INTRODUCTION TO

ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS

Claire Yu Yan
University of British Columbia, Okanagan
Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics
(Yan)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Licensing
About the Author
Acknowledgements
Preface

Nomenclature

1: Basic Concepts and Definitions

1.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
1.2: What is thermodynamics about?
1.3: System and surroundings
1.4: Extensive and intensive properties
1.5: State, process, and cycle
1.6: Chapter review

2: Thermodynamic Properties of a Pure Substance

2.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
2.2: Pure substance
2.3: Thermodynamic properties
2.4: Phase diagrams
2.5: Thermodynamic tables
2.6: Chapter review
2.7: Key Equations

3: Ideal and Real Gasses

3.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
3.2: Ideal gas and ideal gas equation of state
3.3: Real gas and compressibility factor
3.4: Chapter Review
3.5: Key Equations

4: The First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems

4.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
4.2: Internal energy in a system
4.3: Heat transfer across a boundary
4.4: Work
4.5: The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems
4.6: Chapter review
4.7: Key equations

5: The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume

5.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
5.2: Enthalpy

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 5.3: Mass and energy conservation equations in a control volume
5.4: Applications of the mass and energy conservation equations in steady flow devices
5.5: Chapter review
5.6: Key equations

6: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

6.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
6.2: Heat engine
6.3: Refrigerator and heat pump
6.4: The second law of thermodynamics- Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements
6.5: Carnot cycles
6.6: Entropy and entropy generation
6.7: The second law of thermodynamics for closed systems
6.8: Specific entropy of a state
6.9: Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in closed systems
6.10: The second law of thermodynamics for open systems
6.11: Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in open systems
6.12: Chapter review
6.13: Key equations

7: Appendices
7.1: Appendix A - Thermodynamic Properties of Water
7.2: Appendix B - Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia
7.3: Appendix C - Thermodynamic Properties of R134a
7.4: Appendix D - Thermodynamic Properties of Carbon Dioxide
7.5: Appendix E - Critical Properties of Selected Fluids
7.6: Appendix F - Triple Point of Selected Substances
7.7: Appendix G - Properties of Various Substances

Index

Glossary
Detailed Licensing

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Licensing
A detailed breakdown of this resource's licensing can be found in Back Matter/Detailed Licensing.

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About the Author
Dr. Claire Yu Yan is an associate professor of teaching in the School of Engineering, Faculty of Applied Science, University of
British Columbia, Okanagan. She teaches core engineering courses in the field of thermofluids, such as thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, fluid machinery, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC). In the past years, Dr. Yan has taught several
thousands of students of diverse backgrounds. She has a strong passion for teaching innovations, in particular, open and
engagement pedagogies and strives to make sustained contributions to support holistic student success and wellbeing through her
teaching practices and scholarship of teaching and learning. Beyond teaching, Dr. Yan is an active contributor to UBC and the
broader communities through her outreach program and committee work. Dr. Yan is a registered P.Eng. with EGBC (Engineers and
Geoscientists BC), and a member of CEEA (Canadian Engineering Education Association) and ASEE (American Society for
Engineering Education).
Email: [email protected]
Website: https://engineering.ok.ubc.ca/about/contact/yu-claire-yan/

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Acknowledgements
This book project is funded by UBC Okanagan ASPIRE-2040 Learning Transformations Fund (OER Stream). The author would
like to thank two academic assistants, Amaiya Khardenavis and Wyatt Shenfield, for their help with book formatting and editing.
The author would also like to thank the following colleagues, Donna Langille (UBC Okanagan library), Erin Fields (UBC
Vancouver Library), Claire Swanson (UBC Vancouver Library), and Kristen Morgan (UBC Okanagan Centre for Teaching &
Learning), for their continued support during the development of the book.

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Preface
This book aims to help students develop a fundamental understanding of classical thermodynamics and its engineering
applications. It features concise explanations of key concepts, step-by-step engineering examples, and interactive practice problems
at the end of each section.
The book consists of seven chapters. It is suitable for a one-term, introductory engineering thermodynamics course at the
undergraduate level. It may also be used as self-learning materials or a supplement to other thermodynamics books.

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts and Definitions

This chapter introduces basic concepts and definitions in thermodynamics, such as open and closed systems; extensive and
intensive properties; equilibrium states, quasi-equilibrium processes, and cycles. It lays a foundation for students to understand the
key concepts in the subsequent chapters.

Chapter 2: Thermodynamic Properties of a Pure Substance

This chapter introduces thermodynamic properties, phase diagrams, and thermodynamic tables of pure substances. Students will
learn how to determine thermodynamic properties of pure substances by using thermodynamic tables, and how to illustrate states
and processes in phase diagrams. This chapter prepares students with essential skills for performing comprehensive analyses of
various thermodynamic processes and cycles.

Chapter 3: Ideal and Real Gases

This chapter explains the concepts of “ideal” gas, ideal gas law, real gas, and compressibility factor. Students will learn the
difference between an “ideal” and real gases, and at what conditions the ideal gas model may be used as an approximation for
evaluating properties, such as pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas.

Chapter 4: The First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems

This chapter explains the concepts of heat, work, and the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems. Through examples,
students will learn how to apply the first law of thermodynamics to engineering problems involving closed systems.

Chapter 5: The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume

This chapter extends the concept of energy conservation to open systems with a focus on steady-state, steady flows (SSSF).
Students will learn how to use the first law of thermodynamics to analyze processes in typical SSSF devices, such as pipes,
turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, expansion valves, and mixing chambers.

Chapter 6: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

This chapter introduces the concepts of reversible and irreversible processes, Carnot cycles, entropy and entropy generation, and
the second law of thermodynamics. Students will learn the applications of the second law in both closed and open systems.

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Nomenclature

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1: Basic Concepts and Definitions

This chapter introduces basic concepts and definitions in thermodynamics, such as open and closed systems; extensive and
intensive properties; equilibrium states, quasi-equilibrium processes, and cycles. It lays a foundation for students to understand the
key concepts in the subsequent chapters.
1.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
1.2: What is thermodynamics about?
1.3: System and surroundings
1.4: Extensive and intensive properties
1.5: State, process, and cycle
1.6: Chapter review

This page titled 1: Basic Concepts and Definitions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

1
1.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
Classical thermodynamics is a macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics. This chapter introduces basic concepts and
definitions used in classical thermodynamics. It lays the foundation for a comprehensive analysis of different thermodynamic
processes and cycles to be presented in this book.

 Learning Objectives
After completing the chapter, you should be able to
Explain the basic scope of engineering thermodynamics and its common areas of application
Demonstrate an understanding of fundamental concepts, such as system and its surroundings, closed and open systems,
extensive and intensive properties, equilibrium state, quasi-equilibrium process, and cycle

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1.2: What is thermodynamics about?
You probably have this experience; when you rub your hands quickly for a few minutes, your hands will start to feel warmer. How
is this common phenomenon related to thermodynamics? Well, when you rub your hands quickly, your muscles do work. This
work is then converted to heat; therefore, you feel warmer. Heat and work are two forms of energy. Work can be converted to heat,
as seen in this daily example. However, can heat be converted to work? Can we use heat to produce work?
Heat engine is a device that produces work continuously by absorbing heat from a high-temperature heat source and rejecting the
waste heat to a low-temperature heat sink. Since the 17th century, various heat engines were invented in an attempt to harness work
from heat. Figure 1.1.1 illustrates Watt’s engine invented by Scottish engineer James Watt in the late 18th century. Watt’s engine is
one of the most successful early heat engines. Its main components are a boiler (not shown in the figure) and a condenser, each
connecting to a piston-cylinder device. The two valves, V and V’, control the flow of steam into and out of the cylinder. When
valve V opens, valve V’ remains closed. Steam from the boiler enters the cylinder, pushing the piston up until it reaches the top of
the cylinder. Then valve V’ opens, and valve V closes. The steam in the cylinder escapes to the condenser and is condensed,
creating a vacuum in the cylinder. Consequently, the piston moves downward under atmospheric pressure. The reciprocating
motion of the piston drives the pivoting beam DEF, which then powers the pump chained to the beam. Watt’s engine demonstrates
how heat is converted to work. This conversion relies on the phase change of a working fluid, e.g., water, in the Watt’s engine. The
boiler in the Watt’s engine is the heat source, where the hot steam is generated; and the condenser is the heat sink, where the hot
steam is cooled and condensed to liquid water. All heat engines need a working fluid circulating in a specially-arranged set of
equipment, which operates between a high-temperature heat source and a low-temperature heat sink. Figure 1.1.2 is a schematic
drawing of a heat engine. The yellow circle represents the heat engine consisting of a set of equipment.

Figure 1.1.1 Watt’s heat engine

Figure 1.1.2 Schematic drawing of a heat engine

By examining Figure 1.1.2, you might notice that a certain amount of heat is not converted to work. It is true that not all of the
heat from a heat source can be converted to useful work! Heat engines and their underlying principles are governed by the two
fundamental laws of thermodynamics, the first and second laws of thermodynamics. We will briefly introduce the two laws here
and will provide detailed explanations in Chapters 4-6.
The first law of thermodynamics is about energy conservation. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be
converted between different forms.

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 The second law of thermodynamics explains why all real processes are irreversible, and how the irreversibility of a process is
quantified with the concept of entropy generation. In reality, all processes always occur in the direction of producing positive
entropy generation due to the existence of irreversibilities. From the second law of thermodynamics, we can estimate the
theoretical limit of efficiency that a real thermodynamic process or system can possibly achieve.
Thermodynamics emerged in the early 19th century with the inventions of heat engines. It originally focused on the scientific
theories of heat-work conversion, and the operations and efficiency improvement of heat engines. Nowadays, the applications of
thermodynamics have extended to all fields related to energy conversion and conservation. In engineering fields, the principles of
thermodynamics are widely used in the design of thermal systems, such as power plants using different energy sources (e.g., steam,
gas, nuclear, hydro, wind, and solar), air conditioning and refrigeration systems, jet engines, biomedical devices, and chemical
processes, to name but a few. Figure 1.1.3 is a schematic drawing of a nuclear power plant, whose performance and efficiency are
governed by the fundamental principles of thermodynamics.

Figure 1.1.3 Nuclear Power Plant

Media Attributions
Watt’s Heat Engine © Caltrop is licensed under a Public Domain license
Schematic drawing of a heat engine © Brundl15 is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Nuclear Power Plant © Anynobody is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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available upon request.

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1.3: System and surroundings
In thermodynamics, a system refers to a selected quantity of matter in the case of closed systems or a selected region in space in the
case of open systems, see Figure 1.2.1. The rest of the universe outside the system is called surroundings, and the surface that
separates the system and its surroundings is called boundary. A boundary may be fixed or movable, real or imaginary, rigid or
flexible.

Figure 1.2.1 System and surroundings

A system interacts with its surroundings through two mechanisms:
1. Mass transfer
2. Energy transfer (i.e., in the form of heat and work)
A system of a fixed mass is a closed system, which can only interact with its surroundings through energy transfer. Mass cannot
cross the boundary of a closed system. For example, a sealed bottle of soft drink, Figure 1.2.2, can be modelled as a closed system
because there is a fixed amount of liquid in the bottle. When you take the bottle out of your cooler, the liquid will warm up slowly
due to the temperature difference between the bottle and the ambient air (surroundings). In other words, the system (the liquid in
the bottle) interacts with its surroundings (the ambient air) through energy transfer (in the form of heat transfer). Figure 1.2.3
illustrates a piston-cylinder device, which can also be modelled as a closed system. The amount of the fluid in the cylinder (the
system) remains constant as the piston moves. Only the transfer of energy, in the form of heat and work, may happen across the
system boundary consisting of the cylinder walls and the lower surface of the piston.

Figure 1.2.2 A sealed bottle of soft drink as an example of closed systems

Figure 1.2.3 Piston cylinder device as an example of closed systems

An open system, also called control volume, is a selected region in space. An open system always exchanges mass with its
surroundings. It may exchange energy with its surroundings in the form of heat and work, but energy transfer is not a necessary
condition for a system to be an open system. In other words, an open system doesn’t have to exchange heat or work with its

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surroundings at all. Figure 1.2.4 illustrates an open system, which typically encloses a device that involves mass flow through its
inlet and outlet. Figure 1.2.5 illustrates the outdoor condensing unit of an air conditioner. It may be treated as an open system
because the coolant can enter and leave the condensing unit (the system) via its connecting coolant lines.

Figure 1.2.4 Open system (also called control volume)

Figure 1.2.5 Outdoor condensing unit of an air conditioner as an example of open systems
If a system doesn’t allow the exchange of mass and energy with its surroundings, it is called an isolated system. An isolated system
is an idealized, hypothetical system. In reality, no device is absolutely isolated.

Media Attributions
System and Surroundings © Krauss is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Piston Cylinder © Israel Urieli adapted by DIANA BAIRAKTAROVA is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike)
license
Open system © Israel Urieli adapted by DIANA BAIRAKTAROVA is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike)
license
Outdoor condensing unit of an air conditioner © Jackie Bese is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available
upon request.

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1.4: Extensive and intensive properties
From the macroscopic perspective, a system is viewed as a continuous, homogeneous matter called continuum, which consists of a
huge number of interacting molecules distributed throughout the system. The interactions between the molecules are so frequent
that the physical or bulk properties of the system do NOT depend on the behaviour of individual molecules. This hypothesis is
valid in a wide range of engineering applications. It allows the physical properties of a system, such as pressure, density, and
temperature, to be defined as a continuous function at any point of the system.
The following thermodynamic properties are typically used to describe the interactions between a system and its surroundings:
mass
pressure
temperature
volume and specific volume
internal energy and specific internal energy
enthalpy and specific enthalpy
entropy and specific entropy
These properties can be classified into two categories based on their dependence on the mass of a system. More detailed
explanations of their physical meanings can be found in Chapter 2.
Extensive properties depend on the mass of a system. Properties, such as mass , volume , internal energy , enthalpy , and
entropy are extensive properties. Their values change accordingly as the mass of a system changes.
Intensive properties are independent of the mass of a system. Pressure , temperature , specific volume , specific internal
energy , specific enthalpy , and specific entropy are intensive properties.
Let us consider a container of air at 101 kPa and 20oC. If the container is divided into two compartments and all other conditions
remain unchanged, see Figure 1.3.1, the air in each compartment is still at 101 kPa and 20oC. The pressure and temperature of the
air are not affected by the changing mass in each compartment; therefore, pressure and temperature are intensive properties. On
the other hand, the mass and volume of the air in each of the compartments are different from the original values in the container.
Both of them depend on the mass of the system; therefore, mass and volume are extensive properties.
All specific properties are intensive properties, as they refer to the corresponding extensive properties per unit mass, e.g., specific
volume and specific internal energy .

Figure 1.3.1 Intensive and extensive properties

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1.5: State, process, and cycle
If a system is isolated from its surroundings or is free from any unbalanced potentials, such as forced flows of mass or energy, the
system will eventually reach a uniform condition called equilibrium. A system in equilibrium has uniform properties throughout
the system. The following equilibrium conditions are commonly considered in thermodynamics.
A system that features spatially-uniform temperature is in thermal equilibrium.
A system free from chemical reactions is in chemical equilibrium.
If there is no tendency for a system to change its pressure over time, the system is in mechanical equilibrium.
For a system consisting of a mixture of multiple phases, such as liquid water and water vapour, if the composition of the
mixture remains constant over time, the system is in phase equilibrium.
State refers to the condition of a system, which may be described by a unique set of properties, such as pressure, temperature, and
specific volume. The state of a system in equilibrium is called equilibrium state. A system may change from one state to another
state through a process. Let us consider a container of water initially at 10oC and 101 kPa, as an example. We set the water in the
container as the system. The water is heated until its temperature reaches 50oC, while its pressure is kept constant 101 kPa. We may
say that the water undergoes a constant-pressure, heating process with an initial state of 10oC and 101 kPa and a final state of 50oC
and 101 kPa.
Typically, there are many possible paths that a system may take between two states; therefore, the exact path of a process is
extremely important and must be clearly specified in order to describe a process! Here are the definitions of some common
processes.
Isobaric process: the pressure remains constant in a process.
Isochoric process: the specific volume remains constant in a process.
Isothermal process: the temperature remains constant in a process.
Adiabatic process: no heat transfer occurs between a system and its surroundings in a process.
Isentropic process: the entropy remains constant in a process.
Figure 1.4.1 shows a compression process as the piston moves from the right to the left. States 1 and 2 represent the initial and final
states. Each point along the process path represents an equilibrium state. If all states in a process are equilibrium states, the process
is called quasi-equilibrium process. In this book, we will deal with systems in equilibrium; therefore, all states thereafter refer to
equilibrium states, and all processes refer to quasi-equilibrium processes.

