Introduction to Computing Sciences (COS 101) | Mr Isuwa J.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING SCIENCES

(COS 101)

Course Contents:
Computer Operations, Characteristics of computer, Historical development of Computer system;
Generation of Computer systems; Overview of the discipline of computer Science; General Structure
of a computer system; Internal structure of computer Hardware, storage, manipulations, and Retrieval
of Data. computer number system, computer arithmetic, computer data representation schemes, low
and high languages, source and object programs, and translators. Internet and its facilities, basic file
processing concepts. Introduction to Program development, flow charts, and algorithms using BASIC
fundamentals.

Course Coordinator:
Name: Mr. Jeremiah Isuwa
Office: Examination Office, Department of Computer Science
Email: [email protected]

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COURSE OVERVIEW

Welcome to Introduction to Computer Science

This course introduces learners to basic notions in Computer Science and computing. It covers topics
such as the development of the history of computers and computing; the characteristics of computer
systems; the organization of a computer system; the Von Neumann architecture, the history of the
Internet; and basic software applications.

It is designed for learners with little or no experience in computer use

Prerequisites

• The module has no prerequisite. Learners can register for the course in their first year.
• Students MUST at the end of each week submit the completed LAB MANUAL

Materials

Refer to the below listed for more insights.

• Google
• Youtube
• Free Online AI educative platforms

Course Goals

Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:

1. Describe Computers and their types;

2. Distinguish elements of the Von Neumann Architecture;
3. Identify characteristics of Computers that made them useful and indispensable tools of our time;
4. Explain the functioning and application of the Internet; and
5. Use word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation software features effectively
6. Many more . . .

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Unit 0: Module Content:

• Definition of a computer
• Data and Information
• Methods of data representation
• Data processing
Objectives:

0.1 What is a Computer?

A computer is defined as an electronic device designed for storing and processing data, typically in
binary form.

It is capable of:
i. Taking input data through the keyboard (input unit),
ii. Storing the input data in a diskette, hard disk, or other medium,
iii. Processing it in the central processing unit (CPU) and
iv. Giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU).

Figure 1: Computer Capabilities

Now let’s Understand each of the Four (4) units shown above

1. Input:
Input refers to the data or information that a computer receives from various sources. This can include
text entered through a:
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• keyboard,
• mouse clicks,
• images from a camera,
or any other information that the computer uses to perform tasks.

2. Output:
Output is the result of a computer's processing. It includes the information, results, or actions that the
computer presents to the user. This can be displayed on the
• screen,
• printed on paper, or
• heard through speakers,
depending on the type of output.

3. Processing:
Processing is the core function of a computer. It involves the manipulation and transformation of
data or information. The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for executing instructions
and performing tasks, such as calculations, sorting, and running software applications.

4. Storage:
Storage refers to the capability of a computer to save and retain data or information for future use.
Computers have different types of storage, including
• primary storage (RAM) for temporary data access and
• secondary storage (hard drives, solid-state drives) for long-term data retention.
Storage allows computers to store software, documents, and various files.

Now let us Understand the Concepts of ‘Data’ and ‘Information’

Data:
Data refers to raw facts, figures, or symbols that have not been processed or organized in a meaningful
way. It can take various forms, such as numbers, text, images, or sounds. Data on its own lacks context
or significance and may need processing to become useful. e.g.

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• name,
• age,
• complexion,
• school,
• class,
• height etc.

Information: Information is data that has been processed, organized, or presented in a way that makes
it meaningful and useful. When data is analyzed, structured, or contextualized, it becomes information.
Information provides knowledge or answers to questions, enabling people to make informed decisions
or understand a particular subject better. e.g.
• net pay of workers,
• examination results of students,
• list of successful candidates in an examination or interview etc.

0.2 Method of Data Representation

Method of Data Representation refers to the way we express and convey data. It's like the language
computers and people use to communicate information.
Common methods include
• text,
• numbers,
• images, and
• sounds.
Each method is like a different 'language' for data, allowing us to understand and work with
information on a computer."
i. Text Representation: Text representation is used to display and store letters, numbers, and
characters. It's the most basic form of data and is used for documents, emails, code, and more.
Text data is represented using characters and symbols like letters, numbers, and punctuation.

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ii. Numeric Representation: Numeric representation is used for numbers and mathematical
operations. Computers use numeric data to perform calculations and store values. This data
can be integers (whole numbers) or floating-point numbers (numbers with decimal points).

iii. Image Representation: Image representation is used to display and store visual information
such as pictures and graphics. Images are made up of pixels, each containing color
information. Common image formats include JPEG, PNG, and GIF.

iv. Sound Representation: Sound representation is used for audio data, including music and
voice recordings. Computers store sound data as a series of digital samples that represent
changes in air pressure over time. Sound formats include MP3, WAV, and AAC.

v. Video Representation: Video representation is used for moving images. Videos are a
sequence of individual frames, each represented as an image. Video data requires large
amounts of storage and is commonly used in movies, streaming, and video conferencing.

0.3 Data Processing

Data processing:
Is the manipulation and transformation of data into meaningful information. It involves a series of
steps to collect, organize, analyze, and present data in a way that allows for decision-making or
understanding of a specific problem or situation.

0.3.1 Procedures In Data Processing

Here's a brief overview of the steps involved in data processing:

1. Data Collection: This is the initial step where raw data is gathered from various sources. It
can include data entry, sensors, databases, or external data feeds. Data can be in the form of
text, numbers, images, or other formats.

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2. Data Entry and Validation: Data may need to be entered into a computer system and
validated to ensure accuracy and completeness. This process can involve manual input or
automated data capture.

3. Data Storage: Data is often stored in databases, files, or other data storage systems for easy
access and retrieval. Organizing data helps in efficient processing.

4. Data Cleaning and Transformation: Data is cleaned to remove errors and inconsistencies.
Transformation may involve converting data into a common format or performing
calculations to derive new insights.

5. Data Analysis: Data is analyzed using various tools and techniques to extract patterns, trends,
and useful information. This step may involve statistical analysis, machine learning, or data
visualization.

6. Data Presentation: The results of data analysis are presented in a format that is
understandable to humans. This can be through reports, charts, graphs, or dashboards.

7. Decision-Making: The processed information is used to make decisions, whether in

business, science, or other fields. It can provide insights for problem-solving and future
planning.

Data processing is essential in various domains, including business, healthcare, research, and
technology. It enables organizations and individuals to turn raw data into knowledge and make
informed choices.

0.4 End of Module: Laboratory Work

Complete: Week One: Fundamentals of a Computer System

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Unit 1: Module Content:

• Characteristics of a Computer
• Applications of Computers
• Disciplines in Computer Science
• Intersection of Computer Science with Other disciplines.
Objectives:

1.1 Characteristics of a Computer?

Computers have several key characteristics that distinguish them from other devices. Here are the
fundamental characteristics of a computer:

1. Processing Power: Computers are capable of processing and executing instructions at high
speeds. This processing power is provided by the central processing unit (CPU).

2. Storage Capacity: Computers can store vast amounts of data and information, ranging from
text and images to software programs and user files. Storage can be in the form of hard drives,
solid-state drives, and various other storage devices.

3. Accuracy: Computers perform operations with a high degree of accuracy and consistency.
They are not prone to human errors and can execute repetitive tasks reliably.

4. Versatility: Computers can perform a wide range of tasks, from word processing and data
analysis to multimedia editing and gaming. They can be adapted for various applications.

5. Automation: Computers can automate tasks, reducing the need for manual intervention. This
is particularly useful in repetitive and time-consuming processes.

6. Speed: Computers can process data and perform tasks much faster than humans. This speed
is especially advantageous in complex calculations and data analysis.

7. Multitasking: Modern computers are capable of running multiple applications

simultaneously, allowing users to switch between tasks and perform multiple functions
concurrently.
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8. Connectivity: Computers can be connected to networks and the internet, enabling

communication and data exchange between devices and remote systems.

