocity component in the direction normal to the pipe axis is everywhere zero.
There is no acceleration since the flow is steady and fully developed.

Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped differential

fluid element of radius r, thickness dr, and length
dx oriented coaxially with a horizontal pipe in
15
fully developed laminar flow.
 Boundary
conditions

Average velocity

Velocity
profile

Maximim velocity
Free-body diagram of a fluid disk element at centerline
of radius R and length dx in fully developed 16
laminar flow in a horizontal pipe.
Pressure Drop and Head Loss

A pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure

loss, and it is called pressure loss PL.

Darcy
friction
factor
dynamic
pressure

In laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number

only and is independent of the roughness of the pipe surface.
The head loss represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be
raised by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.
17
The relation for pressure
loss (and head loss) is one
of the most general
relations in fluid
mechanics, and it is valid
for laminar or turbulent
flows, circular or
noncircular pipes, and
pipes with smooth or rough
surfaces.

18
 Poiseuille’s
law

For a specified flow rate, the

pressure drop and thus the
required pumping power is
proportional to the length of the
pipe and the viscosity of the fluid,
but it is inversely proportional to
the fourth power of the diameter of
the pipe.

The pumping power requirement

for a laminar flow piping system
can be reduced by a factor of 16 by
doubling the pipe diameter.
The pressure drop P equals the pressure loss PL in the case of a
horizontal pipe, but this is not the case for inclined pipes or pipes
with variable cross-sectional area.
This can be demonstrated by writing the energy equation for steady,
incompressible one-dimensional flow in terms of heads as

20
 Effect of Gravity
on Velocity and
Flow Rate in
Laminar Flow

Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped differential fluid element

of radius r, thickness dr, and length dx oriented coaxially with
21
an inclined pipe in fully developed laminar flow.
22
Laminar Flow in
Noncircular Pipes
The friction factor f relations
are given in Table 8–1 for fully
developed laminar flow in
pipes of various cross
sections. The Reynolds
number for flow in these pipes
is based on the hydraulic
diameter Dh = 4Ac /p, where
Ac is the cross-sectional area
of the pipe and p is its wetted
perimeter

23
 8–5 ■ TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent, and thus it is
important to understand how turbulence affects wall shear stress.
Turbulent flow is a complex mechanism dominated by fluctuations, and
it is still not fully understood.
We must rely on experiments and the empirical or semi-empirical correlations
developed for various situations.
Turbulent flow is characterized by
disorderly and rapid fluctuations of swirling
regions of fluid, called eddies, throughout
the flow.
These fluctuations provide an additional
mechanism for momentum and energy
transfer.
In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies
transport mass, momentum, and energy to
other regions of flow much more rapidly
The intense mixing in turbulent flow than molecular diffusion, greatly enhancing
brings fluid particles at different mass, momentum, and heat transfer.
momentums into close contact and As a result, turbulent flow is associated
thus enhances momentum transfer. with much higher values of friction, heat
24
transfer, and mass transfer coefficients
Water exiting a tube: (a) laminar
flow at low flow rate, (b) turbulent
flow at high flow rate, and (c)
same as (b) but with a short
shutter exposure to capture
individual eddies.

25
 The laminar component: accounts for the
friction between layers in the flow direction
The turbulent component: accounts for the
friction between the fluctuating fluid
particles and the fluid body (related to the
fluctuation components of velocity).

Fluctuations of the velocity component u with

time at a specified location in turbulent flow.

The velocity profile and the variation

of shear stress with radial distance
26
for turbulent flow in a pipe.
Turbulent Shear Stress
turbulent shear stress

Turbulent shear
stress

eddy viscosity or turbulent viscosity:

accounts for momentum transport by
turbulent eddies

Total shear
stress

kinematic eddy viscosity or

kinematic turbulent viscosity
(also called the eddy diffusivity of
momentum). 27
 mixing length lm: related to the average
size of the eddies that are primarily
responsible for mixing