Figure 1.4.1 Schematic of a process. States 1 and 2 represent the initial and final states; each point along the process path
represents an equilibrium state.
If a system undergoes a series of processes and finally returns to its initial state, we say that the system completes a cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles are the basis for the operation of thermal equipment. For example, the vapour-compression refrigeration
cycle is often used in conventional refrigerators and air conditioners, as shown in Figure 1.4.2. The cycle consists of four main
devices: compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator. A working fluid called refrigerant circulates through these
devices connected by tubes. The refrigerant in the cycle experiences phase changes between vapour and liquid, as shown in Figure
1.4.3. Phase diagrams (see details in Chapter 2) are commonly used to analyze a process or a cycle. Figure 1.4.4 illustrates the
temperature-specific entropy, , diagram for the vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, where the numbered dots represent

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different states and the lines with arrows represent different processes in this cycle. For example, the number “1” in Figure 1.4.3
and Figure 1.4.4 refers to the state of the refrigerant at the inlet of the compressor or the exit of the evaporator. The line 1-2 in
Figure 1.4.4 refers to the compression process in the compressor.

Figure 1.4.2 Refrigerator working on the vapour compression cycle

Figure 1.4.3 Vapour compression cycle

Figure 1.4.4 Temperature-specific entropy (T-s) diagram of a vapour compression cycle

Otto cycle is another thermodynamic cycle. It is an ideal cycle that modells the operation of internal combustion engines. Figure
1.4.5 shows the cycle consisting of four strokes. The pressure-volume diagram, Figure 1.4.6, illustrates different processes in this

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cycle.
1. Intake stroke, line 0-1 in Figure 1.4.6. During the intake stroke, the inlet valve opens and the outlet valve remains closed.
Air is drawn into the cylinder as the piston moves to the bottom dead center (BDC).
2. Compression stroke, line 1-2 in Figure 1.4.6. During the compression stroke, both valves remain closed. The air is
compressed as the piston moves from BDC to the top dead center (TDC).
3. Ignition and power stroke, line 2-3-4 in Figure 1.4.6. During this stroke, both valves remain closed. The piston is at TDC
momentarily while the fuel-air mixture is ignited by the spark. The burning of the fuel-air mixture generates a large force,
pushing the piston from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke, line 4-1-0 in Figure 1.4.6. During the exhaust stroke, the outlet valve opens and the inlet valve remains
closed. The piston remains at BDC momentarily, allowing a certain amount of heat to release to the surroundings. Then the
piston moves from BDC towards TDC to reject the exhaust and more heat to the surroundings.

Figure 1.4.5 Four-stroke combustion engine

Figure 1.4.6 Pressure-volume diagram of an Otto cycle

Media Attributions
Schematic of a process © Israel Urieli adapted by DIANA BAIRAKTAROVA is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution
ShareAlike) license
Refrigerator © DigitalNet99 is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Vapour compression cycle © WGisol is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
T-s diagram of a vapour compression cycle © Keenan Pepper is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Four-stroke combustion engine © Pearson Scott Foresman is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Pressure-volume diagram of an Otto cycle © Luc1992 is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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1.6: Chapter review
Thermodynamics has a wide range of applications in many engineering fields, in particular, the fields related to energy conversion
and conservation. In this chapter, we have introduced some fundamental concepts and definitions used in the study of engineering
thermodynamics.
An important skill that students need to develop, when performing thermodynamic analysis on devices, is to identify the system, its
surroundings, and their interactions. There are three types of systems: closed system, open system, and isolated system, defined in
terms of their ability to transfer mass and energy with the surroundings.
In this book, we consider systems in equilibrium. Each equilibrium state possesses a unique set of thermodynamic properties,
which can be classified as extensive and intensive properties. When a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another equilibrium state, its thermodynamic properties will change accordingly. The process path must be clearly specified when
describing a process. Students need to understand the definitions of the common processes, including isobaric, isothermal,
isochoric, adiabatic, and isentropic processes.

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

2: Thermodynamic Properties of a Pure Substance

This chapter introduces thermodynamic properties, phase diagrams, and thermodynamic tables of pure substances. Students will
learn how to determine thermodynamic properties of pure substances by using thermodynamic tables, and how to illustrate states
and processes in phase diagrams. This chapter prepares students with essential skills for performing comprehensive analyses of
various thermodynamic processes and cycles.
2.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
2.2: Pure substance
2.3: Thermodynamic properties
2.4: Phase diagrams
2.5: Thermodynamic tables
2.6: Chapter review
2.7: Key Equations

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1
2.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
An equilibrium state in a process has a unique set of thermodynamic properties. In this chapter, we will introduce common
thermodynamic properties, phase diagrams, and thermodynamic tables. Through examples, we will demonstrate how to use
thermodynamic tables to determine thermodynamic properties of a pure substance at a given state. The International Systems of
Units (SI units) will be used for all properties and examples.

 Learning Objectives
After learning this chapter, you should be able to
Demonstrate an understanding of common thermodynamic properties
Interpret phase diagrams, including , , and diagrams for pure substances
Use thermodynamic tables to determine properties of pure substances

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2.2: Pure substance
A pure substance refers to a matter that has a homogeneous and definite chemical composition. A pure substance may exist in a
single phase, such as liquid water, ice, and CO2 gas. It can also exist as a multi-phase mixture, such as a mixture of liquid water and
water vapour in equilibrium.
Air is a common working fluid used in many thermal devices. Can air be treated as a pure substance? Although air is a mixture
consisting of roughly 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases and moisture, air is homogeneous and has
distinct properties without phase changes in its composition in many thermodynamic processes. In such conditions, we can treat air
as a pure substance.

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2.3: Thermodynamic properties
Pure substances are widely used in thermodynamic cycles. For example, in the vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, Figure
1.4.2, refrigerant R134a is used as the working fluid, which is circulated through a compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and
evaporator via the connecting tubes.
In steam power plants, water is used as the working fluid. Figure 2.2.1 shows a coal-fired steam power plant. Purified water flows
vertically up the tube-lined walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam. Steam flows into the boiler drum (17), separating from any
remaining water, and then flows into the pendant superheater (19), where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to around
200 bar and 570°C. The superheated steam is piped to the high-pressure turbine (11), where both its pressure and temperature are
reduced. The steam is then returned to the boiler reheater (21). After being reheated, it enters the intermediate-pressure turbine (9)
and then the low-pressure turbine (6). The steam, now just above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact with the cold
water in the condenser (8), where it is condensed rapidly back into water. The water then passes a feed pump (7), a de-aerator (12),
a feed heater (13), and an economizer (23) before being returned to the boiler drum.

Figure 2.2.1 Steam power plant: water is used as the working fluid.
In both cycles, the working fluids, water and R134a, are pure substances. Their properties, such as pressure and temperature,
continuously change as they flow through different devices in the cycles. How are the changes of fluid properties related to the
overall performance of a device, such as the aforementioned steam power plant and refrigerator? To answer this question, we need
to understand the thermodynamic properties of pure substances at different states of a process or a cycle.
The common properties of a pure substance include pressure, temperature, specific volume, density, specific internal energy,
specific enthalpy, and specific entropy. These properties are interrelated to each other. Thermodynamic tables or equations of state
are commonly used to determine the thermodynamic properties of a pure substance. Appendices A-D provide thermodynamic
tables for selected pure substances. The ideal gas equation of state will be introduced in Chapter 3.

2.2.1 Pressure
Consider a normal force exerted by an object on a surface. Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area of the surface.

where
F (2.3.1)

A (2.3.2)

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 P (2.3.3)

In the SI units, force is usually expressed in Newtons, N, or kilo Newtons, kN, and area in meter squared, m2; therefore, pressure is
expressed in Pascal, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2, or kilo-Pascal, 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2. Other common SI units include 1 bar =100 kPa, 1 atm
=101.325 kPa, and 1 MPa = 106 Pa =1000 kPa.
Pressure depends on the normal force and the contact area. If you stand up tall on a flat horizontal surface, the pressure on your feet
is your weight divided by the total contact area of your feet on the surface. If you lift up one foot, the pressure on your other foot
will double as the contact area is decreased by half.
Pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions at a given point in that fluid; therefore, pressure is a scalar quantity. It is important
to note that although pressure is a scalar quantity, pressure force, , is a vector and is always perpendicular to the contact
surface.
Pressure in a fluid is commonly measured by pressure gauges (Figure 2.2.2) or U-tube manometers (Figure 2.2.3). Most pressure
gauges are calibrated to show the gauge pressure or vacuum pressure, which is the difference between the absolute pressure and the
atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure:
Vacuum pressure:
where
Pabs (2.3.4)

Patm (2.3.5)

Pgauge (2.3.6)

Pvac (2.3.7)

Figure 2.2.2 Pressure gauge

Figure 2.2.3 U-tube Manometer

 Example 2.3.1

Consider a piston-cylinder device containing a gas. The mass of the piston is 10 kg. The diameter of the piston is 20 cm. The
atmospheric pressure is 1 atm = 101.325 kPa. What is the absolute pressure of the gas in the cylinder assuming the piston is in
static equilibrium? The friction between the piston and the cylinder is negligible.

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 Figure 2.2.e1 Piston cylinder device showing acting forces

Solution
There are three forces acting on the piston:
Weight of the piston
Force due to the atmospheric pressure
Force due to the gas pressure
As the piston is in static equilibrium, the resultant force on the piston is zero.

∑ F = Fgas − (Fw + Fatm ) = 0 (2.3.8)

Therefore, the absolute pressure of the gas is

The gauge pressure of the gas is

Pgauge = Pgas − Patm = 3.12 kPa (2.3.9)

2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature is another measurable thermodynamic property, which indicates the hotness or coldness of a body. Thermometer is a
common device for temperature measurement. If two bodies have the same temperature readings on a thermometer, the two bodies
must have the same temperature. In other words, they are in thermal equilibrium. This seemingly obvious observation is called the
zeroth law of thermodynamics: if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third, the three bodies must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This law establishes the basis for temperature measurement; it allows us to compare the temperatures
of different bodies, no matter if they are in contact or not.
Temperature can be expressed on different temperature scales, such as Celsius or Kelvin scales in the SI units and Fahrenheit or
Rankine scales in the Imperial units. For example, a room temperature may be expressed as 20oC or 68 F. All temperature scales
are calibrated based on two easily reproducible temperatures, such as the freezing and boiling temperatures of water at the standard
atmospheric pressure.
A temperature expressed in Kelvin in the SI units or in Rankine in the Imperial units is called absolute temperature. An absolute
temperature of zero indicates the state of the minimum energy of a matter. Absolute temperature, also called thermodynamic
temperature, is an important property in thermodynamic analyses. The conversion between the Celsius and Kelvin scales is
∘
T (K) = T ( C ) + 273.15
∘
ΔT (K) = ΔT ( C )

2.2.3 Density and specific volume

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a body. Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.

where
m (2.3.10)

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 V (2.3.11)

v (2.3.12)

ρ (2.3.13)

Both temperature and pressure may affect the density and specific volume of a fluid. The density and specific volume of a gas are
strong functions of both temperature and pressure. For example, when a gas is compressed, its pressure will increase, causing the
density of the gas to increase and the specific volume of the gas to decrease. When a gas is heated, its temperature will increase.
Consequently, the density of the gas will decrease and the specific volume of the gas will increase.
On the contrary, the density and specific volume of a liquid depend much more strongly on the temperature than on the pressure;
therefore, it is common to assume that the density and specific volume of a liquid are functions of temperature only.

Example 2

A container consists of two sections separated by a membrane. Section A contains 0.5 kg of air. Its volume is 0.75 m3. Section B
contains air of density 0.6 kg/m3. Its volume is 0.5 m3. If the membrane is broken, and the air in the two sections mixes and reaches
a uniform state, what is the specific volume of the air at the final state?

Figure 2.2.e2 Two sections filled with air

Solution
The masses and volumes in sections A and B at the initial state are

mA = 0.5 kg (2.3.14)

mB = ρVB = 0.6 × 0.5 = 0.3 kg (2.3.15)

The two sections reach a uniform state at the final state; therefore,

mtotal = mA + mB = 0.5 + 0.3 = 0.8 kg (2.3.16)

3
Vtotal = VA + VB = 0.75 + 0.5 = 1.25 m (2.3.17)

Therefore,

2.2.4 Internal energy and specific internal energy

The essence of the first law of thermodynamics is energy conservation. We need to understand different forms of energy in a
system. Internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy constitute the total stored energy of a system if the system is free of
magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects.
E = U + KE + P E (2.3.18)

where
E (2.3.19)

KE (2.3.20)

PE (2.3.21)

U (2.3.22)

Internal energy is associated with the motions and structure of the molecules of a system in a microscopic level. A system, no
matter how tiny it is, contains a significantly large number of molecules in various modes of random motions, such as translation,
rotation, and vibration. Although it is difficult to predict the behaviour of individual molecules, the statistical average can be

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calculated by using statistical theory. From a statistical standpoint, the internal energy of a system is considered to be the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies of the collection of all molecules in the system. Maxwell explains the relation between the molecular
velocity (a microscopic quantity) and the temperature (a macroscopic quantity) of a gas: as the temperature increases, the gas
molecules move faster causing the mean microscopic kinetic energy of all molecules to increase; therefore, the internal energy of
the system increases. In other words, the internal energy of a substance is strongly associated with the temperature of the substance;
therefore, internal energy is a form of thermal energy. For example, the internal energy of 1 kg of water at 500 kPa increases from
about 83.88 kJ to 167.47 kJ when its temperature increases from 20oC to 40oC. In general, temperature has a dominant effect on the
internal energy of a system although other factors, such as pressure, phase, and chemical composition may also have an effect on
the internal energy of a system.
From a macroscopic standpoint, a thermodynamic system, as a whole, has both kinetic and potential energies when it is in motion
and is positioned at an elevation on Earth. The kinetic and potential energies are two forms of mechanical energy. They must be
described with respect to an external reference frame. When a system experiences a change of elevation or velocity, the kinetic and
potential energies of the system will convert between each other. For example, a rock falling from a cliff gains kinetic energy but
losses potential energy because its elevation decreases with respect to the ground.
In general, the total stored energy of a thermodynamic system consists of the internal, kinetic, and potential energies. However, the
kinetic and potential energies are insignificant compared to the internal energy in many cases, and thus can be neglected.
E, U , KE (2.3.23)

e = u + ke + pe (2.3.24)

where
: total specific energy, in J/kg or kJ/kg
: specific internal energy, J/kg or kJ/kg
: specific kinetic energy, J/kg or kJ/kg
: specific potential energy, J/kg or kJ/kg
The internal energy and specific internal energy are important properties for the analysis of closed systems, which will be explained
in detail in Chapters 4-6.

2.2.5 Enthalpy and specific enthalpy

Enthalpy is an important thermodynamic property for the analysis of open systems or control volumes, where mass transfer is
always accompanied by energy transfer. Enthalpy is calculated as the sum of the internal energy, , and the flow work, , of the
fluid flowing into or out of a control volume.
H = U +PV (2.3.25)

Now, what is flow work and why is it written as ? Let us consider a fluid element entering a control volume of a pipe section, see
Figure 2.2.4. The control volume is illustrated as the red, dashed-lined rectangle. The fluid element, just before it enters the control
volume, is at an equilibrium state and has an internal energy, , and a pressure, . The fluid element carries its internal energy as it
flows into the control volume. In addition, the fluid element must overcome the resistance from the downstream flow in the pipe. In
other words, a certain amount of work must be done to force the fluid element into the control volume. We call such work essential
to maintain the continuous flow of a fluid through a control volume as flow work. Refer to Figure 2.2.4, the flow work can be
calculated as
Wf low work = F L = (P A)L = P (AL) = P V (2.3.26)

where is the pressure force acting on the cross-section, or the left control surface, of the control volume. is the cross-
sectional area of the left control surface. is the distance that the fluid element travels from its original position to where it just
enters the control volume completely. is the volume of the fluid element.
For flow through an open system or control volume, both the internal energy carried by the fluid throughout the flow and the flow
work required to maintain the flow contribute to the change of energy in a control volume. Therefore, it is common to combine the
internal energy and the flow work as a new thermodynamic property, enthalpy, .