9. Memory: Computers have both primary (RAM) and secondary (storage) memory. RAM
allows for quick data access, while storage memory retains data for the long term.

10. User Interaction: Computers provide various input and output options, allowing users to
interact through keyboards, mice, touchscreens, and displays. Voice and gesture recognition
are also becoming common.

11. Scalability: Many computers can be upgraded or expanded by adding more memory, storage,
or other components to meet changing needs.

12. Software Compatibility: Computers run on software that can be easily updated or replaced,
allowing for new applications and operating systems.

13. Digital Processing: Computers work with digital data in the form of binary code (0s and 1s).
This digital nature allows for efficient data manipulation and storage.

14. Security: Computers can be equipped with security measures to protect data and information
from unauthorized access, malware, and other threats.

15. Reliability: When properly maintained, computers are highly reliable machines. They can
operate for extended periods without significant downtime.

These characteristics make computers versatile and powerful tools used in a wide range of
applications, from personal computing to scientific research, business, and entertainment.

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1.2 Application of Computers?

The importance of computer applications in our daily lives cannot be overstated. Computers have
become indispensable tools that streamline and enhance numerous aspects of our existence. In
personal and professional domains, they enable efficient communication, information access, and
productivity.
From managing finances and healthcare records to facilitating education and research, computers have
revolutionized how we conduct our daily affairs.
Their impact on society extends far and wide, shaping the way we work, learn, and interact, and
underlining their enduring significance. Here are some common applications of computers:

1. Business and Finance:

• Accounting and financial management
• Inventory and supply chain management
• Data analysis and market research
• Online banking and e-commerce
2. Education:
• Online learning and virtual classrooms
• Educational software and simulations
• Research and data analysis for academic studies
3. Healthcare:
• Electronic health records (EHRs)
• Medical imaging and diagnostics
• Drug discovery and research
• Telemedicine and remote patient monitoring
4. Entertainment and Media:
• Video games and game development
• Video and audio editing
• Streaming services
• Digital art and animation
5. Science and Research:

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• Data analysis and modeling

• Simulations and experiments
• Space exploration and climate modeling
• Bioinformatics and genomics
6. Communication:
• Email and instant messaging
• Social media platforms
• Video conferencing and collaboration tools
7. Manufacturing and Engineering:
• Computer-aided design (CAD)
• Process automation and control
• Quality control and testing
8. Government and Administration:
• Record-keeping and data management
• Geographical information systems (GIS)
• Defense and national security applications
9. Agriculture:
• Precision agriculture and crop management
• Weather forecasting and climate monitoring
10. Transportation:
• Traffic control and management systems
• GPS navigation and route optimization
11. Environmental Monitoring:
• Air and water quality monitoring
• Wildlife tracking and conservation efforts
12. Personal Use:
• Word processing and document creation
• Internet browsing and communication
• Entertainment and social networking

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1.3 Disciplines in Computer Science?

1.3.1 What is Computer Science?

Computer science is the study of computers and the principles that underlie them. It's like learning
the language of computers.
Is the scientific and mathematical approach to computation, specifically to the design of computing
machines and processes. Computer Science is concerned with the application of scientific principles
to the design, construction, and maintenance of systems based upon the use of computers.

1.3.2 Who is a Computer Scientist?

A computer scientist is a professional who specializes in the study and application of computer science,
which is the scientific and practical approach to computing and information technology. Computer
scientists are involved in various aspects of computer technology, including designing, developing,
and analyzing software and hardware systems, as well as solving complex problems related to
computation.

1.3.3 Disciplines in Computer Science

1. Software Development: Creating and maintaining software applications, algorithms, and
computer programs to perform specific tasks.
2. Hardware Development: Designing and building computer hardware components, such as
processors, memory, and input/output devices.
3. Data Analysis and Machine Learning: Applying data analysis and machine learning techniques
to extract insights and patterns from data.
4. Networks and Security: Managing and securing computer networks and information systems to
protect against cyber threats.
5. Artificial Intelligence and Robotics: Researching and developing AI algorithms and robotic
systems for various applications.
6. Database Management: Designing, implementing, and managing databases for efficient data
storage and retrieval.
7. Theoretical Computer Science: Engaging in theoretical research to advance the fundamental
principles of computation.

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8. Software Engineering: Developing methodologies and best practices for software development,
including project management and quality assurance.

1.3.4 Intersection of Computer Science with Other fields

Computer science intersects with a wide range of other disciplines, and these intersections have led to
significant advancements in various fields. Here are some notable intersections of computer science
with other disciplines:

1. Bioinformatics: Computer science is used to analyze and model biological data, enabling
advancements in genomics, proteomics, and drug discovery.
2. Computational Linguistics: It applies computer science techniques to study human language,
leading to developments in natural language processing and machine translation.
3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Computer science and geography intersect in GIS,
which is used for mapping, spatial analysis, and urban planning.
4. Digital Humanities: Computer science tools are applied to analyze and preserve cultural heritage,
historical records, and literature.
5. Astronomy: Astronomers use computational techniques for data analysis, simulations, and the
study of the universe.
6. Environmental Science: Computer science is vital for modeling and simulating complex
environmental systems and analyzing climate data.
7. Economics and Finance: Computational methods are used for modeling economic systems, risk
analysis, and high-frequency trading.
8. Psychology and Cognitive Science: Computer science contributes to the study of human
cognition, artificial intelligence, and human-computer interaction.
9. Education: EdTech uses computer science to develop e-learning platforms, adaptive learning
systems, and online educational resources.
10. Music and Arts: Computer science is used in music composition, digital art, and the creation of
interactive installations.
11. Transportation and Urban Planning: Traffic management, smart cities, and autonomous
vehicles rely on computer science and data analysis.

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12. Environmental Conservation: Computer science is used for wildlife tracking, ecological
modeling, and conservation efforts.
13. Social Sciences: It aids in data analysis and modeling of social and behavioral patterns.

Figure 2: Intersection of Computer Science with other disciplines

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Unit 2: Module Content:

• Historical Development of the Computer System

• Generations of Computers
Objectives:

2.1 Historical Development of the Computer System?

Even before humans could read or write, they needed to count. First, they used their fingers, but when
they had to deal with figures over ten, a counting device became necessary. Pebbles and bits of wood
arranged on the ground were used to count goods and to figure prices.
The word computer was initially used to refer to human beings that perform calculations.

Figure 3: When humans do the tasks that a computer now do

2.1.1 Brief History

The historical development of the computer system has evolved through various stages, each marked
by technological innovations.

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It all began with simple counting devices like the abacus, which were used for arithmetic calculations
as early as 3000 BCE.

An Abacus

These early mechanical tools, though basic, laid the foundation for more complex computing
machines. Fast forward to the mid-20th century, and we witnessed the emergence of the First
Generation of computers. These early machines, such as ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer), were enormous and relied on vacuum tube technology, enabling complex calculations
but being bulky and prone to technical issues.

An ENAIC

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This period marked the inception of digital computing, which has since evolved through the Second,
Third, Fourth, and Fifth Generations, characterized by developments like transistors,
microprocessors, integrated circuits, and the miniaturization of components. These advancements
have led to the powerful, compact, and versatile computers that are integral to our lives today,
showcasing the remarkable journey of computer system development.

2.1.2 The Von Nuemann Machine/Architecture

The Von Neumann Machine, also known as the Von Neumann Architecture, is a foundational
concept in computer science and architecture. It was developed by the mathematician and computer
scientist John von Neumann in the 1940s.
The Von Neumann Architecture is the basis for nearly all modern computers, from desktops and
laptops to smartphones and servers. It offers a flexible and efficient approach to computing, where
data and instructions can be stored and manipulated in a unified memory system, making it possible
to execute a wide variety of tasks and run different programs on a single machine.
This architecture serves as the basis for most modern computers and is characterized by the following
key features:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the core component responsible for executing
instructions and performing calculations. It includes the Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU).