Molecular diffusivity of
momentum v (as well as
µ) is a fluid property, and
its value is listed in fluid
handbooks.
Eddy diffusivity vt (as well
as µt), however, is not a
fluid property, and its
The velocity gradients at the value depends on flow
wall, and thus the wall shear conditions.
stress, are much larger for Eddy diffusivity µt
turbulent flow than they are decreases toward the wall,
for laminar flow, even though becoming zero at the wall.
the turbulent boundary layer Its value ranges from zero
is thicker than the laminar at the wall to several
one for the same value of thousand times the value
free-stream velocity. of the molecular diffusivity
in the core region. 28
Turbulent Velocity Profile The very thin layer next to the wall where
viscous effects are dominant is the viscous
(or laminar or linear or wall) sublayer.
The velocity profile in this layer is very nearly
linear, and the flow is streamlined.
Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer
layer, in which turbulent effects are becoming
significant, but the flow is still dominated by
viscous effects.
Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or
transition) layer, also called the inertial
sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are
much more significant, but still not dominant.
Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer in
the remaining part of the flow in which
turbulent effects dominate over molecular
diffusion (viscous) effects.

The velocity profile in fully developed pipe flow is parabolic in laminar

flow, but much fuller in turbulent flow. Note that u(r) in the turbulent
case is the time-averaged velocity component in the axial direction 29
(the overbar on u has been dropped for simplicity).
 friction velocity

law of the wall

The thickness of the viscous sublayer is proportional to the kinematic

viscosity and inversely proportional to the average flow velocity.

Viscous length; it is used to nondimensionalize the distance y

from the surface.

30
Comparison of the law of
the wall and the
logarithmic-law velocity
profiles with
experimental data for
fully developed turbulent
31
flow in a pipe.
 Velocity
defect law
The deviation of velocity from the centerline value
umax - u is called the velocity defect.

The value n = 7 generally

approximates many flows in
practice, giving rise to the
term one-seventh power-law
velocity profile.

Power-law velocity profiles

for fully developed
turbulent flow in a pipe for
different exponents, and its
comparison with the 32
laminar velocity profile.
The Moody Chart and Its Associated Equations
Colebrook equation (for smooth and rough pipes)

The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends

on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness  /D.

33
The friction factor is minimum for a
smooth pipe and increases with
roughness.

34
The Moody Chart
35
 Observations from the Moody chart
For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds
number, and it is independent of surface roughness.
The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe and increases with
roughness. The Colebrook equation in this case ( = 0) reduces to the
Prandtl equation.

The transition region from the laminar to turbulent regime is indicated by the
shaded area in the Moody chart. At small relative roughnesses, the friction
factor increases in the transition region and approaches the value for
smooth pipes.
At very large Reynolds numbers (to the right of the dashed line on the
Moody chart) the friction factor curves corresponding to specified relative
roughness curves are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are
independent of the Reynolds number. The flow in that region is called fully
rough turbulent flow or just fully rough flow because the thickness of the
viscous sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it
becomes so thin that it is negligibly small compared to the surface
roughness height. The Colebrook equation in the fully rough zone reduces
to the von Kármán equation. 36
At very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor curves on the Moody
chart are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are independent of
the Reynolds number. See Fig. A–12 for a full-page moody chart. 37
In calculations, we should
make sure that we use the
actual internal diameter
of the pipe, which may be
different than the nominal
diameter.

38
 Types of Fluid Flow Problems
1. Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the
pipe length and diameter are given for a specified flow
rate (or velocity)
2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and
diameter are given for a specified pressure drop (or head
loss)
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and
flow rate are given for a specified pressure drop (or head
loss)

The three types of

problems encountered
in pipe flow.
39
To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and
diameter calculations, these explicit relations that are accurate
to within 2 percent of the Moody chart may be used.

All quantities are dimensional and the units simplify to the desired
unit (for example, to m in the last relation) when consistent units
are used. Noting that the Moody chart is accurate to within 15
percent of experimental data, we should have no reservation in
using these approximate relations in the design of piping systems.
40
 Explicit Haaland
equation

The results obtained from this relation are within 2 percent

of those obtained from the Colebrook equation.

An equation was generated by Churchill (1997) that is not only explicit, but
is also useful for any Re and any roughness, even for laminar flow, and
even in the fuzzy transitional region between laminar and turbulent flow.