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Enthalpy, similar to the internal energy, is an extensive property because its value depends on the mass of a system. Its
corresponding intensive property is called specific enthalpy, or enthalpy per unit mass of a substance.

where
h (2.3.27)

H (2.3.28)

m (2.3.29)

P (2.3.30)

u (2.3.31)

v (2.3.32)

Figure 2.2.4 Flow work

2.2.6 Entropy and specific entropy

Some processes occur spontaneously in nature, such as salt dissolving in water. But some processes cannot occur spontaneously in
nature. For example, water at 80oC and 10oC can mix in a container and eventually reach a thermal equilibrium. The mixture,
however, cannot separate spontaneously into water at 80oC and water at 10oC. In other words, the process of separating the mixture
is “irreversible” and cannot happen spontaneously. We may use a thermodynamic property called entropy to help us understand the
physics of such phenomena.
Entropy is a measure of the lack of order resulting from the dispersal of energy and matter. Every spontaneous process is
accompanied by an increase in the entropy (or disorder) of the universe. From a statistics point of view, it is more probable that the
dispersal of energy and matter in a process is rather “random” than “orderly”. If we consider a fixed amount of gas in an isolated
container, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.5. The probability of the molecules having a random distribution is much higher than the
probability of them having an “orderly” distribution. Entropy is a concept to represent the degree of the “randomness” or “disorder”
of a system. Such “disorder” was explained in statistical theories by early scientists such as Maxwell, Boltzmann, and Gibbs.
Nowadays, entropy has been generally recognized as an important thermodynamic property associated with the “quality” aspect of
the energy of a system; while energy represents the “quantity” aspect of the energy of the system. Both energy and entropy are of
great importance in thermal analysis. The first law of thermodynamics, see Chapters 4 and 5, addresses the concepts of energy and
energy conservation. The second law of thermodynamics is closely associated with the concepts of entropy and entropy generation,
which explain why a process in nature only occurs in the direction of decreasing the quality of energy or increasing the entropy of
the universe. These concepts will be explained in detail as we study the second law of thermodynamics in Chapter 6.
Entropy, , is an extensive property as its value depends on the mass of a system. The common SI units for entropy include kJ/K
and J/K. Its corresponding intensive property is called specific entropy, . Its common SI units are kJ/kgK or J/kgK.

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 Figure 2.2.5 Illustration of ordered and disordered systems

Media Attributions
Steam Power Plant © BillC is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Pressure gauge © Nutzdatenbegleiter is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
U-tube Manometer © OpenStax University Physics is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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2.4: Phase diagrams
P −v (2.4.1)

Figure 2.3.1 Pressure-specific volume-temperature (P-v-T) diagram

2.3.1 P-T diagram

Figure 2.3.2 shows a generic pressure-temperature, , diagram, from which we can observe three single-phase regions, three
curves representing the two-phase mixtures, and two unique points: the triple point and the critical point.
The single phase regions are labeled as solid, liquid, and vapour or gas in the diagram. The liquid and vapour phases are often
called compressed liquid and superheated vapour, respectively.
In the diagram, the two-phase regions appear as curves separating different single phases. The curve that lies between the
liquid and vapour phases is called vaporization line. Each point on the vaporization line represents an equilibrium state of
saturation; the substance is either a saturated liquid, a saturated vapour, or a two-phase liquid-vapour mixture. The temperature and
its corresponding pressure at each point on the vaporization line are called saturation temperature, , and saturation pressure, ,
respectively. Each saturation temperature corresponds to a unique saturation pressure, and vice versa. A liquid (or vapour) starts to
evaporate (or condense) when its temperature and pressure reach and . The saturation properties of selected fluids can be
found in the thermodynamic tables in Appendices A-D.
The curve that represents the transition between the solid and liquid phases is called fusion line. Each point on the fusion line has a
unique set of temperature and pressure called freezing temperature and freezing pressure, respectively. Along the fusion line, the
substance may exist as a saturated liquid, a solid, or a two-phase solid-liquid mixture.
The curve below the triple point is called sublimation line, across which a substance can change directly from solid to vapour or
vice versa without a transition through the liquid phase. Each point on the sublimation line represents an equilibrium state, at which
the substance may exist as a saturated vapour, a solid, or a two-phase solid-vapour mixture.
The vaporization, fusion and sublimation lines meet at the triple point, at which the three phases, solid, liquid, and vapour, coexist
in equilibrium. Appendix F lists the triple points of a selection of pure substances. It is noted, from Figure 2.3.2, that the liquid
phase cannot exist below the triple point pressure. When a substance is at a pressure lower than the triple point pressure, it can only
transition between the solid and vapour phases.
The critical point in the diagram is where the vaporization line ends. The pressure and temperature at the critical point are
called critical pressure, , and critical temperature, , respectively. A state above the critical point has a pressure PP_c"
class="latex mathjax" title="P>P_c" src="/@api/deki/files/58292/49092083efa989d3b86edb9af2904d14.png"> and a temperature
TT_c" class="latex mathjax" title="T>T_c" src="/@api/deki/files/58293/2c51ada5e0efec3ff33cbb52cbf78f5d.png">; therefore, it

is referred to as a supercritical state. A substance at a supercritical state is called supercritical fluid, which has a unique
characteristic: no distinct liquid and gas phases can exist anymore in the supercritical zone. In this book, we will mainly focus on
the subcritical zone, where .

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 Figure 2.3.2 P-T diagram

Figure 2.3.3 P-T diagram for CO2

 Example 2.4.1

Review the P-T diagram for CO2, as shown in Figure 2.3.3.

1. What is the lowest pressure for liquid CO2 to exist?
2. Is CO2 at 100 bar, 275 K a solid, liquid or gas?
3. CO2 at 100 bar, 275 K is cooled in an isobaric process. At approximately what temperature will CO2 start to change its
phase? Will it change to a liquid or a solid? Draw the process line.

Solution
1. From the P-T diagram, the liquid phase can only exist when the pressure is great than the triple point pressure. From
Appendix F, Table F1, CO2 has a triple point pressure of 517 kPa and a triple point temperature of 216.55 K (−56.60 °C),
respectively; therefore, the lowest pressure for liquid CO2 to exist is 517 kPa.
2. From the P-T diagram, Figure 2.3.e1, CO2 at 100 bar, 275 K is in the liquid phase.
3. The isobaric process is shown as the horizontal, yellow line with a constant pressure of 100 bar, see Figure 2.3.e1. At
approximately 220 K, the isobaric process line meets the fusion line, and the liquid CO2 starts to change to solid CO2.

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 Figure 2.3.e1 P-T diagram for CO2, showing the solution to example 1

2.3.2 T-v and P-v diagrams

In many thermodynamic cycles, a working fluid experiences phase changes between liquid and vapour in the subcritical zone, such
as water in a steam power plant and R134a in a vapour-compression refrigeration system. The liquid-vapour phase change can be
illustrated in the and diagrams, as shown in Figures 2.3.4 and 2.3.5. In these diagrams, we can clearly see the three
regions: compressed liquid region, saturated liquid-vapour region, and superheated vapour region. The curve that separates the
compressed liquid region and saturated liquid-vapour region is called the saturated liquid line. Any point on the saturated liquid
line represents a saturated liquid state. In a similar fashion, the curve that lies between the saturated liquid-vapour region and the
superheated vapour region is called the saturated vapour line. Any point on the saturated vapour line represents a saturated vapour
state. The two saturation lines meet at the critical point.
It is important to note that the liquid state is commonly called compressed liquid or subcooled liquid, and the vapour state is
commonly called superheated vapour. In the liquid-vapour, two-phase region, the corresponding isothermal and isobaric processes
coincide and remain as horizontal lines. This indicates that, during the phase change process, both temperature and pressure remain
constant, i.e., and .

Figure 2.3.4 T-v diagram

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 Figure 2.3.5 P-v diagram

2.3.3 The saturated liquid-vapour two-phase region

For a saturated liquid-vapour, two-phase mixture, we define quality x to denote the mass fraction of the saturated vapour in the
mixture.

where

mg (2.4.2)

mmix (2.4.3)

x (2.4.4)

With the concept of quality, we can calculate the specific volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy
for a saturated liquid-vapour, two-phase mixture by using the following equations.

v = vf + x (vg − vf ) = (1 − x) vf + x vg

u = uf + x(ug − uf ) = (1 − x)uf + x ug

h = hf + x(hg − hf ) = (1 − x)hf + x hg

s = sf + x(sg − sf ) = (1 − x)sf + x sg

where
v (2.4.5)

u (2.4.6)

h (2.4.7)

s (2.4.8)

Media Attributions
P-v-T phase diagram © Д.Ильин: vectorization is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
P-T diagram © Xia Liao, Haichen Zhang, and Ting He is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
P-T Diagram for CO2 © Rifleman_82 is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
P-T diagram for CO2 (example 1 solution) © Rifleman_82 is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
T-v diagram © Olivier Cleynen is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
P-v diagram © Olivier Cleynen is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license

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(BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon
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2.5: Thermodynamic tables
Thermodynamic tables are commonly used to determine the properties of a substance at a given state. This book includes the tables
for four pure substances: water, ammonia, R134a, and carbon dioxide. The data in these tables are obtained from NIST Chemistry
WebBook, SRD 69, which consists of the thermophysical properties of various common fluids.
Appendix A: Thermodynamic Properties of Water
Table A1: Saturated water
Table A2: Superheated vapour, water
Table A3: Compressed liquid water
Appendix B: Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia
Table B1: Saturated ammonia
Table B2: Superheated ammonia
Appendix C: Thermodynamic Properties of R134a
Table C1: Saturated R134a
Table C2: Superheated R134a
Appendix D: Thermodynamic Properties of Carbon Dioxide
Table D1: Saturated CO2
Table D2: Superheated CO2
Tables A1, B1, C1, and D1 are the tables for the saturated fluids. They are used to find the properties of the corresponding fluids in
saturated liquid, saturated vapour, and two-phase regions. Tables A2, B2, C2, and D2 are the superheated vapour tables for finding
the properties of the fluids in the superheated vapour region. Table A3 is the compressed liquid table for water.
In these tables, the specific volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy are tabulated as functions of the
pressure and temperature. Among those thermodynamic properties, , , and are measurable properties, and , , and cannot be
measured directly; they are calculated with respect to predefined reference states. The reference states for the tables in this book are
clearly stated in Appendices A-D.

u (2.5.1)

How do we determine if a fluid is a compressed liquid, superheated vapour, or two-phase liquid-vapour mixture? How do we find
the fluid properties at a certain state? By examining the tables in Appendices A-D, you probably have noticed that all properties in
these tables are intensive properties. To determine the fluid properties at a certain state, we will need to know two intensive
properties from this list: , , , , , , and . The following flow charts demonstrate the procedure.
Case 1: both T and P are given. You may draw a diagram (see Figure 2.3.2) to help you better understand the flow chart in
Figure 2.4.1.

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 Figure 2.4.1 Flow chart for determining fluid properties from thermodynamic tables if P and T are known
Case 2: both T and x are given. You may draw a diagram (see Figure 2.3.4) to help you better understand the flow chart in
Figure 2.4.2.

Figure 2.4.2 Flow chart for determining fluid properties from thermodynamic tables if T and x are known
Case 3: both T and v are given. You may draw a diagram (see Figure 2.3.4) to help you better understand the flow chart in
Figure 2.4.3.

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 Figure 2.4.3 Flow chart for determining fluid properties from thermodynamics tables if T and v are known

u (2.5.2)

The compressed liquid table is presented only for water in the pressure range of 0.5-50 MPa in this book. When the compressed
liquid tables are not available for a specific fluid or in a specific range, the saturated liquid properties at the same temperature may
be used as an approximation, i.e., , , , and .
The tables in Appendices A-D are presented with a small temperature increment. Linear interpolations, see Figure 2.4.4, are often
used if the given temperature or other properties cannot be found directly from these tables.
y1 − y0
y = y0 + (x − x0 ) (2.5.3)
x1 − x0

where is the state, at which the property is known and the property is to be found. and indicate the properties of
two known states, between which the unknown state is located. To improve the accuracy, the two states should be selected as
close as possible to the unknown state.

Figure 2.4.4 Linear interpolation

The following examples demonstrate how to use these tables to find the properties of a compressed liquid, superheated vapour, and
liquid-vapour mixture.

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 Example 2.5.1
Determine the properties of water at T=150oC and P=100 kPa.

Solution
1. Both temperature and pressure are given for water. Use the flow chart for case 1, Figure 2.4.1.
2. From Table A1: at T=150oC, Psat = 0.47617 MPa = 476.17 kPa.
3. Because P=100 kPa < 476.17 kPa, or P < Psat , water at this state is a superheated vapour.
4. From Table A2: at T=150oC and P=100 kPa,
v = 1.93665 m3/kg, u = 2582.94 kJ/kg
h = 2776.60 kJ/kg, s = 7.6148 kJ/kgK

 Example 2.5.2

Determine the properties of ammonia at T=0oC and v =0.2 m3/kg.

Solution
1. Both T and v are given for ammonia. Use the flow chart for case 3, Figure 2.4.3.
2. From Table B1: at T=0oC, vf =0.001566 m3/kg and vg = 0.289297 m3/kg.
3. Because vf < v < vg , ammonia at this state is a liquid-vapour two–phase mixture. Its pressure and quality are

P = Psat = 0.42939 MPa = 429.39 kPa (2.5.4)

v − vf 0.2 − 0.001566
x = = = 0.68965 (2.5.5)
vg − vf 0.289297 − 0.001566

From Table B1: at T=0oC,

uf =342.48 kJ/kg and ug = 1481.17 kJ/kg
hf = 343.16 kJ/kg and hg = 1605.39 kJ/kg
sf = 1.4716 kJ/kgK and sg = 6.0926 kJ/kgK
Therefore, the specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy of this two-phase mixture are

 Example 2.5.3

Refrigerant R134a has a specific enthalpy h = 420 kJ/kg at T=20oC. Determine the pressure P and specific volume v of R134a
at this state.

Solution
Solution:
1. Refer to case 4 as both T and h are given for R134a. Because the procedures for cases 3 and 4 are the same, the flow chart
for case 3, Figure 2.4.3, is used by replacing v with h.
2. From Table C1: at T=20oC, hg=409.75 kJ/kg. Because h = 420 kJ/kg > hg , R134a at this state is a superheated vapour.
3. From Table C2:

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 At T=20oC and P1 = 100 kPa: h1 = 420.31 kJ/kg, v1 = 0.233731 m3/kg
At T=20oC and P2 = 150 kPa: h2 = 419.33 kJ/kg, v2 = 0.154053 m3/kg
Because 419.33 kJ/kg < 420 kJ/kg < 420.31 kJ/kg, the pressure of R134a at the given state must be between 100 kPa
and 150 kPa. Use linear interpolation to calculate the pressure and specific volume at the given state.
Pressure
P − P1 h − h1
∵ = (2.5.6)
P2 − P1 h2 − h1

P − 100 420 − 420.31

∴ = (2.5.7)
150 − 100 419.33 − 420.31

∴ P = 115.82 kPa (2.5.8)

Specific volume
v − v1 h − h1
∵ = (2.5.9)
v2 − v1 h2 − h1

v − 0.233731 420 − 420.31

∴ = (2.5.10)
0.154053 − 0.233731 419.33 − 420.31

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2.6: Chapter review
An important step in thermodynamic analysis is to predict the thermodynamic properties, in particular, the intensive properties at
different states of a process or a cycle. In this chapter, we have introduced common thermodynamic properties of pure substances,
and how to use phase diagrams and thermodynamic tables to determine the phase of a fluid and its corresponding properties at a
given state. Below are the key takeaways:
Pure substances may be used as working fluids in thermal devices. A pure substance may exist as a single-phase matter, such as
solid, liquid, vapour or gas, or a saturated two-phase mixture.
The state of a pure substance can be illustrated in the and phase diagrams.
A state of a pure substance is fixed by two independent, intensive properties.
For a single-phase fluid, if two intensive properties from the list: and are known, then the state is fixed.
For a two-phase mixture, if two properties from the list: and the quality are known, then the state is fixed.
The properties of a fixed state can be extracted from the thermodynamic tables directly or by using linear interpolations.
and diagrams are of particular importance in thermodynamic analysis. It is highly recommended that students
relate the appropriate phase diagrams to the flow charts in Section 2.4, when practicing how to locate a state and how to read
thermodynamic tables.