2. Memory: Memory in a Von Neumann machine is used to store both data and program
instructions. This is in contrast to earlier computer designs that used separate memory units for
data and instructions.

3. Stored-Program Concept: In a Von Neumann machine, both data and program instructions are
stored in memory, and the CPU can access and manipulate both. This concept allows for great
flexibility in programming and the ability to change a computer's behavior by loading different
instructions.

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4. Fetch-Execute Cycle: The CPU follows a sequence of steps called the "fetch-execute cycle." It
fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, executes the instructions, and then stores the
results back in memory.

5. Sequential Execution: Instructions are executed one after another in a sequential manner, which
is the fundamental principle of Von Neumann's architecture.

6. Binary Representation: Data and instructions are represented in binary form, which is the
language that computers understand.

7. Control Unit: The Control Unit manages the execution of instructions, directing the flow of data
between memory and the ALU, and ensuring that instructions are executed in the correct order.

8. Address Bus and Data Bus: The architecture uses separate buses for addressing memory
(address bus) and transferring data (data bus) between memory and the CPU.

Figure X: The Von Neumann Architecture

2.2 Generations of Computers

The word generation is usually associated with the stage of computer development with a particular
sort of technological innovation. Each innovation makes available certain techniques that were not
available in the past. Computers were thus classified based on generations.

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1. First Generation (1940s-1950s):

In the 1940s, the first-generation computers were developed using vacuum tubes for electronic
components.
The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), built in 1945, was one of the first
general-purpose electronic digital computers.
These early computers were large, slow, and consumed a lot of power.

Figure 4: Vacuum Tubes

2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s):

In the 1950s, transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and more reliable.
The IBM 1401 and UNIVAC 1107 are notable examples from this era.
Magnetic core memory was introduced for data storage, and assembly language programming became
more common.

Figure 4: Transistors

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3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s):

The 1960s saw the development of integrated circuits (ICs) and the invention of microchips, leading
to smaller and more powerful computers.
The IBM System/360, introduced in 1964, was a significant example of this generation.
High-level programming languages like FORTRAN and COBOL made programming more
accessible.

Figure 5: Integrated Circuit

4. Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s):

Microprocessors, which combined CPU functions on a single chip, were introduced in the early 1970s.
Personal computers (PCs) emerged, with the Intel 4004 microprocessor (1971) being a key
component.
The Apple II (1977) and IBM PC (1981) brought computing to homes and businesses.

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Figure 6: Microprocessors

5. Fifth Generation (1980s-Present):

The fifth generation brought advancements in parallel processing, artificial intelligence, and expert
systems.
Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and the development of the World Wide Web in the late 20th century
made computing more user-friendly and accessible.
Modern computers use multi-core processors, solid-state drives, and cloud computing for enhanced
performance and connectivity.

Figure 7: Artificial Intelligence

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Unit 3: Module Content:

• Computer Operations
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The Storage
Objectives:

3.1 Computer Operations

3.1.1 Functional Units of a Computer

The functional units of a computer are essential components that work together to execute
instructions and perform various tasks. These units are responsible for different aspects of computing
and play distinct roles in the overall operation of a computer.

A computer is a device that operates upon information or data. It is an electronic device that accepts
input data, stores the data, does arithmetic and logic operations, and outputs the information in the
desired format.

Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability, and cost of computers have been changing over
the years, the basic logical structure proposed by Von Neumann has not changed. The internal
architecture of computers differs from one system model to another. A block diagram of the basic
computer organization specifying different functional units is shown below. Here the solid lines
indicate the flow of instruction and data and the dotted lines represent the control exercised by the
control unit. The primary functional units of a computer are as follows:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

• The CPU is the core of the computer, responsible for executing instructions and performing
calculations.
• It consists of the Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
• The CU manages the execution of instructions and data flow, while the ALU performs
arithmetic and logical operations.

2. Memory Unit:

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• The memory unit includes both primary memory (RAM) and secondary memory (storage
devices like hard drives or SSDs).
• Primary memory provides temporary storage for data and program instructions currently in
use by the CPU.
• Secondary memory stores data and programs for long-term use.

3. Input Unit:
• The input unit collects data and instructions from external sources or user input.
• Input devices like keyboards, mice, and touchscreens allow users to interact with the computer
and provide data for processing.

4. Output Unit:
• The output unit is responsible for delivering results to the user or external devices.
• Output devices like monitors, printers, and speakers present the processed information in a
usable format.

Figure 8: Functional Units of a Computer

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3.1.2 Relationship among the four units of a computer

The four functional units of a computer — the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Memory Unit, Input
Unit, and Output Unit — are intricately interconnected to create a harmonious computing system.
The CPU, often considered the computer's "brain," processes instructions and data from the Memory
Unit. It communicates with the Input Unit to receive user input or data from external sources and
generates output through the Output Unit. Memory serves as the bridge between these units,
temporarily storing data and program instructions for the CPU to access. This close relationship allows
for seamless data transfer and processing, ensuring that users can interact with the computer
effectively. Together, these functional units enable the computer to perform a wide range of tasks,
from executing programs and calculations to presenting results in a user-friendly manner.

Figure 9: Functional Units of a Computer

3.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) in a computer can be thought of as the "brain" of the system. It's
the component responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. Just like our brains
process thoughts and solve problems, the CPU processes data and runs programs. It consists of two
main parts: the Control Unit (CU), which manages the flow of data and instructions, and the
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs mathematical and logical operations. Essentially, the

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CPU is where all the "thinking" and computation take place in a computer, making it a critical
component for any computing task.

Figure 10: The Central Processing Unit

3.2.1 Components of the CPU

These CPU components work together seamlessly to process data, execute instructions, and perform
all the tasks that make your computer run smoothly.

1. Control Unit (CU): Think of the Control Unit as the "traffic cop" of the CPU. It manages
the flow of data and instructions inside the computer. It decodes instructions, directs where
data should go, and controls the execution of tasks.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is like the "math wizard" of the CPU. It performs
all the mathematical and logical operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and comparisons. It's where the actual calculations happen.

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3.2.2 Relationship between the CPU and Storage (Memory)

The relationship between the CPU (Central Processing Unit) and memory is crucial to a computer's
operation. The CPU needs to access and interact with memory to perform tasks. Here's a simplified
explanation:
The CPU is like the "brain" of the computer, responsible for executing instructions and calculations.
It constantly needs data and instructions to work with. Memory, which includes RAM (Random
Access Memory), is like the computer's "short-term memory." It provides a space where the CPU can
quickly access and store the data and program instructions it needs.
When the CPU runs a program, it fetches instructions and data from memory, processes them, and
then stores the results back in memory. This back-and-forth interaction between the CPU and memory
is fundamental to the computer's functioning. A computer with faster memory and efficient data
access can perform tasks more quickly, making the CPU's job smoother and the computer more
responsive.

3.3 The Storage

Computer storage is like the digital memory of your computer. It's where your computer keeps all the
data, files, and programs. There are two main types of computer storage:

1. Primary Storage: Primary storage is also known as RAM (Random Access Memory). Think of it
as your computer's "working memory." When you open a program or file, it's loaded into RAM
so the CPU can quickly access and work with it. RAM is fast but temporary; when you turn off
your computer, everything in RAM is gone.

Figure 11: The Random Access Memory

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2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is where your computer keeps data for the long term. This
includes your hard drive or SSD (Solid State Drive). These are like the "bookshelves" of your
computer, where you store documents, pictures, music, and software. Unlike RAM, data in
secondary storage stays even when you turn off your computer.

Figure 12: Secondary Memories

Summarily,
• Primary storage (RAM) is for quick access and processing, and
• Secondary storage (hard drive or SSD) is for keeping everything safe and accessible whenever
you need it.