Explicit
Churchill equation

The difference between the Colebrook and Churchill

equations is less than one percent. 41
8–6 ■ MINOR LOSSES
The fluid in a typical piping system passes
through various fittings, valves, bends,
elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements,
and contractions in addition to the pipes.
These components interrupt the smooth
flow of the fluid and cause additional
losses because of the flow separation and
mixing they induce.
In a typical system with long pipes, these
losses are minor compared to the total
head loss in the pipes (the major losses)
and are called minor losses.
Minor losses are usually expressed in
terms of the loss coefficient KL.
For a constant-diameter section of a
pipe with a minor loss component, the
loss coefficient of the component (such
as the gate valve shown) is determined
by measuring the additional pressure
Head loss due
loss it causes and dividing it by the
to component
dynamic pressure in the pipe.
When the inlet diameter equals outlet
diameter, the loss coefficient of a
component can also be determined by
measuring the pressure loss across the
component and dividing it by the dynamic
pressure:
KL = PL /(V2/2)
When the loss coefficient for a component
is available, the head loss for that
component is

Minor losses are also expressed in terms

of the equivalent length Lequiv
The head loss caused by a
component (such as the angle
valve shown) is equivalent to
the head loss caused by a
section of the pipe whose
length is the equivalent length.
Total head loss (general)

Total head loss (D = constant)

The head loss at the inlet of a pipe

is almost negligible for well-rounded
inlets (KL = 0.03 for r/D > 0.2) but
increases to about 0.50 for sharp-
edged inlets. 44
45
46
47
Graphical
representation of
flow contraction
and the
associated head
loss at a sharp-
edged pipe inlet.

48
The effect of rounding of a pipe inlet on the loss
coefficient.

49
All the kinetic energy of the flow is “lost”
(turned into thermal energy) through
friction as the jet decelerates and mixes
with ambient fluid downstream of a
submerged outlet.

The losses during changes of

direction can be minimized by making
the turn “easy” on the fluid by using
50
circular arcs instead of sharp turns.
(a) The large head loss in a
partially closed valve is due
to irreversible deceleration,
flow separation, and mixing
of high-velocity fluid coming
from the narrow valve
passage.
(b) The head loss through a
fully-open ball valve, on the
other hand, is quite small.
51
8–7 ■ PIPING NETWORKS AND PUMP SELECTION

A piping network in an
industrial facility. For pipes in series, the flow rate is
the same in each pipe, and the total
head loss is the sum of the head
losses in individual pipes.

For pipes in parallel, the

head loss is the same in
each pipe, and the total flow
rate is the sum of the flow
52
rates in individual pipes.
The relative flow rates in parallel pipes are established from
the requirement that the head loss in each pipe be the same.

The flow rate in one of the parallel branches is proportional to its

diameter to the power 5/2 and is inversely proportional to the square
root of its length and friction factor.
The analysis of piping networks is based on two simple principles:
1. Conservation of mass throughout the system must be satisfied. This is
done by requiring the total flow into a junction to be equal to the total flow out
of the junction for all junctions in the system.
2. Pressure drop (and thus head loss) between two junctions must be the
same for all paths between the two junctions. This is because pressure is
a point function and it cannot have two values at a specified point. In practice
this rule is used by requiring that the algebraic sum of head losses in a loop
(for all loops) be equal to zero. 53
Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines

the steady-flow
energy equation

When a pump moves a fluid

from one reservoir to another,
the useful pump head
requirement is equal to the
elevation difference between
the two reservoirs plus the
head loss. 54
The efficiency of the pump–motor
combination is the product of the pump
and the motor efficiencies.

55
Characteristic pump curves for centrifugal pumps, the
system curve for a piping system, and the operating point. 56
Flow rate of cold water
through a shower may
be affected significantly
by the flushing of a
nearby toilet.
57
8–8 ■ FLOW RATE AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
A major application area of fluid mechanics is the determination of the flow rate
of fluids, and numerous devices have been developed over the years for the
purpose of flow metering.
Flowmeters range widely in their level of sophistication, size, cost, accuracy,
versatility, capacity, pressure drop, and the operating principle.
We give an overview of the meters commonly used to measure the flow rate of
liquids and gases flowing through pipes or ducts.
We limit our consideration to incompressible flow.

Measuring the flow rate is usually done by

measuring flow velocity, and many flowmeters
are simply velocimeters used for the purpose
of metering flow.