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2.7: Key Equations
Pressure, temperature, and specific volume
Pressure

Absolute and gauge pressures

Absolute and vacuum pressures

Density

Specific volume

Conversion of temperatures in Kelvin and Celsius degrees

Energy, enthalpy, and entropy

Total stored energy in a system

Total stored specific energy in a system

Enthalpy

Specific internal energy

Specific enthalpy and

Specific entropy

Saturated liquid-vapour two-phase mixtures

Quality

Specific volume

Specific internal energy

Specific enthalpy

Specific entropy

Compressed liquid (when the compressed liquid tables are not available)
Specific volume

Specific internal energy

Specific enthalpy

Specific entropy

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

3: Ideal and Real Gasses

This chapter explains the concepts of “ideal” gas, ideal gas law, real gas, and compressibility factor. Students will learn the
difference between an “ideal” and real gases, and at what conditions the ideal gas model may be used as an approximation for
evaluating properties, such as pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas.
3.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
3.2: Ideal gas and ideal gas equation of state
3.3: Real gas and compressibility factor
3.4: Chapter Review
3.5: Key Equations

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request.

1
3.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
 Learning Objectives

After completing the module, you should be able to

Understand the limitation of the ideal gas equation of state
Apply the ideal gas equation of state in solving engineering problems as appropriate
Explain the difference between “ideal” and real gases
Calculate the compressibility factor of a pure substance at a given state
Identify if a substance may be treated as an ideal or real gas for a given condition based on its compressibility factor

Thermodynamic tables are commonly used to evaluate thermodynamic properties of a pure substance. This method is accurate, but
may be time consuming for complicated calculations. It would be desirable if, for some special cases, a simple method with
relatively good accuracy could be developed for evaluating thermodynamic properties.
This chapter introduces the concepts of “ideal” gas, ideal gas equation of state (EOS), real gas, and compressibility factor. It
explains the difference between “ideal” and real gases, and at what conditions the ideal gas model may be used as an approximation
for evaluating thermodynamic properties of simple gases.

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history is available upon request.

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3.2: Ideal gas and ideal gas equation of state
Consider a container of fixed volume filled with a gas. When the container is heated, the gas temperature will increase, causing the
gas pressure to increase. The variations of gas pressure and temperature are governed by the equations of state. An equation of state
(EOS) is an expression that relates pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a gas.
The simplest equation of state is the ideal gas equation of state, which is expressed as
P v = RT (3.2.1)

where
m : mass, in kg
V : volume, in m3
3
v : specific volume, in m /kg

T : absolute temperature, in K

P : pressure, in kPa or Pa

R : gas constant in kJ/kgK or J/kgK

A gas which obeys the ideal gas EOS is called an ideal gas. The ideal gas model is a hypothetical model. It approximates the
behaviour of a gas at high temperatures and low pressures in the superheated vapour region.
When a gas is at a state near the saturation region or its critical point, the gas behaviour deviates from the ideal gas model
significantly. For example, Figure 3.1.1 shows the diagram for water. Steam in the shaded region is either at a high
temperature or a low pressure. The ideal gas model is valid in this region with a relative error of less than 1%. Moving out of the
shaded region and towards the saturated vapour line or the critical point, the relative error increases significantly because the ideal
gas EOS can no longer represent the gas behaviour in these regions.
A common mistake that students tend to make is to use the ideal gas EOS in all calculations without evaluating its suitability for
the given conditions. It is important to note that, although many gasses may be treated as ideal gases in a certain range of pressures
and temperatures, the ideal gas EOS is NOT valid for gases in all conditions. Therefore, it cannot be used without verification.
The compressibility factor in Section 3.2 explains how to verify if a gas is an “ideal” or real gas.

Figure 3.1.1 T-v diagram for water

 Example 3.2.1
Two tanks contain methane. For the given conditions, methane can be treated as an ideal gas.
Tank 1 has a volume of 0.3 m3, and is at a temperature of 20°C and a pressure of 300 kPa.
Tank 2 contains 1.5 kg of methane, and is at a temperature of 30°C and a pressure of 800 kPa.
The partition between the two tanks is removed to allow methane in the tanks to mix and reach equilibrium. What is the
equilibrium pressure if the temperature of the two tanks is 25°C at equilibrium?

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 Figure 3.1.e1 Rigid tanks containing methane

Solution
Methane is treated as an ideal gas at the given conditions.
From Table G1: R=0.5182 kJ/kgK for methane.
Apply the ideal gas law to both initial and final conditions of methane in the two tanks.
Tank 1 at the initial condition:
P1 V1 = m1 RT1 (3.2.2)

P1 V1 300 × 0.3
m1 = = = 0.5925 kg (3.2.3)
RT1 0.5182 × (273.15 + 20)

Tank 2 at the initial condition:

P2 V2 = m2 RT2 (3.2.4)

m2 RT2 1.5 × 0.5182 × (273.15 + 30)

3
V2 = = = 0.2945 m (3.2.5)
P2 800

The two tanks are in equilibrium at the final state.

m3 = m1 + m2 = 0.5925 + 1.5 = 2.0925 kg (3.2.6)

3
V3 = V1 + V2 = 0.3 + 0.2945 = 0.5945 m (3.2.7)

P3 V3 = m3 R3 T3 (3.2.8)

m3 RT3 2.0925 × 0.5182 × (273.15 + 25)

P3 = = = 543.8 kPa (3.2.9)
V3 0.5925

The equilibrium pressure of the two tanks at the final state is 543.8 kPa.
Important note:
The temperature must be expressed in Kelvin when applying the ideal gas EOS.

 Example 3.2.2
Consider 1 kg of oxygen in a piston-cylinder device undergoing a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three processes.
Process 1 2: isochoric
Process 2 3: isothermal expansion
Process 3 1: isobaric compression
At state 1, T1= 300 K, P1=1.5 atm. At state 2, P2= 3 atm. Treat oxygen as an ideal gas at the given conditions.
1. Sketch the cycle on a diagram.
2. Determine the temperature, T2 , at state 2, and the specific volume, v3, at state 3.

Solution
The cycle on a diagram

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 Figure 3.1.e2 P-v diagram of a cycle consisting of three processes
2. Oxygen is treated as an ideal gas at the given conditions.
From Table G1: R=0.2598 kJ/kgK for oxygen.
Apply the ideal gas law to the three processes.
Process 1 2 is an isochoric process; therefore, the specific volume remains constant in the process,
∵ P v = RT (3.2.10)

RT1
∴ v1 = (3.2.11)
P1

∵ v1 = v2 (3.2.12)

T2 P2
∴ = (3.2.13)
T1 P1

P2 3
∴ T2 = T1 × = 300 × = 600 K (3.2.14)
P1 1.5

Process 2 3 is an isothermal expansion process; therefore, .

Process 3 1 is an isobaric compression process; therefore,
P3 = P1 = 1.5 atm = 1.5 × 101.325 = 152 kPa (3.2.15)

The temperature at state 2 is 600 K and the specific volume at state 3 is 1.026 m3/kg.
Important note:
The temperature must be expressed in Kelvin when applying the ideal gas EOS.

Media Attributions
T-v diagram for water © Israel Urieli adapted by DIANA BAIRAKTAROVA is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution
ShareAlike) license

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3.3: Real gas and compressibility factor
P −v−T (3.3.1)

The compressibility factor is a dimensionless correction factor to account for the deviation of the real gas behaviour from the
“ideal” gas model. It is defined as
P v = ZRT (3.3.2)

where
Z (3.3.3)

v (3.3.4)

T (3.3.5)

P (3.3.6)

R (3.3.7)

The compressibility factor of an ideal gas is exactly one. For real gases, the compressibility factor may be very different from one.
Figures 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 illustrate the compressibility factors of hydrogen and nitrogen, respectively, over a range of pressures and
temperatures. It can be seen that the compressibility factor changes with both pressure and temperature. As the pressure approaches
zero, the compressibility factor tends to converge to one. In other words, a real gas may behave like an ideal gas at “low” pressures
regardless of its temperature.
From Figures 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, it can be seen that the compressibility charts for different gases may vary largely. It is therefore more
practical to use a generalized compressibility chart, as shown in Figure 3.2.3, where the pressures and temperatures are normalized
with respect to the critical pressure and critical temperature of a gas. The reduced pressure and reduced temperature are
defined as

where
: pressure, in kPa or Pa
: critical pressure, in kPa or Pa. and must have the same unit.
: reduced pressure, dimensionless
: absolute temperature, in K
: critical temperature, in K
: reduced temperature, dimensionless
The compressibility factor is thus plotted as a function of and . The generalized compressibility chart can be viewed as a
graphical representation of the gas behaviour over a wide range of pressures and temperatures. It is valid for many substances,
especially those that have simple molecular structures. From Figure 3.2.3, it can be seen that the smallest compressibility factor
occurs at the critical point, and . This indicates that a real gas deviates significantly from the ideal gas behaviour near its
critical point. As or , the compressibility factor . In other words, a real gas behaves like an ideal gas at “low”
pressures and “high” temperatures.

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 Figure 3.2.1 Compressibility factor of hydrogen

Figure 3.2.2 Compressibility factor of nitrogen

Figure 3.2.3 Lee-Kesler simple fluid compressibility factor

Typically, thermodynamic tables or real-gas EOS are used for evaluating the relation of pressure, temperature, and specific volume
of real gases. If neither tool is available, the generalized compressibility chart may be used instead as a fast and reasonably accurate
tool, especially for substances with simple molecular structures. Below is the procedure of how to use the generalized
compressibility chart, followed by examples.
1. Find the critical pressure, , and critical temperature, , of a substance from Appendix E
2. Calculate the reduced pressure, , and reduced temperature, , of the substance at the given condition
3. Estimate the compressibility factor, , from Figure 3.2.3.

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4. Apply to determine the unknown specific volume (if needed)

 Example 3.3.1

Find the compressibility factor of the following substances at the given conditions. Is it reasonable to treat them as ideal gases
at the given conditions?
1. Methane at -50oC, 4.1 MPa
2. Ammonia at 600oC, 500 kPa

Solution
1. Methane at -50oC, 4.1 MPa
First, find the critical properties of methane from Table E1.

Tcrit = 190.6 K (3.3.8)

Second, calculate the reduced temperature and reduced pressure.

T 273.15 − 50
Tr = = = 1.17 (3.3.9)
Tcrit 190.6

P 4.10
Pr = = = 0.89 (3.3.10)
Pcrit 4.60

From Figure 3.2.3, the compressibility factor ; therefore, methane at the given condition cannot be treated as
an ideal gas.
2. Ammonia at 600oC, 500 kPa
First, find the critical properties of ammonia from Table E1.
Tcrit = 405.4 K (3.3.11)

Second, calculate the reduced temperature and reduced pressure.

T 273.15 + 600
Tr = = = 2.15 (3.3.12)
Tcrit 405.4

P 0.5
Pr = = = 0.04 (3.3.13)
Pcrit 11.34

From Figure 3.2.3, the compressibility factor ; therefore, ammonia can be treated as an ideal gas at the given
condition. Note that the reduced temperature of ammonia is greater than 2 and the reduced pressure is very small,
indicating the given state is far away from the critical point.

 Example 3.3.2

Calculate the specific volume of steam at 3 MPa, 350oC by using three methods: (1) superheated water vapour table, (2) ideal
gas EOS, and (3) compressibility factor. How accurate is each of the methods?

Solution
Method 1: use the steam table.
From Table A2: P=3 MPa and T=350oC, therefore, v=0.09056 m3/kg
Method 2: use the ideal gas EOS alone
From Table G1: R=0.4615 kJ/kgK for steam.
∵ P v = RT (3.3.14)

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 The relative error in comparison to method 1 is
|0.09586 − 0.09056|
error% = × 100% = 5.85% (3.3.15)
0.09056

Method 3: use the ideal gas EOS corrected by the compressibility factor
From Table E1: Pcrit=22.06 MPa, Tcrit=647.1 K for water.
Calculate the reduced pressure and reduced temperature at the given condition:
P 3
Pr = = = 0.136 (3.3.16)
Pcrit 22.06

T 273.15 + 350
Tr = = = 0.963 (3.3.17)
Tcrit 647.1

Estimate the compressibility factor from Figure 3.2.3:

Calculate the specific volume at the given condition by incorporating the compressibility factor

∵ P v = ZRT (3.3.18)

The relative error in comparison to method 1 is

|0.09011 − 0.09056|
error% = × 100% = 0.497% (3.3.19)
0.09056

Comment:
Method 1 gives the most accurate value for specific volume among the three methods, as the steam table is specific for water
vapour at different pressures and temperatures. Method 2 assumes steam as an ideal gas. This method is easy to use but gives
the least accurate result. Method 3, by correcting the ideal gas EOS with the compressibility factor, improves the accuracy of
the calculation.

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3.4: Chapter Review
The ideal gas EOS is the simplest model to relate the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a gas. It can be used for
thermodynamic analysis if the compressibiliy factor of a gas at a given condition approaches one, or the gas behaves like an “ideal”
gas. It is important to note that, despite its simplicity, the ideal gas EOS cannot be used in all conditions. Its suitability at a given
state must be verified.
A real gas doesn’t obey the ideal gas EOS at a given state. For a real gas, the compressibility factor can be incorporated to improve
the accuracy of the prediction of the relation. The compressibility factor of a gas may be obtained from the generalized
compressibility chart.

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3.5: Key Equations

and

m : (3.5.1)

R : (3.5.2)

Ideal gas equation of state (mass form)

V : (3.5.3)

v : (3.5.4)

T : (3.5.5)

Compressibility factor

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

4: The First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems

This chapter explains the concepts of heat, work, and the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems. Through examples,
students will learn how to apply the first law of thermodynamics to engineering problems involving closed systems.
4.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
4.2: Internal energy in a system
4.3: Heat transfer across a boundary
4.4: Work
4.5: The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems
4.6: Chapter review
4.7: Key equations

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detailed edit history is available upon request.

1
4.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
The first law of thermodynamics is the law of energy conservation: the energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it is
conserved in a system. This chapter explains the fundamental concepts of heat and work, and the first law of thermodynamics.
Examples are given to illustrate the applications of the first law of thermodynamics in closed systems.

 Learning Objectives
After completing the chapter, you should be able to
Determine the internal energy of real substances by using thermodynamic tables
Calculate the internal energy of ideal gases by using constant-volume specific heat
Calculate different forms of work, such as the boundary work in various processes and the spring work due to the
deformation of a spring
Explain the differences between work, heat, and energy stored in a system
Explain the physical meaning of the first law of thermodynamics
Apply the first law of thermodynamics to closed systems

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4.2: Internal energy in a system
The total energy of a system may consist of internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, and other forms of energy. For a
system free of magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects, its total energy and corresponding specific energy can be expressed as
E = U + KE + P E (4.2.1)

e = u + ke + pe (4.2.2)

where , and represent the total energy, internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy of a system, respectively;
, and are their corresponding specific energies. Recall from Chapter 2, internal energy is a form of thermal energy. A
system at different states may have different internal energies due to different temperature and pressure at each state; therefore, is
a state function. It is important to note that the change in internal energy in a process depends on the initial and final states, not on
the path of the process. For example, although the three processes in Figure 4.1.1 undergo different paths, their changes in internal
energy, , between the two states 1 and 2 are the same because the three processes have identical initial states and identical final
states.
The first law of thermodynamics gives the relation between the total energy stored in a system and the energy transferred into or
out of the system in the form of heat and work. In this chapter, we will firstly introduce the common methods of determining
internal energy and work, and then the first law of thermodynamics and its applications to closed systems.

Figure 4.1.1 P- v diagram showing different process paths with the same initial and final states

4.1.1 Using thermodynamic tables to determine specific internal energy u

For pure substances with available thermodynamic tables, the specific internal energy can be read from the thermodynamic tables,
then the internal energy can be found from
U = mu (4.2.3)

where
m (4.2.4)

U (4.2.5)

u (4.2.6)

 Example 4.2.1
Complete the table, and label each state on the P-T, T-v and P-v diagrams.

T P v u
Substance oC x Phase
kPa m3/kg kJ/kg

1 Water 60 500

2 R134a 40 0.1

Solution
1. Water at 60oC and 500 kPa

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 From Table A1: Psat = 0.01995 MPa = 19.95 kPa at 60oC. The given pressure P = 500 kPa > Psat ; therefore, water at
the given state is a compressed liquid.
From Table A3: v = 0.001017 m3/kg and u = 251.08 kJ/kg for the given state.