3.3.1 Characteristics of the Primary Memory (RAM)

1. Working Memory: RAM is like the computer's "working memory." It's where the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) stores the data and program instructions that it's currently using. This allows the
CPU to access this data quickly, which is essential for smooth and efficient operation.

2. Speed: RAM is incredibly fast, much faster than secondary storage devices like hard drives or
SSDs. This speed is crucial for tasks that require rapid data access, such as running software
applications, web browsing, and multitasking.
3. Volatile: Unlike secondary storage, RAM is volatile, which means it loses all its data when the
computer is turned off or restarted. This is why it's called "temporary" storage. It's ideal for holding
data that you're actively using but not for long-term data storage.

4. Determines Performance: The amount and speed of RAM in a computer have a significant
impact on its performance. Having more RAM allows a computer to run more applications
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simultaneously without slowing down, and it reduces the need for the CPU to continuously access
data from slower secondary storage.

5. Upgradeable: In many cases, you can upgrade your computer's RAM by adding more modules
or replacing existing ones with larger ones. This can improve your computer's performance,
especially if you find it becoming slow when running multiple applications.

6. Other Examples: Cache Memory, Registers, ROM (Read-Only Memory), and Flash Memory.

3.3.2 Characteristics of the Secondary Memory (Hard drives and SSDs)

1. Long-Term Storage: Secondary storage serves as your computer's long-term memory. It's where
you store all your files, documents, applications, and the operating system. Data on secondary
storage remains intact even when you turn off your computer.

2. Types:
• Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Traditional hard drives use spinning disks to store data. They offer
high storage capacity but are relatively slower than SSDs.
• Solid State Drives (SSDs): SSDs use flash memory to store data. They are significantly faster and
more durable than HDDs, making them a popular choice for modern computers.

3. Speed vs. Capacity: HDDs provide larger storage capacity at a lower cost, but they are slower in
terms of data access. SSDs, on the other hand, offer much faster data access but may be more
expensive for the same capacity.

4. Durability: SSDs are more durable than HDDs because they have no moving parts. This makes
them less susceptible to damage from shocks or drops.

5. Boot Times and Application Launch: Computers with SSDs tend to boot up more quickly and
launch applications faster compared to those with HDDs. SSDs are known for their speed in read
and write operations.

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6. Upgrading: Many computers allow you to upgrade or replace secondary storage. This is a
common practice to improve performance and increase storage space.

7. Backup and Data Security: Secondary storage is essential for backing up important data. Regular
backups ensure that your data is safe in case of hardware failure or other unforeseen events.

8. Data Organization: You can create folders and directories to organize your files on secondary
storage, making it easy to locate and manage your data.

9. Other Examples: External Hard Drives, Network Attached Storage (NAS), Optical Discs (CDs,
DVDs, Blu-ray), USB Flash Drives, Memory Cards (e.g., SD cards, microSD cards), Tape Drives,
Cloud Storage, Network-Attached Storage (NAS), RAID Arrays (Redundant Array of
Independent Disks).

3.4 End of Module: Laboratory Work

Complete: Week Four: Input and Output Devices

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Unit 4: Module Content:

• Classifications of Computers
• Hardware and Softwares
• Programming languages
Objectives:

4.1 Computer Operations

Computers can be classified into various categories based on their:

1. Types,
2. Size and
3. Purpose,

4.1.1 Classification Based on Types

i. Analog
ii. Digital
iii. Hybrid

These three classifications of computers based on data representation and processing techniques serve
different purposes and have unique advantages and limitations. Digital computers are the most
common and versatile, while analog computers are specialized for continuous data, and hybrid
computers bridge the gap between the two, offering the best of both analog and digital worlds.

i. Analog Computers:
• Analog computers are designed to process continuous data, often in the form of physical
quantities like voltage, pressure, or temperature.
• They use analog components, such as analog circuits and sensors, to represent and manipulate
data.
• Analog computers are well-suited for tasks like modeling physical systems, control systems,
and scientific simulations where the input and output data are continuously varying.
• However, they are less common today and have largely been replaced by digital computers for
most applications due to limitations in precision and flexibility.

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• Examples Include: Analog Oscilloscope, Analog Hygrometer, Analog Thermometer

Analog Thermometer

ii. Digital Computers:

• Digital computers are the most prevalent type of computer and are based on the binary
number system (0 and 1).
• They use digital components, such as transistors and microprocessors, to process discrete data
and execute instructions in a sequential, logical manner.
• Digital computers are versatile and can perform a wide range of tasks, from calculations and
data processing to running software applications and games.
• They are highly accurate, and reliable, and offer precise control over data and operations,
making them suitable for various applications in business, science, and daily life.
• Examples Include: Desktop Computers, Laptops, Tablets, Smartphones, Digital Watches.

Digital Computer

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iii. Hybrid Computers:

• Hybrid computers combine features of both analog and digital computers to optimize
performance for specific applications.
• They use analog components for some functions and digital components for others.
• Hybrid computers are often employed in tasks where analog data needs to be converted into
digital form for processing and vice versa. For example, they are used in real-time control
systems and scientific experiments.
• The combination of analog and digital elements allows hybrid computers to provide the
benefits of both worlds, offering accuracy, speed, and adaptability.
• Examples Include: Digital Multimeters, Flight Control Systems, Medical Monitoring Equipment

Digital Multimeter

4.1.2 Classification Based on Purpose

Computers can be classified into two broad categories based on their intended use:
i. Special-purpose computers and
ii. General-purpose computers.

Special-purpose computers excel at specific tasks but lack the flexibility of general-purpose computers,
which are designed to handle a broad spectrum of applications and user needs.

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1. Special-Purpose Computers:
i. Single-Task Devices: Special-purpose computers are designed to perform specific tasks or
functions. They are optimized for a single application and are not easily adaptable to other
tasks.

ii. Customized Hardware and Software: These computers often feature specialized hardware
components and software tailored to the specific task they are designed for.

iii. Examples:
• Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Designed for processing digital signals in applications like
audio and image processing.
• Point-of-Sale (POS) Terminals: Used in retail for transaction processing.
• GPS Navigation Systems: Built for GPS data processing and mapping.
• Gaming Consoles: Optimized for playing video games.

2. General-Purpose Computers:
i. Multi-Tasking Capabilities: General-purpose computers are versatile and capable of
performing a wide range of tasks. They can run various software applications and are not
limited to a single function.
ii. Standard Hardware and Software: They use standardized hardware components and
general-purpose operating systems that allow users to install and run a variety of software.
iii. Examples:
• Personal Computers (PCs): Including desktops, laptops, and tablets, these are used for a wide
range of tasks, from web browsing and word processing to gaming and programming.
• Servers: General-purpose servers can be used for tasks like hosting websites, managing
databases, and providing network services.
• Workstations: These are used for demanding tasks like 3D modeling, scientific simulations, and
software development.
• Smartphones: While they serve specific communication and entertainment functions, they are
also general-purpose devices with a wide range of apps.

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4.1.3 Classification Based on Size

Computers can be classified based on their sizes:

i. Super
ii. Mainframe
iii. Mini and
iv. Micro

These categories are based on factors such as processing power, scale, and primary applications. Each
type of computer serves specific needs, from highly specialized tasks to general-purpose computing
for individuals and organizations.

1. Supercomputers:
i. Purpose: Supercomputers are designed for high-speed and complex computational tasks,
such as scientific simulations, weather forecasting, and nuclear research.
ii. Performance: They are the most powerful and fastest computers available, with massive
processing capabilities.
iii. Examples: IBM Summit, Fugaku, and the Cray XT5.

Super Computers

2. Mainframe Computers:
i. Purpose: Mainframes are used in large organizations for data processing, business-critical
applications, and database management.

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ii. Performance: They offer high reliability, redundancy, and support multiple users
concurrently.
iii. Examples: IBM zSeries, UNISYS ClearPath, and HPE NonStop.

Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputers:
i. Purpose: Minicomputers are less powerful than mainframes but still capable of handling
significant data processing and applications.
ii. Performance: They offer mid-range performance and are often used in scientific and
industrial settings.
iii. Examples: DEC PDP series and VAX series, Data General Nova.

Mini Computers

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4. Microcomputers (Personal Computers):

i. Purpose: Microcomputers are designed for individual use and a wide range of tasks, from
word processing to gaming.
ii. Performance: They are generally less powerful than supercomputers, mainframes, and
minicomputers but are highly versatile and accessible.
iii. Examples: Desktop computers like the Apple iMac, Dell Inspiron, and laptop computers like
the Lenovo ThinkPad, and home PCs.

Micro Computers

4.2 Computer Hardware and Software

4.2.1 Hardware:
Is the name given to all physical devices found in a computer system. All physical contents of the
computer are hardware. This form is given to all electrical and mechanical devices attached to the
computer for input, process, storage, and output operations.
i. Primary Hardware: is the CPU and its other units i.e. circuits and ICs.
ii. Secondary Hardware: is the memory or storage area of a computer.

4.2.1 Software
Is a general term used for computer Programs. A computer program is a planned, step-by-step set of
instructions that directs the computer on what to do and how to do it. It turns the data into
information - that makes a computer useful.

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Generally speaking, software can be categorized as:

i. Application Software
ii. System Software

1. Application Softwares
Application software are programs that help a user perform a specific job. For example, application
software enables a user to write a letter or create a drawing. Some examples of application software
include spreadsheets, database systems, desktop publishing systems, program development software,
and games. Application software is generally what we think of when someone speaks of computer
programs. This software is designed to solve a particular problem for users. It helps the user work
faster, and more efficiently and thus provides more productivity than manual performance.

Types of Application Software

Application software can be grouped into two broad categories.
i. General Purpose Softwares
ii. Special/Specific Pursose Softwares

i. General Purpose Softwares

These are called package software or commercial software. A single software can be applied to a wide
variety of tasks. By using such software a user can fulfill his or her general needs. General purpose
software includes MS Office, Corel Draw, Page maker, Adobe Photo shop, etc.

ii. Special Purpose Softwares

The software that is designed to perform a specific task is known as special-purpose application
software. This is also called Custom software. The Software can perform only one task for which it
has been designed. Custom software for the tasks of a large organization may be extremely complex
and take a lot of time to develop. For example, Software to process inventory

2. System Softwares
System software acts as an interface between the hardware of the computer and the application
software that users need to run on the computer. The diagram below illustrates the relationship
between application software and system software.

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System software falls into the following categories:

i. Operating System
ii. Language Translators

i. Operating System
Operating systems are the most important system software. An operating system is a set of programs
that control and supervise the hardware of a computer and provide services to application software,
programmers, and users of the computer. Without an operating system, a computer cannot do
anything useful. A user cannot communicate directly with the computer hardware, so the operating
system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and the computer hardware. The
primary goal of an operating system is to make the computer convenient to use. The secondary goal
is to use the computer efficiently. An operating system has the following main responsibilities:

• Managing Hardware Resources: The operating system manages the computer's hardware
components, including the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM), disk drives, and
peripheral devices. It allocates these resources to different programs and ensures they operate
efficiently.

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• Process Management: It oversees the execution of multiple programs or processes. This

involves starting, pausing, resuming, and terminating processes to ensure they run smoothly
without interfering with each other.
• Memory Management: The operating system manages system memory (RAM) to ensure that
programs have the necessary memory to run. It allocates and deallocates memory as needed and
uses techniques like virtual memory to optimize memory usage.
• File System Management: It handles files and directories, allowing users to create, read, write,
and delete files. The operating system also manages file access permissions and organizes data on
storage
• User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that allows users to interact with
the computer. This can be a graphical user interface (GUI) or a command-line interface (CLI).
• Security: It enforces security measures to protect the system from unauthorized access and data
breaches. This includes user authentication, access control, and encryption.
• Error Handling: It detects and handles errors and exceptions, preventing system crashes and
ensuring that programs continue to run in case of minor issues.
• Task Scheduling: The OS schedules tasks and processes to make efficient use of the CPU. It
ensures
• Examples: Windows, Unix, Linux, Solaris, Apple, etc.

ii. Language Translators

The computer does not understand a programming language, because the computer only knows the
machine language or binary language. A program must be translated into machine language before the
machine can execute it. Software associated with programming languages includes language translators
such as assemblers, interpreters, and compilers.
• Interpreters:
o Interpreters are software programs that read, analyze, and execute high-level source code line
by line.
o They directly translate source code into machine code or an intermediate code and execute it
immediately.
o Interpreters are commonly used in languages like Python and JavaScript for fast code
development, testing, and debugging.

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• Compilers:
o Compilers are software tools that translate entire high-level source code into machine code or
an intermediate form before execution.
o They perform an analysis and translation of the entire code at once, resulting in an executable
file.
o Compilers are used in languages like C and C++ to produce efficient, standalone applications.
• Assemblers:
o Assemblers are a specific type of translator that converts low-level assembly language code
into machine code.
o They translate human-readable assembly instructions and symbolic names into binary code
directly executable by a computer's central processing unit (CPU).
o Assemblers are critical for low-level programming and hardware control, commonly used in
embedded systems development and operating system kernels

4.3 Programming Languages

Languages are used to communicate between different entities. Computer language makes it possible
to talk to the computers and ask the computer to perform specific work. Computer language produces
programs that are executed by the CPU, and then the CPU instructs all the other parts of computers
to perform work accordingly. Computers only understand programs in their machine language.
Machine language is the language of 0’s and 1’s. It is difficult to write programs in machine language
so what is the solution to this dilemma? The answer is in what are called high-level languages i.e.
Computer programming languages that look like natural language.

4.3.1 Machine Language

Machine language, also known as machine code, is a low-level programming language that is directly
understood and executed by a computer's central processing unit (CPU). It consists of a series of
binary digits (0s and 1s) that represent individual instructions and data for the computer.

Key points about machine language:

i. Lowest-Level Language: Machine language is the lowest-level programming language. Each
instruction corresponds to a specific operation that the computer's hardware can perform.

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ii. Binary Representation: Instructions in machine language are represented in binary form,
which is the native language of computers. For example, the instruction to add two numbers
might be represented as a sequence of 0s and 1s that the CPU can understand.

An illustration of a Machine Code

4.3.2 High-Level Languages (HLL)

HLLs are programming languages that look like natural language text. Their advantages are:
i. They make programming easier and more abstract, i.e. the programmer does not need to come
up with detailed machine instructions
ii. HLL programs are machine-independent. They can run on different hardware platforms (i.e.
different computers with different instruction sets):

Computer hardware can only understand machine language, therefore a high-level construct to a low-
level machine language translator, or compiler, is needed.

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An illustration of a compiler

To run a HLL program on a specific machine, it has to be translated into its machine language. This
is done through the use of a compiler. A Compiler is a program that translates a HLL program to a
machine language program of a specific platform. The Machine language program produced by the
compiler is usually referred to as the executable program. Hence by using the appropriate compiler,
we can execute our HLL programs on any platform. Different types of high-level programming
languages.
• Python,
• Java
• C++ etc.

An illustration of Python codes

4.4 Source Program Vs. Object Program

Source programs and object programs are two types of programs found in computer programming.
A source program is typically a program with human-readable machine instructions written by a
programmer. An object program is typically a machine executable program created by compiling a
source program.

1. Source Program
A source program is code written by a programmer usually using a higher-level language, which is
easily readable by humans. Source programs usually contain meaningful variable names and helpful

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comments to make them more readable. A source program cannot be directly executed on a machine.
To execute it, the source program is compiled using a compiler (a program, which transforms source
programs to executable code).