A primitive (but fairly accurate) way of

measuring the flow rate of water through a
garden hose involves collecting water in a 58
bucket and recording the collection time.
Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes
Pitot probes (also called Pitot tubes) and Pitot-static probes are widely used for
flow speed measurement.
A Pitot probe is just a tube with a pressure tap at the stagnation point that
measures stagnation pressure, while a Pitot-static probe has both a stagnation
pressure tap and several circumferential static pressure taps and it measures both
stagnation and static pressures

(a) A Pitot probe measures stagnation pressure at the nose of the

probe, while (b) a Pitot-static probe measures both stagnation
59
pressure and static pressure, from which the flow speed is calculated.
 Close-up of a Pitot-static probe,
Measuring flow velocity with a
showing the stagnation pressure hole
Pitotstatic probe. (A manometer
and two of the five static
may be used in place of the 60
circumferential pressure holes.
differential pressure transducer.)
Obstruction Flowmeters:
Orifice, Venturi, and
Nozzle Meters
Flowmeters based on this
principle are called obstruction
flowmeters and are widely used
to measure flow rates of gases
and liquids.
Flow through a constriction in a pipe.

61
The losses can be accounted for by incorporating a correction factor called the
discharge coefficient Cd whose value (which is less than 1) is determined
experimentally.

The value of Cd depends on both b and the Reynolds number, and charts and
curve-fit correlations for Cd are available for various types of obstruction meters.

For flows with high Reynolds numbers (Re > 30,000), the value of
Cd can be taken to be 0.96 for flow nozzles and 0.61 for orifices. 62
Common types of obstruction meters.
63
An orifice meter and schematic showing its built-in
pressure transducer and digital readout.

64
The variation of pressure along a flow
section with an orifice meter as
measured with piezometer tubes; the
lost pressure and the pressure recovery
are shown.
65
Positive Displacement Flowmeters
The total amount of mass or volume of a fluid that
passes through a cross section of a pipe over a
certain period of time is measured by positive
displacement flowmeters.
There are numerous types of displacement
meters, and they are based on continuous filling
and discharging of the measuring chamber. They
operate by trapping a certain amount of incoming
fluid, displacing it to the discharge side of the
meter, and counting the number of such
discharge–recharge cycles to determine the total
amount of fluid displaced.

A positive
displacement
flowmeter with
double helical
three-lobe A nutating disk flowmeter. 66
impeller design.
Turbine Flowmeters

(a) An in-line turbine flowmeter to measure liquid flow, with flow from left to right,
(b) a cutaway view of the turbine blades inside the flowmeter, and
(c) a handheld turbine flowmeter to measure wind speed, measuring no flow at
the time the photo was taken so that the turbine blades are visible. The flowmeter
in (c) also measures the air temperature for convenience.

67
Paddlewheel Flowmeters

Paddlewheel flowmeters are low-

cost alternatives to turbine
flowmeters for flows where very
high accuracy is not required.
The paddlewheel (the rotor and
the blades) is perpendicular to the
flow rather than parallel as was the
case with turbine flowmeters.

Paddlewheel flowmeter to
measure liquid flow, with
flow from left to right, and a
schematic diagram of
its operation. 68
Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters)
A simple, reliable, inexpensive, and easy-to-install
flowmeter with reasonably low pressure drop and
no electrical connections that gives a direct reading
of flow rate for a wide range of liquids and gases is
the variable-area flowmeter, also called a
rotameter or floatmeter.
A variable-area flowmeter consists of a vertical
tapered conical transparent tube made of glass or
plastic with a float inside that is free to move.
As fluid flows through the tapered tube, the float
rises within the tube to a location where the float
weight, drag force, and buoyancy force balance
each other and the net force acting on the float is
zero.
The flow rate is determined by simply matching the
position of the float against the graduated flow
scale outside the tapered transparent tube. Two types of variable-area
flowmeters: (a) an ordinary
The float itself is typically either a sphere or a gravity-based meter and (b) a
loose-fitting piston-like cylinder. spring-opposed meter.
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic flowmeters operate using sound waves in the ultrasonic
range ( beyond human hearing ability, typically at a frequency of 1 MHz).
Ultrasonic (or acoustic) flowmeters operate by generating sound waves
with a transducer and measuring the propagation of those waves through
a flowing fluid.
There are two basic kinds of ultrasonic flowmeters: transit time and
Doppler-effect (or frequency shift) flowmeters.