Figure 4.1.e1 Water is a compressed liquid at the given state, as illustrated on the phase diagrams.
2. R134a at 40 C and 0.1 m3/kg
o

From Table C1: vg = 0.019966 m3/kg at 40oC. The given specific volume v = 0.1 m3/kg > vg ; therefore, R134a at the
given state is a superheated vapour.
From Table C2:
v = 0.080629 m3/kg and u = 410.00 kJ/kg at 40oC and 300 kPa
v = 0.123226 m3/kg and u = 411.22 kJ/kg at 40oC and 200 kPa
Use linear interpolation to find P and u at the given condition
P − 300 0.1 − 0.080629
∵ = (4.2.7)
200 − 300 0.123226 − 0.080629

∴ P = 254.52 kPa (4.2.8)

u − 410.00 0.1 − 0.080629

∵ = (4.2.9)
411.22 − 410.00 0.123226 − 0.080629

Figure 4.1.e2 R134a is a superheated vapour at the given state, as illustrated on the phase diagrams.
In summary, the table below gives the final answers to the question.

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 T P v u
Substance oC x Phase
kPa m3/kg kJ/kg

Compressed
1 Water 60 500 0.001017 251.08 n.a.
liquid
Superheated
2 R134a 40 254.52 0.1 410.55 n.a.
vapour

4.1.2 Constant-volume specific heat

When a substance absorbs heat, its temperature tends to increase. Different substances require different amounts of heat for a given
temperature rise. For example, it requires 4.18 kJ of heat to warm up 1 kg of water by 1oC. But it only requires 2.22 kJ of heat to
warm up the same amount of gasoline by 1oC. In other words, water and gasoline have different energy storage capacities. Specific
heat, also called heat capacity, is an important property used to quantify the energy storage capacity of a substance. Specific heat is
defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of one unit mass (i.e., 1 kg) of a substance by one degree (i.e., 1oC, or 1 K),
1 δQ
C =( ) (4.2.10)
m ∂T

where
C (4.2.11)

m (4.2.12)

δQ
(4.2.13)
∂T

The specific heat of a substance may be measured in an isochoric or isobaric process; they are therefore called constant-volume
specific heat, , and constant-pressure specific heat, , respectively. Both and are properties of a substance. They can be used
to calculate the changes of specific internal energy, , and specific enthalpy, , respectively, in a process involving ideal gases,
liquids and solids. The constant-volume specific heat is introduced below in detail and the constant-pressure specific heat will be
introduced in Chapter 5.
Constant-volume specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of one unit mass (i.e., 1 kg) of a substance
by one degree (i.e., 1oC, or 1 K) in an isochoric process. Mathematically, it is expressed as,
∂u
Cv = ( ) (4.2.14)
∂T
v

where

Cv (4.2.15)

u (4.2.16)

T (4.2.17)

The constant-volume specific heat of selected ideal gases can be found in Appendix G, Table G1. For example, oxygen has
0.658 kJ/kgK. If we heat up 1 kg of oxygen at 300 K in a sealed, rigid tank, it will require 0.658 kJ of heat for the temperature of
the oxygen to rise from 300 K to 301 K.
It is important to note that although is typically measured in isochoric processes, it is a property of a substance. The use of is
NOT limited to isochoric processes. As can be seen in the next section, for ideal gases can be used to calculate the change in
specific internal energy, , in ANY processes.

4.1.3 Using Cv to calculate Δu for ideal gases

A gas behaves like an ideal gas as its compressibility factor . The specific internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of
temperature only, ; therefore,

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 ∂u du
Cv = ( ) =( ) = f (T ) (4.2.18)
∂T dT
v v

The change in specific internal energy between two states in any process involving ideal gases can be found from
Δu = u2 − u1 = Cv (T2 − T1 ) (4.2.19)

where
u (4.2.20)

T (4.2.21)

Cv (4.2.22)

The above equation provides a convenient way for estimating of ideal gases in a process. Its accuracy depends on the change in
temperature in a process. In many cases, especially, those with small temperature variations, this method is reasonably accurate and
can be used for ideal gases when the thermodynamic tables are not available. If the thermodynamic tables are available or high
accuracy is required for the process analysis, it is preferable to use the thermodynamic tables to determine at different states first,
and then .

 Example 4.2.2

Two kilograms of air is heated from 10oC to 40oC. Calculate the change in internal energy, , in this process. Will your
answer be different if the process is isochoric or isobaric?

Solution
Air is treated as an ideal gas. From Table G1: ; therefore,

ΔU = mΔu = 2 × 21.54 = 43.08 kJ (4.2.23)

The change in internal energy in this process is 43.08 kJ. As is a property of the substance (e.g., air in this example), the
answer will be the same regardless of the type of the process.

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4.3: Heat transfer across a boundary
The total energy stored in a system may change when energy is transferred into or out of the system. For a closed system, the
energy transfer is achieved via two mechanisms: heat and work, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.3.
Heat transfer takes place when a temperature difference exists between a system and its surroundings. As heat transfer must cross
the system boundary, it is a boundary phenomenon. The heat transfer between two states during a process can be written as
2

1 Q2 =∫ δQ (4.3.1)
1

Different from internal energy, heat transfer is NOT a state function. It is a path function because the amount of heat that is
absorbed or rejected by a substance in a process depends not only on the initial and final states, but also on the process path.
Although heat transfer is NOT a property of a system, it has a significant effect on the changes of properties of the system in a
process.
Specific heat transfer refers to the amount of heat transfer per unit mass of a substance. It is defined as
Q
q = (4.3.2)
m

where

m (4.3.3)

Q (4.3.4)

q (4.3.5)

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4.4: Work
Work is a form of mechanical energy associated with a force and its resulting displacement. When a force moves a body from one
position to another, it does work on that body over the distance, see Figure 4.3.1.
2

1 W2 =∫ F dx (4.4.1)
1

The common SI units for work are kJ and J.

Figure 4.3.1 Work done due to a force acting on a block over a distance

4.3.1 Boundary work

Work associated with the expansion and compression of a gas is commonly called boundary work because it is done at the
boundary between a system and its surroundings.
Let us consider a piston-cylinder device, as illustrated in Figure 4.3.2. The gas in the cylinder exerts an upward force, , where
is the gas pressure, and is the cross-sectional area of the piston. Upon receiving heat, the gas will tend to expand, pushing the
piston up. We will assume the expansion process is quasi-equilibrium, and the piston moves up an infinitesimal distance . The
boundary work done by the gas to the surroundings in this infinitesimal process is ; therefore, the total
boundary work between two states in a process can be written as
2

1 W2 =∫ P dV (4.4.2)
1

where
P (4.4.3)

V (4.4.4)

1 W2 (4.4.5)

Specific boundary work refers to the boundary work done by a unit mass of a substance. It can be written as
2

1 w2 =∫ P dv (4.4.6)
1

where
P (4.4.7)

v (4.4.8)

1 w2 (4.4.9)

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 Figure 4.3.2 Boundary work caused by the expansion of gas in a piston-cylinder device
From the integral equations for and , we can tell that the boundary work and specific boundary work between any two states
in a process can be illustrated graphically as the area under the process curve in the and diagrams, respectively. For
example, the shaded area in Figure 4.3.3 represents the specific boundary work between states 1 and 2 in the compression process
A. The three compression processes, A, B, and C in Figure 4.3.3 have different specific boundary work because of their different
paths. By comparing the areas under the process curves, we can tell that process A has the smallest specific boundary work and
process C has the largest specific boundary work.
Figure 4.3.3 demonstrates that the boundary work and specific boundary work in a quasi-equilibrium process are path functions;
they depend on the initial and final states as well as the process path. Boundary work can be defined as positive or negative. Here is
a common sign convention: the boundary work in an expansion process is positive. This is because the change of volume in an
expansion process is positive. Likewise, the boundary work in a compression process is negative.

Figure 4.3.3 P-v diagram showing the specific boundary work as the shaded area under the P-v curve

Example 1

Consider a rigid sealed tank of a volume of 0.3 m3 containing nitrogen at 10oC and 150 kPa. The tank is heated until the
temperature of the nitrogen reaches 50oC. Treat nitrogen as an ideal gas.
1. Sketch the process on a diagram
2. Calculate the boundary work in this process
3. Calculate the change in internal energy in this process
Solution
1. diagram

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 Figure 4.3.e1 Isochoric process in a rigid sealed tank
2. The boundary work is zero because the volume of nitrogen remains constant in the process.
2

1 W2 =∫ P dV = 0 (4.4.10)
1

3. Change in internal energy in the process

From Table G1:
R=0.2968 kJ/kgK and Cv= 0.743 kJ/kgK
The mass of nitrogen:
∵ P V = mRT (4.4.11)

PV 150 × 0.3
∴ m = = = 0.5355 kg (4.4.12)
RT 0.2968 × (273.15 + 10)

The change in internal energy:

ΔU = mΔu = m Cv (T2 − T1 )

= 0.5355 × 0.743 × (50 − 10) = 15.9 kJ

Nitrogen absorbs 15.9 kJ of heat in this process.

Example 2

Consider 0.2 kg of ammonia in a reciprocating compressor (piston-cylinder device) undergoing an isobaric expansion. The initial
and final temperatures of the ammonia are 0oC and 30oC, respectively. The pressure remains 100 kPa in the process.
1. Sketch the process on a diagram
2. Calculate the boundary work in this process
3. Calculate the change in internal energy in this process
Solution:
1. diagram

Figure 4.3.e2 An isobaric expansion process in the superheated vapour region

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2. Boundary work
From Table B2: for the initial state 1 at T = 0oC, P = 100 kPa,

For the final state 2 at T = 30oC, P = 100 kPa,

Graphically, the specific boundary work is the shaded rectangular area under the process line in the P – diagram.
2

1 W2 = m 1 w2 = m ∫ P dv = mP (v2 − v1 )
1

= 0.2 × 100 × (1.46562 − 1.31365) = 3.0394 kJ

3. Change in internal energy

ΔU = mΔu = m(u2 − u1 )

= 0.2 × (1554.1 − 1504.29) = 9.962 kJ

Example 3

Consider air undergoing an isothermal expansion. The initial and final pressures of the air are 200 kPa and 100 kPa respectively.
The temperature of the air remains 50oC in the process. Treat air as an ideal gas.
1. Sketch the process on a diagram
2. Calculate the specific boundary work in this process
3. Calculate the change in specific internal energy in this process
Solution:
1. diagram

Figure 4.3.e3 Isothermal expansion process

2. Specific Boundary work
From Table G1: R = 0.287 kJ/kgK for air. The ideal gas, air, undergoes an isothermal process.
∵ P v = RT (4.4.13)

RT
∴ P = (4.4.14)
v

2 2
RT
1 W2 =∫ P dv = ∫ dv
1 1
v
2
1 v2 P1
= RT ∫ dv = RT ln = RT ln
1
v v1 P2

200
= 0.287 × (273.15 + 50)ln = 64.285 kJ
100

3. The process is isothermal; therefore, the temperature remains constant and the change in internal energy is zero.
Δu = Cv (T2 − T1 ) = 0 (4.4.15)

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4.3.2 Polytropic process and its boundary work
A polytropic process refers to any quasi-equilibrium thermodynamic process, which can be described with the following
mathematical expression.
n
PV = constant (4.4.16)

where

P (4.4.17)

V (4.4.18)

v (4.4.19)

n (4.4.20)

By adjusting to different values, the above two simple expressions can be used to represent the relations of pressure-volume or
pressure-specific volume of various processes that are encountered in real thermal systems, including the isobaric, isochoric, and
isothermal processes. Table 4.3.1 lists the polytropic exponents corresponding to an ideal gas undergoing an isobaric, isochoric, and
isothermal process, respectively.
Table 4.3.1 Ideal gas equation of state expressed in polytropic relations
Process Polytropic exponent Ideal gas equation of state Polytropic relation

Isobaric

and
Isothermal
∴ P v = constant (4.4.21)

Isochoric

Figure 4.3.4 shows different polytropic processes of an ideal gas. In many actual thermodynamic processes, the polytropic

exponents are typically in the range of , where . and are the constant-pressure and constant-volume specific heats,
respectively.

Figure 4.3.4 Different processes of an ideal gas

The boundary work and corresponding specific boundary work in a polytropic process can be calculated by using the following
equations. Detailed derivations are left for the readers to practice.
The following expressions are valid for both real and ideal gases.
If ,
\[{}_{1}W_{2}=\displaystyle\frac
{1-n}\\\]

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\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}=\displaystyle\frac
{1-n}\\\]
If
V2 V2
1 W2 = P1 V1 ln = P2 V2 ln (4.4.22)
V1 V1

\[{}_{1}W_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{1}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\ \]
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}{v}_\mathbf{1}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}{v}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}{v}_\mathbf{1}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}{v}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
The following two expressions are valid only for ideal gases in an isothermal process ( ).
If
\[\ {}_{1}W_{2}=
{ln}{\displaystyle\frac{\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{2}}{\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{1}}}={ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\ \]
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}=
{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}={ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
where

1 W2 (4.4.23)

1 w2 (4.4.24)

P (4.4.25)

V (4.4.26)

v (4.4.27)

T (4.4.28)

R (4.4.29)

m (4.4.30)

Example 4

Consider an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process. At the initial state: P1=200 kPa, v1=0.05 m3/kg. At the final state: v2=0.1
m3/kg. For n=1.3 and n=1,
1. Sketch the two processes on a diagram. Which process has a larger specific boundary work?
2. Calculate the specific boundary work and verify your answer to the question in part 1.
Solution:
1. diagram
From the diagram, the area under the process line for is greater than that for ; therefore, the isothermal
process with has a larger specific boundary work.

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 Figure 4.3.e4 Polytropic processes of an ideal gas illustrated on the P-v diagram
2. For , find the final pressure first.
n n
∵ P1 v = P2 v (4.4.31)
1 2

n 1.3
v1 0.05
∴ P2 = P1 ( ) = 200 × ( ) = 81.225 kPa (4.4.32)
v2 0.1

For , the process is isothermal; therefore,

Compare the specific boundary work in these two processes, the isothermal process (n=1) has a larger specific boundary work than
the polytropic process with n = 1.3. The calculation results are consistent with the observation from the diagram.

4.3.3 Spring work

Spring work is a form of mechanical energy required to compress or expand a spring to a certain distance, see Figure 4.3.5. Spring
force and spring work can be expressed as follows:

F = Kx (4.4.33)

2
1
2 2
Wspring = ∫ F dx = K (x −x ) (4.4.34)
2 1
1
2

where

F (4.4.35)

K (4.4.36)

Wspring (4.4.37)

x1 (4.4.38)

Figure 4.3.5 Work done by the spring force due to the displacement from the spring’s rest position.

Example 5

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A linear spring with spring constant K=100 kN/m is mounted on a piston-cylinder device. At the initial state, the cylinder contains
0.15 m3 of gas at 100 kPa. The spring is uncompressed. The gas is then heated until its volume expands to 0.2 m3. The piston’s
cross-sectional area is 0.1 m2. Assume the piston is frictionless with negligible weight and the process is quasi-equilibrium,
1. Write an expression of the gas pressure as a function of the gas volume in this process
2. Sketch the process on a diagram
3. Calculate the total work done by the gas during this expansion process
4. If the spring is not mounted on the piston, the gas in the cylinder will expand isobarically after being heated. To reach the
same final volume, 0.2 m3, how much work must be done by the gas in the expansion process?

Figure 4.3.e5 Piston-cylinder device with a spring loaded on top of the piston
Solution:
1. Analyze the forces acting on the piston, see below.

Figure 4.3.e6 Forces acting on the piston in equilibrium

Three forces acting on the piston are in equilibrium.

∵ ∑ F = 0 : Fgas = Fspring + Fatm (4.4.39)

V − V1
∴ Pgas A = Kx + Patm A = K + Patm A (4.4.40)
A

K(V − V1 )
∴ Pgas = + Patm (4.4.41)
A2

At the initial state: . Substitute the two values,

K(V − V1 )
∵ 100 = + Patm (4.4.42)
2
A

∴ Patm = 100 kPa (4.4.43)

with K =100 kN/m, A = 0.1 m2, Patm = 100 kPa and = 0.15 m3, the gas pressure can be expressed as a function of the gas volume.
100(V − 0.15)
∵ Pgas = + 100 (4.4.44)
2
0.1

4
∴ Pgas = 10 V − 1400 (4.4.45)

where gas pressure is in kPa and is in m3.

2. diagram

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 From part 1, Pgas is a linear function of volume .