2. Object Program
An object program is usually a machine executable file, which is the result of compiling a source file
using a compiler. Apart from machine instructions, they may include debugging information, symbols,
stack information, relocation, and profiling information. Since they contain instructions in machine
code, they are not easily readable by humans.

4.5 End of Module: Laboratory Work

1. Complete: Week Two: The Operating System
2. Complete: Week Three: Application Systems

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Unit 5: Module Content:

• The Motherboard
• Computer Data Representation Schemes
Objectives:

5.1 The Computer Motherboard

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer. A motherboard
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video cards, sound cards, and other ports and
expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

5.1.1 Description of the Motherboard

The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-
drilled holes. The motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides
a single socket for the CPU whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available.
Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drives, hard drives, and optical drives via ribbon cables.
The motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply. There is a peripheral card
slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can
be connected to the motherboard. On the left side, motherboards carry several ports to connect
monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB
ports which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in plug-out fashion, for example, pen
drives, digital cameras, etc.

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The Motherboards

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5.1.2 Components of a Motherboard

The computer motherboard comprises many components which include:

1. Clock Generator: is a component responsible for generating the clock signal of the system
bus and front side bus clock of the motherboard. It controls the speed of components on the
motherboard.

2. Cpu Socket: this is a slot into which the processor (CPU) can be inserted.

3. Memory Socket (Dimm (Dual Inline Memory Module) )Socket): This is a slot into which
the RAM can be inserted.

4. Rom Bios: BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is a component that holds the startup
instructions. BIOS will start to work immediately when the PC is powered on, BIOS will make
the hardware ready and the IO (input-output devices) works at the initial state, Floppy disk

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and CD-ROM able to read and boot, PC can detect the installed hard disk, the screen able to
display, all this will help us to be able to install the Operating System or install Windows.

5. Cmos Ram: Every time the PC is powered on BIOS will use the above information, this
information may be changed by the user and must retained in the memory even though the
electric power is removed from the system, the memory that is used to store this information
is called CMOS Ram, CMOS Ram is located on the mother board and will need the power
from battery during PC powered off to retain the information.

6. Battery: the battery supplies the power to CMOS ram for CMOS ram to retain the
information during the system is powered off, When the battery is weak the PC will show and
inaccurate time of day clock, or show a CMOS checksum error message during boot, at this
time the user-defined information in the CMOS ram may be lost, the PC may be still able to
run by using the default value in the BIOS that was defined by manufacturer.

7. Chip Set: A Chipset is a set of ICs, that used to be many ICs working together to provide
support to CPU and I/O ( input out device ) and make the whole system work, currently the
chipset is integrated into very few large-scale ICs.

8. Expansion Slot: The expansion slot or Expansion bus is the slot that enables the user to add
the adapter card for additional functions to the system for example, a Sound card or
Multimedia card, LAN card, SCSI controller card, Internal Modem card, TV tuner card,
Additional hard disk controller card and other special-purpose adapter card.

9. AGP Port: AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port) port is a high-speed data transfer port, this port
is used by the display adapter card that demands so much data within a short time. The way
the AGP port works is similar to the PCI bus, the AGP port runs at a clock speed of 66 Mhz,
and within one clock cycle of AGP operation, the multiple of 32 bytes can be transferred.

10. Ide Ports: These are for connecting hard disk drives or IDE CD-ROM or IDE CD writer.

11. Floppy Disk Port: this is used to connect the Floppy disk to the motherboard.

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12. IO Connector/USB Ports: used to connect peripheral devices like the keyboard, mouse,
printer microphone, etc. to the motherboard.

13. Power Connector: this receives the Power supply connector from the power supply and
delivers it to the motherboard

5.1.3 Features of a Motherboard

i. Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
ii. Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
iii. Video Cards, Hard disks, and Sound Cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to
function properly.
iv. Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

5.2 Computer Data Representation Schemes

Computers represent and store data in memory in bits. Common collections are single bits, groups of
four bits (called nibbles), groups of eight bits (called bytes), and groups of 16 bits (called words).
Bits, nibbles, bytes, words, and double words are units of data used in computing to represent and
manipulate information.
1. Bit:
• A "bit" is the smallest unit of data in computing and digital communication.
• It can have one of two values: 0 or 1, representing the binary system at the most fundamental
level.
• Bits are used to store and transmit data, as well as perform basic logical operations.

A bit

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2. Byte:
• A "byte" is a fundamental unit of data and memory storage in most computer systems.
• It consists of 8 bits, allowing for 256 different values (from 00000000 to 11111111) in binary.
• Bytes are used to represent characters, numbers, and a wide range of data types in computing.

A byte
3. Nibble:
• A "nibble" is a group of four bits, often half of a standard 8-bit byte.
• It can represent 16 different values (from 0000 to 1111) in binary.
• Nibbles are used in various computer systems, especially in hexadecimal notation, which
groups nibbles together to represent larger values efficiently.

A Nibble
4. Word:
• The term "word" does not have a fixed size and varies depending on the computer
architecture.
• In most modern systems, a "word" is 32 bits (4 bytes) or 64 bits (8 bytes) in length.
• Words are used for data processing, addressing, and memory management in the CPU.

5. Double Word (Dword):

• A "double word," often abbreviated as "Dword," is a data unit that is typically 32 bits or 4
bytes in length.
• It's twice the size of a standard word.

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• Dwords are used in various data storage and manipulation operations in computing.

The use of these units of data allows computers to represent and process information in a structured
and organized manner. Bytes, words, and dwords are particularly important in memory and data
processing, while bits and nibbles are essential for low-level data manipulation and communication.
The specific sizes of words and dwords can vary between different computer architectures and
systems.

Data Representation

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Unit 6: Module Content:

• Computer Number System

Objectives:

6.1 The Computer Number System

A number system in computer ideology is regarded as the method or system of numbering and
representing digits in the computer's ‘inner’ system. In other words, it is a technique used in
representing numbers in the computer system architecture. The digital computer represents all kinds
of data and information in binary numbers. This implies every value/number that you are saving or
feeding into/fetching from the computer system memory has a defined number system. The
value/data feed in/fetch from can include but is not limited to audio, graphics, video, text files,
numbers, etc. The total number of digits used in a number system is called its base or radix. The base
is written after the number as a subscript; for instance 10001102 (1000110 bases 2), 5610 (56 to the base
of 10), 718 (71 bases 8), etc.
Computer architecture supports the following number of systems.

i. Binary number system (Base 2)

ii. Octal number system (Base 8)

iii. Decimal number system (Base 10)

iv. Hexadecimal number system (Base 16)

6.1.1 Binary Number System

A Binary number system has only two digits, which are 0 and 1. Every number (value) is represented
with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of a binary number system is 2 because it has only two
digits. Though DECIMAL (No 3) is more frequently used in Number representation, BINARY is the
number system form that the system/machine accepts.

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6.1.2 Octal number system

The octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) is represented
with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of the octal number system is 8 because it
has only 8 digits.

6.1.3 Decimal number system

The decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value) is represented
with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8, and 9 in this number system. The base of a decimal number system is 10 because
it has only 10 digits.

6.1.4 Hexadecimal number system

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every
number (value) represents 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F in this number system. The
base of the hexadecimal number system is 16 because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here, we have 0
to 9, representing 0 – 9 but from 10, we have A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is 14 and F is 15.

The table above shows the sample representations :

Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2

Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8

Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10

Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, (F0)16

A,B,C,D,E,F

6.2 Number System Conversions

There are three types of conversion:

1. Decimal Number System to Other Base

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[for example: Decimal Number System to Binary Number System e.g. Base 10 to Base 2 etc.]

2. Other Base to Decimal Number System

[for example: Binary Number System to Decimal Number System e.g. Base 2 back to Base
10 etc.]

3. Other Base to Other Base

[for example: Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System e.g. Base 2 to Base 16 etc.]