L is the distance between the transducers and K is a constant

The operation of a
transit time ultrasonic
flowmeter equipped
with two transducers. 70
Doppler-Effect
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Doppler-effect
ultrasonic flowmeters
measure the average
flow velocity along the
sonic path.
Ultrasonic clamp-on
flowmeters enable one to
measure flow velocity
without even contacting (or
disturbing) the fluid by
simply pressing a
transducer on the outer
surface of the pipe.

The operation of a Doppler-effect

ultrasonic flowmeter equipped with
a transducer pressed on the outer 71
surface of a pipe.
Electromagnetic Flowmeters
A full-flow electromagnetic flowmeter is a nonintrusive device that consists of a
magnetic coil that encircles the pipe, and two electrodes drilled into the pipe
along a diameter flush with the inner surface of the pipe so that the electrodes
are in contact with the fluid but do not interfere with the flow and thus do not
cause any head loss.
Insertion electromagnetic flowmeters operate similarly, but the magnetic field is
confined within a flow channel at the tip of a rod inserted into the flow.

(a) Full-flow and (b) insertion

electromagnetic flowmeters,

72
Vortex Flowmeters
The flow rate can be determined by generating vortices in the flow by placing an
obstruction in the flow and measuring the shedding frequency. The flow
measurement devices that work on this principle are called vortex flowmeters.
The Strouhal number, defined as St = fd/V, where f is the vortex shedding
frequency, d is the characteristic diameter or width of the obstruction, and V is
the velocity of the flow impinging on the obstruction, also remains constant in this
case, provided that the flow velocity is high enough.

The vortex flowmeter has the

advantage that it has no moving
parts and thus is inherently
reliable, versatile, and very
ccurate (usually 1 percent over a
wide range of flow rates), but it
obstructs the flow and thus
causes considerable head loss.

The operation of a
vortex flowmeter. 73
Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
Thermal anemometers involve an electrically heated sensor and utilize a thermal
effect to measure flow velocity.
Thermal anemometers have extremely small sensors, and thus they can be used
to measure the instantaneous velocity at any point in the flow without appreciably
disturbing the flow.
They can measure velocities in liquids and gases accurately over a wide range—
from a few centimeters to over a hundred meters per second.

A thermal anemometer is called a hot-

wire anemometer if the sensing
element is a wire, and a hot-film
anemometer if the sensor is a thin
metallic film (less than 0.1 µm thick)
mounted usually on a relatively thick
ceramic support having a diameter of
about 50 µm.

The electrically heated sensor

and its support, components of
74
a hot-wire probe.
 Schematic of a thermal
anemometer system.

King’s law

E is the voltage, and the values of the constants a, b, and

n are calibrated for a given probe. Once the voltage is
Thermal
measured, this relation gives the flow velocity V directly.
anemometer probes
with single, double,
and triple sensors to
measure (a) one-, (b)
two-,and (c) three-
dimensional velocity
components
simultaneously.
Laser Doppler Velocimetry
Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), also called laser velocimetry (LV) or laser
Doppler anemometry (LDA), is an optical technique to measure flow velocity at
any desired point without disturbing the flow.
Unlike thermal anemometry, LDV involves no probes or wires inserted into the
flow, and thus it is a nonintrusive method.
Like thermal anemometry, it can accurately measure velocity at a very small
volume, and thus it can also be used to study the details of flow at a locality,
including turbulent fluctuations, and it can be traversed through the entire flow
field without intrusion.

76
A dual-beam LDV system in forward scatter mode.
 LDV equation

 is the wavelength of the laser beam and α is

the angle between the two laser beams
This fundamental relation shows the flow
velocity to be proportional to the frequency.

Fringes that form as a result

of the interference at the
intersection of two laser
beams of an LDV system
(lines represent peaks of A time-averaged
waves). The top diagram is velocity profile in
a close-up view of two turbulent pipe flow
fringes. obtained by an 77
LDV system.
Particle Image Velocimetry
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a double-pulsed laser technique used to
measure the instantaneous velocity distribution in a plane of flow by
photographically determining the displacement of particles in the plane during a
very short time interval.
Unlike methods like hot-wire anemometry and LDV that measure velocity at a
point, PIV provides velocity values simultaneously throughout an entire cross
section, and thus it is a whole-field technique.
PIV combines the accuracy of LDV with the capability of flow visualization and
provides instantaneous flow field mapping.
The entire instantaneous velocity profile at a cross section of pipe can be
obtained with a single PIV measurement.
A PIV system can be viewed as a camera that can take a snapshot of
velocity distribution at any desired plane in a flow.
Ordinary flow visualization gives a qualitative picture of the details of flow.
PIV also provides an accurate quantitative description of various flow quantities
such as the velocity field, and thus the capability to analyze the flow numerically
using the velocity data provided.