Figure 4.3.e7 P-V diagram showing the process from the initial to the final states
3. During the expansion process, the gas has to overcome the resistance from the springand. At the same time, the gas pressure and
volume increase until the gas reaches the final state. The total work done by the gas is the shaded area of the trapezoid in the
diagram.
At the final state, ; therefore,
4
Pgas,2 = 10 × 0.2 − 1400 = 600 kPa (4.4.46)

The total work done by the gas is

(Pgas,2 + Pgas,1 )(V2 − V1 )
1 W2 =
2

(600 + 100)(0.2 − 0.15)

= = 17.5 kJ
2

4. If the gas expands isobarically from = 0.15 m3 to = 0.2 m3, the work done by the gas will be

1 W2a = Pgas,1 (V2 − V1 )

= 100 × (0.2 − 0.15) = 5 kJ

1 W2a (4.4.47)

Wspring = 1 W2 − 1 W2a = 17.5 − 5 = 12.5 kJ (4.4.48)

Figure 4.3.e8 P-V diagram showing the total work and its compositions

Media Attributions
Boundary work © Kh1604 is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Work done by the spring force © Svjo is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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4.5: The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems
The first law of thermodynamics is essentially an energy conservation law. Both heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms.
They play an important role in the first law of thermodynamics. Table 4.4.1 summarizes the main differences between heat and
work, and internal energy.
Table 4.4.1 Comparison of heat, work and internal energy
Heat and Work Internal Energy

Both heat and work are energy transfer

Characteristic mechanisms. They are not properties of a Internal energy is a property of a system.
system.

Both heat and work must cross the boundary A system possesses a total energy and an
Interaction with the system
between a system and its surroundings. internal energy.

Both heat and work are path functions; their

Internal energy is a state function; its
Magnitude magnitudes depend on the states and the
magnitude depends on the state only.
specific process path.

The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in the total energy stored in a system equalsthe net energy transferred
tothe system in the formof heat and work.

Δenergy = +in − out (4.5.1)

The change in the total energy of a system during a process from states 1 to 2 can be expressed as

ΔE = E2 − E1 = 1 Q2 − 1 W2 (4.5.2)

If the changes in the kinetic and potential energies of the system are negligible, i.e., , then the first law of
thermodynamics for a closed system can be simplified as

ΔU = U2 − U1 = 1 Q2 − 1 W2 (4.5.3)

where

E (4.5.4)

U (4.5.5)

Q (4.5.6)

W (4.5.7)

Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial and final states of a process.

Figure 4.4.1 A common sign convention for heat and work transfer to a closed system
The following procedure may be followed when solving problems with the first law of thermodynamics.
1. Sketch the physical system described in the problem and show its main components.

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 2. Set up an appropriate closed system by drawing the system boundary. How a system is set up may determine if a means of
energy transfer can be regarded as heat or work.
3. Indicate the heat and work transferred into or out of the system and their signs, see Figure 4.4.1.
4. Identify the type of the processes (e.g., isobaric, isothermal, isochoric, polytropic, or isentropic). Show the processes on the
and diagrams if possible, and list all of the known and unknown states.
5. Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the closed system, eliminating the terms that are not applicable to the system.
6. Solve for the unknowns by combining the first law of thermodynamics with the ideal gas law, thermodynamic tables, and other
physical laws as appropriate.
The following examples demonstrate how to apply the first law of thermodynamics to closed systems.

Example 1

Consider the vapour compression refrigeration cycle consisting of a compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator as
shown. The compressor must consume work, , from an external energy source such as electricity. The evaporator and condenser
absorb and reject heat, and , respectively. What is the relation between , , and ?

Figure 4.4.e1 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle consisting of a compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator
Solution:
The vapour compression refrigeration cycle can be regarded as a closed system with the initial and final states being identical;
therefore, .
∵ ΔU = 0 = Q − W (4.5.8)

∴ QL − QH − (−Win ) = 0 (4.5.9)

∴ QH = QL + Win (4.5.10)

Note the sign convention for heat: in (+), out (-) and for work: in (-), out (+). This relation can be interpreted as the total energy
transferred out of the cycle remains the same as the total energy transferred into the cycle.

Example 2

A rigid tank has two rooms, both containing R134a at the following initial states.
Room A: m= 2 kg, P=200 kPa, v=0.132 m3/kg
Room B: m= 3 kg, P=500 kPa, T=100°C
A crack is developed in the partition between the two rooms, which allows R134a in the tank to mix. Assume the mixing takes
place slowly until R134a in the whole tank reaches a uniform state at 50°C. Find the heat transfer during this process. The process
can be treated as a quasi-equilibrium process.

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 Figure 4.4.e2 A rigid tank with two rooms
Solution:
First, set the whole rigid tank as the closed system.
Because the volume of the tank remains constant, the boundary work during the mixing process is zero; therefore, from the
first law of thermodynamics,

∵ ΔU = Q − W (4.5.11)

∴ ΔU = Q (4.5.12)

The heat transfer during the process depends on the internal energies of the initial and final states.

ΔU = U3 − (U1 + U2 )

= (m1 + m2 )u3 − (m1 u1 + m2 u2 )

where the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 represent the initial states of R134a in rooms A and B, and the final state of R134a in the
whole tank, respectively.
Second, find the specific internal energies, u1, u2 , and u3.
Room A at the initial state: P =200 kPa, v = 0.132 m3/kg
From Table C1, at T = -10°C, Psat = 200.6 kPa, vg = 0.09959 m3/kg. Since v > vg, R134a at this state is a superheated
vapour.
From Table C2, at P = 200 kPa, T = 60°C, v = 0.132057 m3/kg ≈ 0.132 m3/kg

3
VA = m1 v1 = 2 × 0.132 = 0.264 m (4.5.13)

Room B at the initial state: P =500 kPa, T = 100°C

From Table C1, at T = 100°C, Psat = 3972.38 kPa. Since P < Psat, R134a at this state is a superheated vapour.
From Table C2, at P =500 kPa, T = 100 °C

3
VB = m2 v2 = 3 × 0.058054 = 0.1742 m (4.5.14)

The final state of R134a in the whole tank: T = 50°C

From Table C1, at T = 50°C, vg = 0.015089 m3/kg. Since v3 > vg, R134a at the final state is a superheated vapour.
From Table C2,
At P = 200 kPa, T = 50°C, v = 0.127663 m3/kg, u = 419.29 kJ/kg
At P = 300 kPa, T = 50°C, v = 0.083723 m3/kg, u = 418.19 kJ/kg
Use linear interpolation,
P3 − 200 0.0876 − 0.127663 u3 − 419.29
∵ = = (4.5.15)
300 − 200 0.083723 − 0.127663 418.19 − 419.29

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 ∴ P3 = 291.2 kPa (4.5.16)

Last, substitute u1, u2 and u3 into the simplified first law,

Q = ΔU = (m1 + m2 )u3 − (m1 u1 + m2 u2 )

= 5 × 418.287 − (2 × 427.51 + 3 × 459.65)

= −142.535 kJ

During the mixing process, the heat is transferred from the tank to the surroundings; therefore, the sign for the heat transfer is
negative.

Example 3

Consider 0.5 kg of ammonia in a piston-cylinder device initially at P1=100 kPa, T1=0oC. The ammonia is compressed until its
pressure reaches P2=150 kPa in a polytropic process with n=1.25. Calculate the heat transfer in this process.

Figure 4.4.e3 Ammonia in a piston-cylinder device

Solution:
First, set ammonia in the piston-cylinder as the closed system. From the first law of thermodynamics,
∵ ΔU = Q − W (4.5.17)

∴ Q = W + ΔU = W + m(u2 − u1 ) (4.5.18)

Second, consider the boundary work in a polytropic process. The specific volumes are unknowns
P2 V2 − P1 V1 m (P2 v2 − P1 v1 )
W = = (4.5.19)
1 −n 1 −n

Third, find the specific volumes and specific internal energies at both initial and final states.
At the initial state: P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 0°C. From Table B1, Psat = 429.39 kPa at 0°C. Since P1 < Psat, ammonia is a
superheated vapour.
From Table B2,
v1 = 1.31365 m3/kg, u1 = 1504.29 kJ/kg.
At the final state P2 = 150 kPa. The process is polytropic with n =1.25.
n n
∵ P1 v = P2 v (4.5.20)
1 2

From Table B1: at T = -25 °C and P = 151.47 kPa ≈ 150 kPa, vg = 0.771672 m3/kg. Since v2 > vg, ammonia at the final
state is a superheated vapour.
From Table B2,
At P = 150 kPa, T = 20°C, v = 0.938100 m3/kg, u = 1535.05 kJ/kg
At P =150 kPa, T = 30°C, v = 0.972207 m3/kg, u = 1551.95 kJ/kg
Use linear interpolation,
T2 − 20 0.94974 − 0.938100 u2 − 1535.05
∵ = = (4.5.21)
30 − 20 0.972207 − 0.938100 1551.95 − 1535.05

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\[\therefore T_2 = 23.4 \ ^ \rm
\rm{C}\]
Last, the heat transfer in this process can now be found from
P2 v2 − P1 v1
Q = W + ΔU = m + m(u2 − u1 )
1 −n

150 × 0.94974 − 100 × 1.31365

= 0.5 [ + (1540.82 − 1504.29)]
1 − 1.25

= −3.928 kJ

During this process heat is rejected to the surroundings; therefore, the sign for heat transfer is negative.

Example 4

A piston-cylinder device contains steam initially at 200oC and 200 kPa. The steam is first cooled isobarically to saturated liquid,
then isochorically until its pressure reaches 25 kPa.
1. Sketch the whole process on the and diagrams
2. Calculate the specific heat transfer in the whole process

Figure 4.4.e4 Steam in a piston-cylinder device

Solution:
1. and diagrams

Figure 4.4.e5 P-v and T-v diagrams of the whole process

2. Calculate the specific heat transfer
First, set the steam in the piston-cylinder device as a closed system. From the first law of thermodynamics,
∵ Δu = q − w (4.5.22)

∴ q = Δu + w = (u3 − u1 ) + w (4.5.23)

Second, analyze the processes.

The process is isobaric from state 1 to state 2, then isochoric from state 2 to state 3. The specific work is the shaded area of
the rectangle shown in the diagram; therefore,
w = P1 (v3 − v1 ) (4.5.24)

Third, determine the specific volumes and specific internal energies at states 1 and 3.
At state 1, P1 = 200 kPa and T1 = 200oC.
From Table A2,

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 v1 = 1.08048 m3/kg, u1 = 2654.63 kJ/kg
State 2 is saturated liquid water at P2 = 200 kPa.
From Table A1,
At T = 120 oC, P = 198.67 kPa, vf = 0.001060 m3/kg
At T = 125 oC, P = 232.24 kPa, vf = 0.001065 m3/kg
Use linear interpolation,
v2 − 0.001060 T2 − 120 200 − 198.67
∵ = = (4.5.25)
0.001065 − 0.001060 125 − 120 232.24 − 198.67

\[T_2 = 120.2 \ ^ \rm

\rm{C}\]
At state 3, P3 = 25 kPa. v3 = v2 = 0.0010602 m3/kg.
From Table A1, vf < v3 < vg; therefore, state 3 is a two phase mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapour with T3 = Tsat
≈ 65oC.
vf = 0.001020 m3/kg, vg = 6.19354 m3/kg
uf = 272.09 kJ/kg, ug = 2462.42 kJ/kg
The quality and specific internal energy of the two phase mixture are
v3 − vf 0.0010602 − 0.001020 −6
x = = = 6.5 × 10 (4.5.26)
vg − vf 6.19354 − 0.001020

Note that state 3 is almost a saturated liquid with very small quality; therefore, u3 ≈ ug.
Last, calculate the specific boundary work and specific heat transfer in this whole process

In this cooling process, the volume decreases, resulting in a negative specific boundary work. The temperature and the internal
energy decrease too. As a result, the specific heat transfer is negative indicating a heat loss from the system to its surroundings.

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4.6: Chapter review
Energy can be transferred to and from a closed system by two mechanisms: heat transfer and work. Both heat transfer and work
have a significant effect on the total energy as well as the internal energy stored in a system, as expressed in the first law of
thermodynamics.
When applying the first law of thermodynamics to a closed system, it is important to evaluate the internal energy of the system at
various states of a process, and the boundary work and heat transfer during the process.
The internal energy is a property of a system. It is a state function and is independent of the process path. In general, the
specific internal energy can be found by using thermodynamic tables. For ideal gases, solids or liquids, the specific internal
energy can be calculated by using the constant-volume specific heat.
Heat transfer and boundary work are not properties of a system. They are boundary phenomena and path functions. Their
magnitudes depend on the initial and final states as well as the path of a process.
The boundary work and specific boundary work in a process can be expressed graphically as the area under the process curve in
the and diagrams, respectively; therefore, these diagrams are often used when evaluating the boundary work in a
process.

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4.7: Key equations
Key equations

Constant-volume specific heat

Change in specific internal energy for all fluids

Change in specific internal energy for ideal gases

Specific heat transfer

Boundary work

Specific boundary work

Spring force

Spring work

The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems , assuming

Equations for polytropic Processes

Process function
If ,
\[{}_{1}W_{2}=\displaystyle\frac
{1-n}\\\]
If

Boundary work for real gases V2 V2

1 W2 = P1 V1 ln = P2 V2 ln (4.7.1)
V1 V1

\[{}_{1}W_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{1}{ln}
{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\ \]
If
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}=\displaystyle\frac
{1-n}\\\]
If
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}{v}_\mathbf{1}{ln}
Specific boundary work for real gases
{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}{v}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}{v}_\mathbf{1}{ln}
{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}{v}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]

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 If
\[{}_{1}W_{2}=\displaystyle\frac
{1-n}\\\]
If
V2 V2
1 W2 = P1 V1 ln = P2 V2 ln (4.7.2)
V1 V1

Boundary work for ideal gases

\[{}_{1}W_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{1}{ln}
{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\ \]
\[\ {}_{1}W_{2}=
{ln}{\displaystyle\frac{\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{2}}
{\mathbb{V}_\mathbf{1}}}={ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\ \]
( in Kelvin)
If
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}=\displaystyle\frac
{1-n}\\\]
If
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}{v}_\mathbf{1}{ln}
{\displaystyle\frac
Specific boundary work for ideal gases }={P}_\mathbf{2}{v}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}={P}_\mathbf{1}{v}_\mathbf{1}{ln}
{\displaystyle\frac
}={P}_\mathbf{2}{v}_\mathbf{2}{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
\[\ {}_{1}w_{2}=
{ln}{\displaystyle\frac}={ln}{\displaystyle\frac}\\\]
( in Kelvin)

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

5: The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume

This chapter extends the concept of energy conservation to open systems with a focus on steady-state, steady flows (SSSF).
Students will learn how to use the first law of thermodynamics to analyze processes in typical SSSF devices, such as pipes,
turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, expansion valves, and mixing chambers.
5.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
5.2: Enthalpy
5.3: Mass and energy conservation equations in a control volume
5.4: Applications of the mass and energy conservation equations in steady flow devices
5.5: Chapter review
5.6: Key equations

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detailed edit history is available upon request.

1
5.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
Many thermal devices, such as compressors, turbines, and heat exchangers can be modelled as open systems. A common feature of
these devices is that they all have inlets and outlets, through which a working fluid transfers both mass and energy into and out of
the devices. This chapter extends the concept of energy conservation to open systems with a focus on steady-state, steady flows
(SSSF). Examples are given to illustrate the applications of the first law of thermodynamics in typical SSSF devices such as
turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, expansion valves, and mixing chambers.

 Learning Objectives
After completing the chapter, you should be able to
Determine the enthalpy of real substances by using thermodynamic tables
Calculate the enthalpy of ideal gases, solids, and liquids by using constant-pressure specific heat
Calculate mass flow rate and volume flow rate
Explain the differences between steady and transient flows
Explain the physical meanings of mass and energy conservation
Apply the conservation equations of mass and energy to steady-state, steady flow devices

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5.2: Enthalpy
Enthalpy is an important thermodynamic property for the analysis of energy conservation in open systems. It combines the internal
energy and flow work associated with the flowing fluid (see Section 2.2.5 for details). The following sections explain how to
determine the specific enthalpy at a given state.

5.1.1 Using thermodynamic tables to determine specific enthalpy h

As described in Chapter 2, thermodynamic tables can be used to determine thermodynamic properties, such as pressure,
temperature, specific volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy of a pure substance at a given
condition. After the specific enthalpy is found, the enthalpy can then be calculated by using the following equation:
H = mh (5.2.1)

where
H (5.2.2)

h (5.2.3)

m (5.2.4)

Example 1

Find the missing properties of R134a and ammonia at the given conditions.