Let’s pick them one after the other to see how the computations are done and the underlying logic
behind them!

6.2.1 Decimal Number System to Other Bases

The under-listed are the steps/procedures:

1. Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of the target base system (in which you
want to convert the number to e.g. Binary (2), Octal (8) OR Hexadecimal (16)).
2. Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last as a Most
Significant Bit (MSB); that is, write from down-up.

Example 1:
Convert 1234510 to Base 2
Solution

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Example 2.

Convert 1234510 to Base 8

Solution

Example 2.

Convert 1234510 to Base 16

Solution

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6.2.2 Other Base System to Decimal Number Base

The procedures are spelled out thus:

A. Determine the base value of the source Number System (that you want to convert), and also
determine the position of digits from LSB (first digit’s position – 0, second digit’s position –
1, and so on).

B. Multiply each digit with its corresponding multiplication of position value and Base of
Source Number System’s Base.
C. Add/Sum up the resulting value in step 2.

Example 1: Binary to Decimal Conversion

Convert 11011012 to Base 10

Solution:

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Example 2: Octal to Decimal Conversion

Convert 538 to Base 10

Solution:

Example 3: Octal to Decimal Conversion

Convert 2948 to Base 10

Solution:

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Example 8: Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Convert 3F616 to Base 10

Solution:

Example 9: Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Convert 2C4E16 to Base 10

Solution:

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6.2.3 Other Base System to Decimal Number Base

To execute this type of conversion, simply convert the given base to base ten, then convert to the
target base.

Example 1: Convert 100112 to base 8

Solution:

Exercises (Not to be submitted)

1. Convert the following Base 2 numbers to Base 10:

i. 11000011
ii. 1001111
iii. 01101111
2. Convert the under-listed Base 8 numbers to Base 10:

i. 67 ii. 21
iii. 34
3. Convert the specified Base 16 numbers to Base 10:

i. 2A5
ii.7E3D
iii. 82CA
4. Convert the listed Base 10 numbers to Base 2, 8, and 16

i. 34 ii. 89
iii. 68

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5. Convert:

i. 1101102 to base 8
ii. 6789548 to base 16

6.3 Addition and Subtraction in Binary

6.3.1 Addition in Binary

Addition is the same as in the decimal system, except, 1 + 1 = 0 with a 1 carried. Adding two binary
numbers together is easy, keeping in mind the following four addition rules:

1) 0 + 0 = 0
2) 0 + 1 = 1
3) 1 + 0 = 1
4) 1 + 1 = 10
Example
1) Add, 0011010 + 111001

Exercise (Not to be submitted)

Add the following
1) 10110101 + 11010101
2) 11110111 + 11000100
3) 11010001 + 11110111

6.3.2 Subtraction in Binary

Example

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1) Subtract 111001 from 1111001

6.3.3 Subtraction In Binary Using 2’s Complement

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Example 2:

1) Subtract 100100 from 11100010 using 2’s complement.

So 100100 subtracted from 11100010 = 101111102

Exercise (Not to be submitted)

6.3.4 Multiplication In Binary

The rules are the same as in decimal.

1) 0x0=0
2) 1x0=0
3) 1x1=1

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6.3.5 Division In Binary

The rules are the same as in decimal.

1) 0 ÷ 0 = 0
2) 0 ÷ 1 = 0
3) 1 ÷ 1 = 1

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Unit 7: Module Content:

• File Processing
• Algorithms
• Flowcharts
Objectives:

7.1 Basic File Processing Concepts

In a computer system, a "file" is a fundamental unit used for storing and organizing data. It serves as
a digital container for information, which can include text, images, documents, programs, and more.
Files are crucial for managing and accessing data on a computer. Here are some key characteristics
and functions of files in a computer system:

7.1.1 Operations on Files

The operating system provides system calls to create, write, read, reposition, truncate, and delete files.
The following sub-units discuss the specific duties a file system must do for each of the following
basic file operations.

1. Creating a File
When creating a file, a space in the file system must be found for the file and then an entry for the
new file must be made in the directory. The directory entry records the name of the file and the
location in the filesystem.

2. Opening a File
Before using a file, a process must open it. The purpose of the OPEN call is to allow the system
to fetch the attributes and list of secondary storage disk addresses into main memory for rapid
access on subsequent calls.

3. Closing a File
When all the accesses are finished, the attributes and secondary storage addresses are no longer
needed, so the file should be closed to free up internal table space. Many systems encourage this
by imposing a maximum number of open files on processes.

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4. Writing a File
To write a file, a system call is made specifying both the name of the file and the information to
be written to the file. Given the name of the file, the system searches the directory to find the
location of the file. The directory entry will need to store a pointer to the current block of the file
(usually the beginning of the file). Using this pointer, the address of the next block can be
computed where the information will be written. The write pointer must be updated ensuring
successive writes that can be used to write a sequence of blocks to the file. It is also important to
make sure that the file is not overwritten in case of an append operation,i.e. when we are adding
a block of data at the end of an already existing file.

5. Reading a File
To read a file, a system call is made that specifies the name of the file and where (in memory) the
next block of the file should be put. Again, the directory is searched for the associated directory
entry, and the directory will need a pointer to the next block to be read. Once the block
is read, and the pointer is updated.

6. Repositioning a File
When repositioning a file, the directory is searched for the appropriate entry, and the current file
position is set to a given value. This file operation is also called file seek.

7. Truncating a File
The user may erase some contents of a file but keep its attributes. Rather than forcing the user to
delete the file and then recreate it, this operation allows all the attributes to remain unchanged,
except the file size.

8. Deleting a File
To delete a file, the directory is searched for the named file. Having found the associated directory
entry, the space allocated to the file is released (so it can be reused by other files) and invalidates
the directory entry.

9. Renaming a File

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It frequently happens that the user needs to change the name of an existing file. This system call
makes that possible. It is not always strictly necessary, because the file can always be copied to a
new file with the new name, and the old file is then deleted.

10. Appending a File

This call is a restricted form of WRITE call. It can only add data to the end of the file. Systems that
provide a minimum set of system calls do not generally have APPEND, but many systems provide
multiple ways of doing the same thing, and these systems sometimes have APPEND.

The ten operations described comprise only the minimal set of required file operations. Others may
include copying, and executing a file. Also of use are facilities to lock sections of an open file for
multiprogramming access, to share sections, and even to map sections into memory or virtual-memory
systems. This last function allows a part of the virtual address to be logically associated with the section
of a file. Reads and writes to that memory region are then treated as reads and writes to the file.

7.2 Algorithms
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or a set of rules for solving a specific problem or
accomplishing a particular task. It provides a precise and unambiguous description of how to perform
a computation or operation.
An algorithm takes one or more inputs, performs a series of operations or computations, and
produces an output or a result. The inputs represent the problem instance, and the output represents
the solution or desired outcome
Algorithms are composed of well-defined instructions or steps that are executable and can be followed
by a computing device or a human. Each step specifies an action to be performed, such as arithmetic
calculations, comparisons, conditionals, loops, or function calls.
Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps. They should not run indefinitely or enter
infinite loops. The algorithm's termination ensures that a solution or output is eventually obtained.
An algorithm is considered correct if it produces the expected output for all valid inputs.
Ensuring correctness involves rigorous testing, validation, and verification techniques.

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Algorithms aim to achieve efficiency in terms of time and space requirements. Time complexity
refers to the amount of time an algorithm takes to run, often measured in terms of the number of
operations. Space complexity refers to the amount of memory or resources an algorithm consumes.

Example of an algorithm to add two numbers

Now here is the python implementation with and without the use of a function

1. With function

2. Without function

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Quick Homework (Not to be submitted):

1. FUK CAR Parking System.
This system allows only cars with a FUK sticker to park at a designated car park known as PARK 1.
Stickers are categorized into senior stickers and junior stickers and are parked at marked spots labeled
as S and J respectively. Cars without stickers would be registered at the gate and sent to a different car
park known as PARK 2. Develop an algorithm using both of its representations to show the procedure
for solving the problem. Afterward, implement in python using an IDE of your choice.