78
A PIV system to study flame stabilization.
79
Instantaneous PIV velocity vectors superimposed on a hummingbird
80
in hover. Color scale is from low velocity (blue) to high velocity (red).
 A variety of laser light sources
such as argon, copper vapor,
and Nd:YAG can be used with
PIV systems, depending on the
requirements for pulse duration,
power, and time between
pulses.
Nd:YAG lasers are commonly
used in PIV systems over a
wide range of applications.
A beam delivery system such
as a light arm or a fiber-optic
system is used to generate and
deliver a high-energy pulsed
laser sheet at a specified
thickness.

With PIV, other flow

properties such as vorticity
A three-dimensional PIV system set up and strain rates can also be
to study the mixing of an air jet with obtained, and the details of
cross duct flow. turbulence can be studied. 81
Introduction to Biofluid Mechanics
Biofluid mechanics can cover a number of physiological systems
in the human body but the term also applies to all animal species
as there are a number of basic fluid systems that are essentially
a series of piping networks to transport a fluid (be it liquid or gas
or perhaps both).
If we focus on humans, these fluid systems are the
cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphatic, ocular, and gastrointestinal
to name several.
We should keep in mind that all these systems are similar to
other mechanical piping networks in that the fundamental
constituents for the network include a pump, pipes, valves, and a
fluid.
For our purposes, we will focus more on the cardiovascular
system to demonstrate the basic concepts of a piping network
within a human.

82
The cardiovascular
system.

83
(a) An artist rendering of the
12-cc pulsatile Penn State
pediatric ventricular assist
device with the inlet attached
to the left atrium and the
outlet attached to the
ascending aorta
(b) The direction of blood
through the PVAD.

84
 Particle traces for the
BSM valve configuration
at 250 ms (left column)
and for the CM valve
configuration at 350 ms
(right column) for the 7
mm (top row), 8.2 mm
(middle row), and 11 mm
(bottom row) planes.
These images highlight
the first time step that the
rotational flow pattern is
fully developed. 85
(a) The single shot chamber mimics the closure dynamics of the Bjork-Shiley
Monostrut valve. (b) On the lefthand side is a view of the intact Bjork-Shiley
Monostrut mechanical heart valve. To the right, the modification to the valve
housing is displayed. The window was later filled in with acrylic to maintain 86
similar fluid dynamic patterns and rigidity.
These schematics depict side and
front views of the overall flow
structure generated by the closing
occluder for four successive times.

87
 Three-dimensional
flow structures are
constructed with the
vectors indicating
direction and the color
signifying axial
velocity strength. The
valve closes right to
left, with x = 0
representing the
centerline of the
leaflet. The four plots
show the flow (a) 1
ms before impact, (b)
at impact, (c) 1 ms
following closure, and
(d) 2 ms after closure.
88
Anatomy of the human body. Note the aorta and left and right
common iliac arteries. 89
 Summary
• Introduction
• Laminar and Turbulent Flows
✓ Reynolds Number
• The Entrance Region
✓ Entry Lengths
• Laminar Flow in Pipes
✓ Pressure Drop and Head Loss
✓ Effect of Gravity on Velocity and Flow Rate in Laminar Flow
✓ Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes
• Turbulent Flow in Pipes
✓ Turbulent Shear Stress
✓ Turbulent Velocity Profile
✓ The Moody Chart and Its Associated Equations
✓ Types of Fluid Flow Problems

90
• Minor Losses
• Piping Networks and Pump Selection
✓ Serial and Parallel Pipes
✓ Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines
• Flow Rate and Velocity Measurement
✓ Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes
✓ Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozzle Meters
✓ Positive Displacement Flowmeters
✓ Turbine Flowmeters
✓ Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters)
✓ Ultrasonic Flowmeters
✓ Electromagnetic Flowmeters
✓ Vortex Flowmeters
✓ Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
✓ Laser Doppler Velocimetry
✓ Particle Image Velocimetry
✓ Introduction to Biofluid Mechanics

91