Substance T, oC P, kPa h, kJ/kg x Phase

1 R134a 20 380

2 Ammonia -20 200

Solution
1. R134a at T = 20oC has a specific enthalpy of h = 380 kJ/kg
From Appendix C, Table C1, at T = 20oC, hf = 227.47 kJ/kg, hg = 409.75 kJ/kg. Since hf < h < hg , R134a at this state is a two-
phase mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapour with a pressure of P = Psat = 0.57171 MPa = 571.71 kPa and a quality of

2. Ammonia at a temperature of T = -20oC and a pressure of P = 200 kPa

From Appendix B, Table B1, at T = -20oC, Psat = 0.19008 MPa = 190.08 kPa. Since P > Psat, ammonia at this state is a compressed
liquid with h ≈ hf = 251.71 kJ/kg.
In summary,

Substance T, oC P, kPa h, kJ/kg x Phase

1 R134a 20 571.71 380 0.83679 Two-phase mixture

2 Ammonia -20 200 251.71 n.a. Compressed liquid

5.1.2 Constant-pressure specific heat

Constant-pressure specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (i.e., 1 kg) of a substance
by 1 degree (i.e., 1oC, or 1 K) in an isobaric process. Mathematically, it is expressed as
∂ h
Cp = ( ) (5.2.5)
∂ T
p

where
Cp (5.2.6)

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 h (5.2.7)

T (5.2.8)

The constant-pressure specific heat of selected substances can be found in Appendix G. For example, the constant-pressure specific
heat of air at 300 K is 1.005 kJ/kgK, see Table G1. Let us consider one kilogram of air originally at 300 K in a piston-cylinder
device. It will require 1.005 kJ of heat for the air temperature to increase from 300 K to 301 K if the piston-cylinder device is
heated to allow the air to expand in an isobaric process.
It is important to note that both specific heats, and , are properties of a substance. Although they are typically measured in
isochoric and isobaric processes, respectively, their applications are NOT limited to isochoric or isobaric processes. For ideal gases,
and can be used to determine and , respectively, in ANY processes.

5.1.3 Using Cp to calculate Δh for ideal gases

The specific enthalpy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only, ; therefore,
∂ h dh
Cp = ( ) =( ) = f (T ) (5.2.9)
∂ T dT
p p

The change of specific enthalpy of an ideal gas within a small temperature range can be calculated as
Δh = h2 − h1 = Cp (T2 − T1 ) (5.2.10)

where
Cp (5.2.11)

h (5.2.12)

T (5.2.13)

Subscripts 1 and 2 represent states 1 and 2 in a process, respectively.

The above formula is a simple, approximate method to estimate the change of specific enthalpy of an ideal gas due to temperature
variations. It is reasonably accurate and may be used when the thermodynamic tables of an ideal gas are not available. Table G1
lists the constant-pressure specific heat of selected substances at 300 K. Strictly speaking, since , at a different
temperature should be calculated according to that specific temperature. However, Table G1 is often used in approximate
calculations as long as the temperature variations of the ideal gas remain in a small range.
The specific heat ratio, , of an ideal gas is defined as the ratio of to .
Cp
k = (5.2.14)
Cv

The following equations relate , , , and . Detailed derivations are omitted here.
Cp = Cv + R (5.2.15)

5.1.4 Using Cp to calculate Δh for solids and liquids

Liquids and solids are generally treated as incompressible substances because their volumes do not change with pressure or
temperature significantly. For liquids and solids, the difference between the constant-volume specific heat and the constant-pressure
specific heat is typically negligible; therefore,

Cp ≈ Cv (5.2.16)

Δh ≈ Δu ≈ Cp (T2 − T1 ) (5.2.17)

Example 2

Consider a piston-cylinder device containing 2 kg of oxygen at 300 K, 200 kPa. The piston-cylinder device is made of 0.5 kg of
aluminum. How much heat is required for the oxygen to reach a temperature of 600 K in an isobaric process? Assume the oxygen

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and the piston-cylinder are always in thermal equilibrium during the isobaric process. The oxygen can be treated as an ideal gas in
this heating process.
Solution
First, set up a closed system as shown outlined in blue, which consists of the piston-cylinder and O2.

Figure 5.1.e1 Piston-cylinder device containing oxygen

Second, apply the first law of thermodynamics to the closed system. Note that, in the heating process, the temperatures and internal
energies of both O2 and the piston-cylinder increase.
∵ ΔUtot = Qtot − WO (5.2.18)
2

∴ Qtot = ΔUtot + WO = ΔUal + (ΔUO + WO ) (5.2.19)

2 2 2

Third, calculate the change in internal energy of the piston-cylinder. From Table G3, the constant-pressure specific heat for
aluminum is = 0.897 kJ/kgK.
ΔUal = mal Δual = mal Δhal

= mal Cp,al (T2 − T1 )

= 0.5 × 0.897 × (600 − 300) = 134.55 kJ

Fourth, analyze the boundary work done by O2 and the change in internal energy of O2 in this isobaric process, where .
∵ WO = P (V2 − V1 ) ΔUO = U2 − U1
2 2

H = U +PV

∴ ΔUO + WO = (U2 − U1 ) + P (V2 − V1 )

2 2

= (U2 + P2 V2 ) − (U1 + P1 V1 )

= H2 − H1

∴ ΔUO2 + WO2 = ΔHO2 (5.2.20)

From Table G1, the constant-pressure specific heat for oxygen is = 0.918 kJ/kgK.
∴ ΔHO2 = mO2 Cp,O2 (T2 − T1 )

= 2 × 0.918 × (600 − 300) = 550.8 kJ

Last, calculate the total heat transfer in this process.

Qtot = ΔUal + ΔHO2

= 134.55 + 550.8 = 685.35 kJ

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5.3: Mass and energy conservation equations in a control volume
5.2.1 Steady flow and transient flow
An open system allows both mass and energy to transfer across its boundary. Many thermal devices, such as compressors, turbines,
and heat exchangers have inlets and outlets and can be modelled as open systems. Figure 5.2.1 is a schematic drawing of an open
system with one inlet and one outlet. A control volume (C.V.), shown as the dash-lined rectangle in Figure 5.2.1, is selected for the
analysis of the change of properties in the open system. A working fluid flows into and out of the control volume through the inlet
and outlet. In addition, energy transfer occurs between the system and its surroundings in the form of heat and work. As a result,
both mass and energy within the control volume may change over time.

If neither the mass nor the energy within the control volume change with respect to time, i.e., and , the flow is
called a steady flow. In a steady flow, the thermodynamic properties within a control volume do not change with respect to time;
but they do not need to remain uniform everywhere within the control volume. The properties may vary from point to point, but at
any given point, they must remain the same during the entire process. Many devices may be treated as steady flow devices after
they have been in operation for a certain period of time under the same operating condition.

In a transient flow, the mass and energy within a control volume change with respect to time, i.e., and .
Consequently, other thermodynamic properties may also change with respect to time. Flow through a device during its start-up and
shut-down periods is usually treated as a transient flow.

Figure 5.2.1 Flow through a control volume showing mass and energy transfers

5.2.2 Mass conservation equation

The mass flow rate and volume flow rate are defined as the mass and volume of a fluid flowing through an inlet or outlet per unit
time, respectively. They are expressed as
dV
˙
V = = ṁv = Vavg, nA (5.3.1)
dt

dm
ṁ = = ρV̇ = ρ Vavg, nA (5.3.2)
dt

where

A (5.3.3)

m (5.3.4)

ṁ (5.3.5)

V (5.3.6)

V̇ (5.3.7)

Vavg,n (5.3.8)

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 ρ (5.3.9)

v (5.3.10)

The conservation of mass, also called the continuity equation, states that mass cannot be created or destroyed. The time rate of
change of massin a control volume at a certain time equalsthe netmass flow rate intothe control volume at that time.
Δmass = +in − out (5.3.11)

dmC V
= ∑ ṁi − ∑ ṁe (5.3.12)
dt

Since for steady flows, the mass conservation equation for steady flows is, therefore, written as

∑ ṁi = ∑ ṁe (5.3.13)

where and represent the mass flow rates through the inlets and outlets of a control volume, respectively.

5.2.3 Energy conservation equation

The exchange of energy between a control volume and its surroundings is achieved via three mechanisms: (1) heat transfer, (2)
work, and (3) mass transfer. The conservation of energy in a control volume states that the time rate of change of energyin a
control volume at a certain time equalsthe netrate of energy transfer intothe control volume at that time via the three
mechanisms:heat transfer, work, and mass transfer.
Δenergy = +in − out (5.3.14)

dEC V 1 1
2 2
= Q̇ − Ẇ cv + ∑ ṁi (hi + V + gzi ) − ∑ ṁe (he + Ve + gze ) (5.3.15)
cv i
dt 2 2

Since for steady flows, the energy conservation equation for steady flows is, therefore, written as
\[{\dot{Q}}_{cv}+\sum
\]
where
h (5.3.16)

ṁ (5.3.17)

Q̇cv (5.3.18)

V (5.3.19)

˙
W cv (5.3.20)

z (5.3.21)

Subscripts, i and e, refer to the inlet and outlet of the control volume, respectively.

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5.4: Applications of the mass and energy conservation equations in steady flow
devices
Turbines and compressors are common energy conversion devices, in which the energy of a working fluid is converted to
mechanical energy or vice versa. A typical turbine consists of rotor blades attached to a shaft, which is free to rotate. Figure 5.3.1
shows the main components of a hydraulic turbine. During the operation of a turbine, a working fluid (e.g., steam, gas, wind or
water) flows continuously over a row of highly curved blades, creating a torque on the blades. In this process, the energy of the
working fluid is converted to the mechanical energy of the rotating shaft. Consequently, the pressure and temperature of the fluid
gradually decrease in the turbine. Figure 5.3.2 illustrates the energy conversion in a wind turbine. The wind energy is first
converted to the mechanical energy of the shaft and gearbox, then converted to the electrical energy through the generator.
Compressors work in the opposite way to turbines. Compressors consume shaft power in order to increase the pressure of a
working fluid, typically a gas. In a dynamic compressor, such as a centrifugal compressor, the increase of the gas pressure is
achieved by forcing the gas into narrow passages formed by adjacent blades, which rotate around a shaft. Figure 5.3.3 shows a
centrifugal compressor driven by an electric motor. In a reciprocating compressor, the increase of the gas pressure is achieved by
the decrease of the gas volume as the piston, driven by a crank-shaft, compresses the gas. Figure 5.3.4 animates the expansion and
compression processes in a reciprocating compressor. In both dynamic and reciprocating compressors, the mechanical energy of the
rotating shaft or crank-shaft is converted to the energy stored in the fluid. As a result, the pressure of the fluid increases in the
compressor.

Figure 5.3.1 Hydraulic turbine

Figure 5.3.2 Wind turbine schematic showing the energy conversion

Figure 5.3.3 Centrifugal compressor

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 Figure 5.3.4 Reciprocating compressor: animation of the compression and expansion processes
Figure 5.3.5 illustrates the flow of energy through a turbine and a compressor. A typical turbine or compressor has one inlet and
one outlet. We may apply the following assumptions to typical turbines and compressors:
The flow through a turbine or a compressor is steady.
The turbine or compressor is well-insulated:
The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible compared to the change in enthalpy: ,
With these assumptions, the mass and energy conservation equations can be simplified as follows,
Turbine:
ṁi = ṁe = ṁ (5.4.1)

˙
W shaf t = ṁ(hi − he ) (5.4.2)

Compressor:
ṁi = ṁe = ṁ (5.4.3)

˙
W shaf t = ṁ(he − hi ) (5.4.4)

where
h (5.4.5)

ṁ (5.4.6)

˙
W shaf t (5.4.7)

Subscripts, i and e, represent the inlet and exit of the turbine or compressor, respectively.

Figure 5.3.5 Flow of energy through a turbine and a compressor

Example 1

The inlet and outlet conditions of an air compressor are P1=100 kPa, T1=20oC, and P2=300 kPa, respectively. The mass flow rate of
air through this compressor is 0.015 kg/s. How much power input from the shaft is required to drive this compressor? Apply the
following assumptions in your analysis: (1) the flow is steady with negligible changes in the kinetic and potential energies; (2) the
compressor is well-insulated; (3) air is an ideal gas; and (4) the process is polytropic with n=1.35.
Solution:
Analysis: the shaft power of the compressor is proportional to the change in enthalpy of air in the compressor. Because air is treated
as an ideal gas, the change in enthalpy can be calculated in terms of the change in temperature. Therefore, we need to find the
temperature at the outlet of the compressor first.

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Air is an ideal gas and the process is polytropic; therefore,
P v = RT (5.4.8)

n
Pv = constant (5.4.9)

Combine the above two equations and eliminate ,

n
n−1
R n
P = ×T (5.4.10)
constant

Apply the above equation to the process between the inlet condition, state 1, and the outlet condition, state 2. Note that R is the gas
constant of air,
n−1 n
P2 T2
∵ ( ) =( ) (5.4.11)
P1 T1

n−1

P2 n
∴ T2 = T1 ( )
P1

1.35 − 1

300 1.35
= (273.15 + 20)( )
100
o
= 389.75 K = 116.6 C

From Table G1, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK for air. Apply the energy conservation equation to the compressor considering the first two
assumptions in the question descriptions.
˙
W shaf t = ṁ(h2 − h1 )

= ṁCp (T2 − T1 )

= 0.015 × 1.005 × (116.6 − 20) = 1.456 kW

The compressor consumes 1.456 kW of power when operating under the given conditions.

5.3.2 Throttling valves

Throttling valves are also called thermal expansion valves. They are used in vapour compression refrigeration systems to regulate
the pressure in the evaporator as well as the superheat of the refrigerant flowing out of the evaporator. Throttling valves may be
constructed as a porous plug, capillary tubes, or an adjustable valve such as an orifice, ball, or poppet valve. By restricting the
refrigerant flow through the valve, a considerable pressure drop can be achieved. As the pressure of the refrigerant decreases, its
corresponding saturation temperature decreases accordingly. Therefore, a phase change often occurs as the refrigerant passes
through a throttling valve. Figure 5.3.6 shows a thermal expansion valve in a vapour compression refrigeration system. The
following assumptions are commonly used for the analysis of the mass and energy conservation in a typical throttling valve.
The flow through a throttling valve is steady.
The flow through a throttling valve is fast enough so that the heat transfer between the refrigerant and its surroundings is
negligible. Therefore, the flow is commonly treated as adiabatic:
No work exchange occurs between the refrigerant and its surroundings:
The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible compared to the change in enthalpy: ,
Based on these assumptions, the mass and energy conservation equations in throttling valves can be written as
ṁi = ṁe (5.4.12)

hi = he (5.4.13)

where
h (5.4.14)

ṁ (5.4.15)

Subscripts, i and e, represent the inlet and exit of the throttling valve, respectively.

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 Figure 5.3.6 Thermal expansion valve in a vapour compression refrigeration system

Example 2

A simplified transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle consists of four processes: compression (1 2), gas cooling (2 3), expansion (3
4), and evaporation (4 1), as shown in the diagram, Figure 5.3.e1. The CO2 gas enters the expansion valve at 10 MPa, 20oC
(state 3) and is throttling to a pressure of 3 MPa (state 4). Determine the quality and temperature of CO2 at state 4.

Figure 5.3.e1 P-h diagram for CO2

Solution:
The specific enthalpy remains constant in the expansion process; therefore h3 = h4.
At state 3, P3 = 10 MPa, T3 = 20oC. From Table D2, h3 = 242.70 kJ/kg
At state 4, P4 = 3 MPa, h4 = h3 = 242.70 kJ/kg
From Table D1,
At T = -6oC , P = 2.96316 MPa, hf = 185.71 kJ/kg, hg = 433.79 kJ/kg
At T = -4oC, P = 3.13027 MPa, hf = 190.40 kJ/kg, hg = 432.95 kJ/kg
State 4 must be a two-phase mixture and its saturation temperature must be -6oC < T4 < -4oC. Use linear interpolation to determine
the saturation temperature, T4, the specific enthalpy of the saturated liquid, hf,4, and the specific enthalpy of the saturated vapour,
hg,4, of CO2 at P4 = 3 MPa.
T4 − (−6) 3 − 2.96316
∵ = (5.4.16)
(−4) − (−6) 3.13027 − 2.96316

o
∴ T4 = −5.56 C (5.4.17)

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 hf ,4 − 185.71 hg,4 − 433.79 3 − 2.96316
∵ = = (5.4.18)
190.40 − 185.71 432.95 − 433.79 3.13027 − 2.96316

The quality of the two phase mixture at state 4 is

h4 − hf ,4 242.70 − 186.74
x4 = = = 0.2267 (5.4.19)
hg,4 − hf ,4 433.60 − 186.74

5.3.3 Nozzles and diffusers

Nozzles and diffusers are devices used to accelerate or decelerate flow by gradually changing their cross-sectional areas. They are
widely used in many engineering systems, such as piping systems, HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) systems, and
steam and gas engines. Figure 5.3.7 illustrates a turbojet engine, which consists of a centrifugal compressor, a combustion chamber,
a turbine, and a nozzle section. The gas leaving the turbine is accelerated in the nozzle section, creating a high velocity jet, and thus
a high thrust.
The flow in nozzles and diffusers can be subsonic or supersonic. In this book, we will only discuss subsonic nozzles and subsonic
diffusers; thereafter, the terms “nozzle” and “diffuser” refer to subsonic nozzle and subsonic diffuser, respectively.