7.3 Flowchart
From the algorithms, the programmer develops the flowcharts and graphic representations of the
algorithms. The algorithms and the flowcharts are the final steps in organizing a solution. Using them,
the programmer can test the solution for bugs and go on to code the problem into a computer
language for entry into the computer. A flowchart will show errors in logic not readily visible in the
other charts. Also, a set of data can be tested easily using a flowchart.
Flowcharts are graphical representations or diagrams that illustrate the step-by-step flow of a
process, algorithm, or system. They use various shapes, symbols, and arrows to depict the sequence
of actions, decision points, inputs, outputs, and flow of control within a process. Flowcharts are
commonly used in software development, business process modeling, problem-solving, and system
analysis.
Flowcharts provide a visual representation of a process, making it easier to understand, analyze,
and communicate. They are especially useful for illustrating complex processes, decision-making
logic, and the interaction between different steps or components. By following the flowchart, one can
trace the flow of activities and identify potential bottlenecks, errors, or areas for improvement in a
process.
• A flowchart shows the flow of the processing from the beginning to the end of a solution.
• Each block in a flowchart represents one instruction from an algorithm.
• Flowlines indicate the direction of the data flow.
• Most blocks have one or more entrances, and flowlines directing the flow of the data into the
block.

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• Most blocks have only one exit, flowlines directing the data out of the block, since, in most
cases, data can flow to only one other block
There are flowchart symbols for use with various types of processing. Figure XXX below shows and
explains some general flowchart symbols. There are many specific symbols, such as printer output,
monitor output, and so forth, that are used in system flowcharts.

Figure XXX: Flowcharts Symbols

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Example of a flowchart from an algorithm to add two numbers

Example of a flowchart from checking room temperature

Quick Homework (Not to be submitted):

1. FUK CAR Parking System.

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From the algorithm developed, draw the corresponding flowchart utilizing all necessary symbols
discussed.

7.4 Pseudocode
Pseudocode is similar to the algorithm without the numbers and somewhat condensed.
Pseudocode is a high-level, informal, and human-readable description of a computer program or
algorithm. It is not a specific programming language but rather a way to express the logic and structure
of code using plain language and simple constructs. Pseudocode helps in planning, designing, and
understanding algorithms before implementing them in a particular programming language.
While pseudocode lacks strict syntax rules, it often uses common programming constructs like
variables, loops, conditionals, and function calls to represent algorithmic steps. It focuses on
expressing the logic and flow of an algorithm clearly and concisely.

Example of a pseudocode from adding numbers

In this pseudocode:
• The program starts with the "Start" statement.
• The "Read" statements prompt the user to input the values of num1 and num2.
• The "Set" statement calculates the sum of num1 and num2 and assigns it to the variable sum.
• The "Display" statement shows the value of the sum as the output.
• Finally, the program ends with the "End" statement.

Note that this pseudocode focuses on expressing the logical steps of the algorithm in a human-
readable manner. It doesn't include specific syntax or language rules since pseudocode is not

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tied to a particular programming language. It serves as a blueprint for implementing the addition
algorithm in any programming language later on.

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Unit 8: Module Content:

• The Internet
Objectives:

8.1 The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that links millions of businesses, government
offices, educational institutions, and individuals. Data is transferred over the Internet using servers,
which are computers that manage network resources and provide centralized storage areas, and clients,
which are computers that can access the contents of the storage areas. The data travels over
communications lines. Each computer or device on a communications line has a numeric address
called an IP (Internet protocol) address, the text version of which is called a domain name. Every time
you specify a domain name, a DNS (domain name system) server translates the domain name into its
associated IP address, so data can route to the correct computer.

The internet is like a giant, global network of computers that are all connected. It's a bit like a massive
library, but instead of books, it's filled with information, videos, pictures, and all sorts of things. You
can use your computer or phone to explore this library, talk to people from all over the world, watch
videos, play games, and even shop for things. It's like a magical place where you can learn, have fun,
and connect with others, all from your device!

8.2 Ways to Access the Internet

1. You can access the Internet through an Internet service provider, an online service provider, or
a wireless service provider.

2. An Internet service provider (ISP) provides temporary Internet connections to individuals and
companies.

3. An online service provider (OSP) also supplies Internet access, in addition to a variety of special
content and services.

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4. A wireless service provider (WSP) provides wireless Internet access to users with wireless
modems or Web-enabled handheld computers or devices.

5. Employees and students often connect to the Internet through a business or school network
that connects to a service provider. For home or small business users, dial-up access provides an
easy and inexpensive way to connect to the Internet.

6. With dial-up access, you use a computer, a modem, and a regular telephone line to dial into an
ISP or OSP. Some home and small business users opt for newer, high-speed technologies.
7. DSL (digital subscriber line) provides high-speed connections over a regular copper telephone
line.
8. A cable modem provides high-speed Internet connections through a cable television network.

8.3 Identifying A URL (Universal Resource Locator)

The most widely used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web. The World Wide Web (WWW
or Web) consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents called Web pages. A browser is a
software program used to access and view Web pages. Each Web page has a unique address, called a
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that tells a browser where to locate the Web page. A URL consists
of a protocol, domain name, and sometimes the path to a specific Web page or location on a Web
page. Most URLs begin with http://, which stands for hypertext transfer protocol, the
communications standard that enables pages to transfer on the Web.

Example

https://fukashere.edu.ng/

Advantages of the Internet

1. Access to Information: The internet is a vast source of information on virtually any topic. It
provides quick and easy access to educational resources, research materials, news, and more.
2. Communication: It enables instant communication with people worldwide through email, social
media, video conferencing, and messaging apps, fostering global connections.

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3. Online Learning: The internet has revolutionized education, making online courses and
resources available to a global audience, promoting lifelong learning.
4. Convenience: Online shopping and e-commerce provide the convenience of purchasing goods
and services from home, saving time and effort.
5. Entertainment: The internet offers a wealth of entertainment options, including streaming
services, online gaming, and a variety of content platforms.
6. Business Opportunities: It has opened doors for online businesses, startups, and freelancers,
creating economic opportunities and global markets.
7. Research and Collaboration: Researchers and professionals can collaborate and share data and
findings, accelerating progress in various fields.
8. Social Connections: Social media platforms help people stay connected with friends and family,
even across long distances.
9. Access to Services: The internet allows users to access various services, from banking and
healthcare to government services and more, often 24/7.

Disadvantages of the Internet

1. Cybersecurity Risks: The internet is susceptible to cyberattacks, including hacking, phishing, and
malware, leading to privacy breaches and data theft.
2. Information Overload: With a vast amount of information available, it's easy to become
overwhelmed, and misinformation can spread quickly.
3. Online Harassment and Bullying: The internet can be a platform for cyberbullying and
harassment, negatively affecting mental health.
4. Digital Divide: Not everyone has equal access to the internet, creating a digital divide that limits
opportunities for some.
5. Privacy Concerns: Personal data is often collected and used by online services and advertisers,
raising privacy concerns.
6. Addiction: Internet addiction and excessive screen time can lead to health issues and affect real-
world relationships.
7. Fake News: Misinformation and fake news can spread easily on the internet, potentially causing
social and political unrest.
8. Loss of Productivity: While the internet offers numerous distractions, it can also lead to reduced
productivity and procrastination.

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9. Safety Risks: Children and vulnerable individuals may encounter inappropriate content or be at
risk of online predators.

8.4 End of Module: Laboratory Work

1. Complete: Week Five: The Internet
2. Complete: Week Six: Web Browsers and Search Engines
3. Complete: Week Seven: Accessing Online Resources

End of Lecture Material

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