Figure 5.3.7 Schematic of turbojet engine consisting of a centrifugal compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine, and a nozzle
section
In a nozzle, the flow velocity increases and the pressure decreases as the cross-sectional area of the nozzle decreases. On the
contrary, in a diffuser, the flow velocity decreases and the pressure increases as the cross-sectional area of the diffuser increases.
Figure 5.3.8 shows a schematic of a nozzle and a diffuser. The following assumptions are commonly made when analyzing the
mass and energy conservation in a typical nozzle or diffuser.
The flow through a nozzle or diffuser is steady.
The flow through a nozzle or diffuser is fast enough so that the heat transfer between the fluid and its surroundings is negligible.
Therefore, the flow is commonly treated as adiabatic:
No work exchange occurs between the fluid and its surroundings:
The change in potential energy is negligible compared to the changes in enthalpy and in kinetic energy:
With these assumptions, the mass and energy conservation equations in nozzles and diffusers can be written as

ṁi = ṁe (5.4.20)

1 1
2 2
hi + V = he + Ve (5.4.21)
i
2 2

where

h (5.4.22)

ṁ (5.4.23)

V (5.4.24)

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 Subscripts, i and e, represent the inlet and exit of the nozzle or diffuser, respectively.

Figure 5.3.8 Nozzle (A) and diffuser (B)

Example 3

The inlet and outlet diameters of a hydrogen nozzle are 44 mm and 20 mm, respectively. Hydrogen enters the nozzle at -30oC, 5
bar, and 2 g/s, and exits the nozzle at 2 bar. Assuming the process is adiabatic and hydrogen is an ideal gas, what is the temperature
and velocity of hydrogen at the nozzle outlet?
Solution:
Analysis: the energy conservation equation provides the relationship between the temperature, specific enthalpy, and velocity of the
hydrogen. We will apply the mass and energy conservation equations to find the velocity and temperature at the nozzle outlet.

Figure 5.3.e2 Flow through a nozzle

From Table G1: R = 4.124 kJ/kgK and Cp = 14.307 kJ/kgK for hydrogen.
Apply the mass flow rate and ideal gas law to the inlet of the nozzle:
∵ ṁ = ρ1 V1 A1 (5.4.25)

Apply the mass conservation equation and the ideal gas law to the inlet and outlet of the nozzle:
∵ ṁ1 = ṁ2 (5.4.26)

∴ ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 V2 A2 (5.4.27)

and
2
A1 P1 T2 P1 T2 D1
∴ V2 = V1 = V1 ×( )
A2 P2 T1 P2 T1 D2

2
5 × T2 44 T2
= 2.638 × ×( ) = 31.92
2 × T1 20 T1

Apply the energy conservation equation to the inlet and outlet of the nozzle:
1 1
2 2
h1 + V = h2 + V (5.4.28)
1 2
2 2

and for ideal gases

therefore,
1 1
2 2
Cp T1 + V = Cp T2 + V (5.4.29)
1 2
2 2

Substitute and rearrange

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 2 2
V T2 1 T2
1
1+ = + (31.92 ) (5.4.30)
2Cp T1 T1 2Cp T1 T1

Substitute V1 = 2.638 m/s, T1 =273.15 – 30 = 243.15 K, Cp = 14307 J/kgK into the above relation, and rearrange,
2
T2 T2
0.00014643 ( ) + −1 = 0 (5.4.31)
T1 T1

T2
∴ = 0.99985 (5.4.32)
T1

o
∴ T2 = 0.99985 × 243.15 = 243.11 K = −30.04 C (5.4.33)

In this nozzle, the velocity increases significantly as the pressure decreases. The temperature remains almost constant.
Important note:
The temperatures in the calculations must be in Kelvin because the ideal gas law is used to derive other equations.
The constant-pressure specific heat must be in J/kgK to ensure the consistency of the units.

5.3.4 Ducts and pipes

Ducts and pipes are used to transport liquids and gases. Their configurations vary largely with applications; therefore, it is
impractical to apply general assumptions to all ducts and pipes. Ducts and pipes may be analyzed specifically with the mass and
energy conservation equations in Section 5.2.

Figure 5.3.9 HVAC pipes

Example 4

Consider a vertical pipe section exposed to the ambient. The pipe has a constant diameter of 100 mm. Its inlet is 5 m above its
outlet. Water at 10oC and 100 kPa enters the pipe at a velocity of 2 m/s, and exits at 12oC and 100 kPa. Assuming steady flow, what
is the rate of heat transfer absorbed by the water in this pipe section?

Figure 5.3.e3 Flow through a vertical pipe section

Solution:
From Table A1, water is a compressed liquid at both inlet and outlet conditions, therefore,

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Mass flow rate is

Apply the energy conservation equation to the pipe section

1 1
˙ 2 2
Q + ṁ ( h1 + V + gz1 ) = ṁ ( h2 + V + gz2 ) (5.4.34)
1 2
2 2

Since the diameter of the pipe section and the density of water remain constant in the pipe, the inlet and outlet velocity must be the
same based on the mass conservation equation. From Table G2: Cp =4.181 kJ/kgK = 4181 J/kgK for water.
∵ V1 = V2 (5.4.35)

˙
∴ Q = ṁ(h2 − h1 + gz2 − gz1 )

= ṁC p(T2 − T1 ) + ṁg(z2 − z1 )

= 15.7 × 4181 × (12 − 10) + 15.7 × 9.81 × (−5)

= 130580 W = 130.6 kW

The water absorbs 130.6 kW of heat from the ambient.

Important note:
The constant-pressure specific heat must be in J/kgK in the calculations to ensure the consistency of the units.

5.3.5 Mixing chambers

Mixing chambers are devices used to mix multiple streams of a fluid to achieve a desirable temperature or phase in the mixed flow.
Figure 5.3.10 is a schematic of a mixing chamber in HVAC systems, where the outdoor fresh air mixes with the indoor return air in
order to achieve a desirable air temperature and a targeted fresh air to return air ratio. The common assumptions for analyzing the
mass and energy conservation in a mixing chamber are listed below:
The flow through a mixing chamber is steady.
No work exchange occurs between the mixing chamber and its surroundings:
The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible: ,
The pressure variation in a mixing chamber is usually negligible.
With these assumptions, the mass and energy conservation equations in mixing chambers can be written as

∑ ṁi = ∑ ṁe (5.4.36)

\[{\dot{Q}}_{cv}+\sum
\]
where
h (5.4.37)

ṁ (5.4.38)

˙
Qcv (5.4.39)

Subscripts, i and e, represent the inlets and exits of the mixing chamber, respectively.

Figure 5.3.10 Schematic of a mixing chamber in HVAC (heating, ventilating and air conditioning) system

Example 5

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Consider a well-insulated mixing chamber in an HVAC system, see Figure 5.3.10. The cold outdoor air at -10oC and 100 kPa mixes
with the return air at 22oC and 100 kPa. The mass flow rates of the outdoor air and return air are 0.5 kg/s and 3 kg/s, respectively.
Assume the flow is steady and the air is an ideal gas under the given conditions. What is the air temperature leaving the mixing
chamber?
Solution:
Apply both mass and energy conservation equations to the mixing chamber:
ṁ1 + ṁ2 = ṁ3 (5.4.40)

ṁ1 h1 + ṁ2 h2 = ṁ3 h3 (5.4.41)

Δh = Cp ΔT (5.4.42)

From the above three equations,

ṁ1 T2 + ṁ2 T2
T3 =
ṁ1 + ṁ2

0.5 × (−10) + 3 × (22)

o
= = 17.43 C
0.5 + 3

The mixed air leaves the mixing chamber at a temperature of 17.43oC. In this calculation, the temperatures can be expressed either
in oC or Kelvin as as long as the consistent units are used.

5.3.6 Heat exchangers

Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat between two flowing fluids. They can be found in many applications, such as HVAC
systems, automotive systems, power generation plants, and chemical processing. Heat exchangers come in different types. For
example, Figure 5.3.11 shows a tube-within-shell heat exchanger, where heat is transferred between the shell-side fluid and the
tube-side fluid. The tube-within-shell heat exchanger is a typical indirect heat exchanger, in which the two fluids don’t mix during
the heat transfer process.

Figure 5.3.11 Schematic of a straight tube heat exchanger

Below are the common assumptions for analyzing the mass and energy conservation in an indirect heat exchanger:
The flows through an indirect heat exchanger are steady.
Each flow passage has only one inlet and one outlet.
No work exchange occurs between the heat exchanger and its surroundings:
The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible: ,
The pressure variation in a heat exchanger is usually negligible.
With these assumptions, the mass and energy conservation equations for an indirect heat exchanger can be written as

ṁi,hot = ṁe,hot (5.4.43)

ṁi,cold = ṁe,cold (5.4.44)

\[{\dot{Q}}_{cv}+\sum
\]
where

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 h (5.4.45)

ṁ (5.4.46)

Q̇cv (5.4.47)

Subscripts, i and e, represent the inlet and exit of the heat exchanger, respectively.
Subscripts, hot and cold, represent the hot and cold streams, respectively, through the heat exchanger.
It is important to note that, although the mass and energy conservation equations derived for mixing chambers and heat exchangers
look very similar, there exists a major difference between these two devices. In a mixing chamber, all flow streams mix and exit as
a single stream; therefore, both mass and energy conservation equations are applied to the entire mixing chamber consisting of all
flow streams. On the contrary, in an indirect heat exchanger, the cold and hot streams do NOT mix; therefore, the mass
conservation equation must be applied to each flow stream individually. The energy conservation equation may be applied to the
entire heat exchanger or each flow stream individually.

Example 6

Consider the evaporator of a vapour compression refrigeration system using R134a as the working fluid. R134a enters the
evaporator at -10oC with a quality of 0.1 and exits as a saturated vapour. Air enters the evaporator in a separate stream at 25oC and
exits at 5oC. Assume (1) the evaporator is well-insulated; (2) the flow is steady; (3) the pressure remains constant in the evaporator;
and (4) air is an ideal gas. What is the mass flow rate of air required in this system if the mass flow rate of R134a is 2 kg/s?

Figure 5.3.e4 Heat exchanger

Solution:
Apply the mass conservation equations to the R134a and air streams, separately.
ṁ1 = ṁ2 = ṁR134a (5.4.48)

ṁ3 = ṁ4 = ṁair (5.4.49)

Apply the energy conservation equation to the evaporator.

∵ ṁ1 h1 + ṁ3 h3 = ṁ2 h2 + ṁ4 h4 (5.4.50)

∴ ṁair (h3 − h4 ) = ṁR134a (h2 − h1 ) (5.4.51)

(h2 − h1 )
∴ ṁair = ṁR134a (5.4.52)
(h3 − h4 )

Find the specific enthalpies of R134a at states 1 and 2 using thermodynamic tables.
At state 1, T1 = -10oC, x= 0.1. From Table C1, hf = 186.70 kJ/kg, hg = 392.67 kJ/kg

At state 2, R134a is a saturated vapour at T2 = -10oC; therefore,

From Table G1, Cp,air = 1.005 kJ/kgK. Therefore,

The system requires an air supply at a rate of 18.445 kg/s.

Media Attributions
Hydraulic turbine © U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is licensed under a Public Domain license
Wind turbine schematic © Jalonsom is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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 Centrifugal compressor © UN document (USGOV) is licensed under a Public Domain license
Reciprocating compressor © Birpat is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Thermal expansion valve © MasterTriangle12 is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
P-h diagram for CO2 © Israel Urieli is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Turbojet © Original design: Emoscopes (talk)Vectorization: Tachymètre is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
Nozzle and diffuser © Nemuri is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
HVAC pipes © W.carter is licensed under a Public Domain license
Straight tube heat exchanger © H Padleckas is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

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5.5: Chapter review
In this chapter, we have introduced the mass and energy conservation equations for control volumes. The general conservation
equations for control volumes are explained in Section 5.2. When applying these conservation principles to a thermal device, it is
important to evaluate the operation of the device, set up an appropriate control volume, and make appropriate assumptions. This is
an important skill that students need to develop through practice.
Section 5.3 demonstrates how to simplify the conservation equations for common steady-state steady-flow devices such as turbines
and compressors, throttling valves, pipes and ducts, nozzles and diffusers, mixing chambers, and heat exchangers. It is important to
understand that, the equations in Section 5.3 are derived for these devices with certain assumptions. When applying these derived
equations to a specific thermal device, a careful evaluation of the assumptions must be done to ensure the derived equations are
appropriate for the given conditions.

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request.

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5.6: Key equations
Constant-pressure and constant-volume specific heats

Constant-pressure specific heat

Constant-volume specific heat

Relations between and for ideal gases R kR

Cv = Cp = (5.6.1)
k−1 k−1

Specific enthalpy
Change in specific enthalpy

Change in specific enthalpy for ideal gases

(assuming constant in the temperature range)

Relation between and for solids and liquids

Mass conservation equations in a control volume

Volume flow rate

Mass flow rate

Transient flow

Steady flow

Energy conservation equations in a control volume

dEC V 1
Transient flow ˙
= Q
cv
˙
− W cv + ∑ ṁi (hi + V
i
2
+ gzi )
dt 2
1
2
− ∑ ṁe (he + Ve + gze )
2

Steady flow \[{\dot{Q}}_{cv} +\sum

\]

Mass and energy conservation equations for steady-state, steady-flow (SSSF) devices
SSSF device Assumptions Mass conservation Energy conservation

Adiabatic flow; Negligible work

transfer with the surroundings;
Expansion device
Negligible changes in kinetic and
potential energies

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 SSSF device Assumptions Mass conservation Energy conservation

Adiabatic flow; Negligible work

transfer with the surroundings;
Nozzle and diffuser
Negligible change in potential
energy

Negligible work transfer with the

Mixing chamber surroundings; Negligible changes
in kinetic and potential energies

Negligible work transfer with the

Heat exchanger surroundings; Negligible changes (for each of the hot and cold
in kinetic and potential energies streams, separately)

Adiabatic flow; Negligible

Turbine changes in kinetic and potential
energies

Adiabatic flow; Negligible

Compressor changes in kinetic and potential
energies

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

6: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

This chapter introduces the concepts of reversible and irreversible processes, Carnot cycles, entropy and entropy generation, and
the second law of thermodynamics. Students will learn the applications of the second law in both closed and open systems.
6.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
6.2: Heat engine
6.3: Refrigerator and heat pump
6.4: The second law of thermodynamics- Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements
6.5: Carnot cycles
6.6: Entropy and entropy generation
6.7: The second law of thermodynamics for closed systems
6.8: Specific entropy of a state
6.9: Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in closed systems
6.10: The second law of thermodynamics for open systems
6.11: Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in open systems
6.12: Chapter review
6.13: Key equations

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and/or curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed
edit history is available upon request.

1
6.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives
 Learning Objectives

After completing the chapter, you should be able to:

Demonstrate an understanding of reversible and irreversible processes and Carnot cycles
Calculate the thermal efficiency of heat engines and the coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigerators and heat pumps
Calculate the change in entropy in real substances, ideal gases, solids, and liquids
Explain entropy generation, entropy transfer mechanisms, and the second law of thermodynamics
Apply the second law of thermodynamics to closed systems
Apply the second law of thermodynamics to various steady flow devices

Heat and work are two forms of energy. From the first law of thermodynamics, we may say “1 kJ of heat = 1 kJ of work”, but how
do we interpret the “=” sign here? Does it mean that heat and work are equivalent?
Let us consider a daily example. In winter, you might need an electric resistance heater to warm up your room. From Figure 6.0.1
(a), the electric charges do work on the resistor as they flow in the direction of lower electric potential. In this process, the electric
energy from the circuit is converted to heat, which is then dissipated in your room, or the surroundings. As a result, the room
temperature will tend to rise. If the heater consumes 1 kW of electric power, it will generate and dissipate approximately 1 kW of
heat to the surroundings. In terms of the amount of energy conversion, we can safely say that 1 kW of electric energy is no different
from 1 kW of heat. However, is this energy conversion process reversible? If we simply cool the surroundings and provide 1 kW of
heat to the resistor, is it possible to generate 1 kW of electric power from this 1 kW of heat? Unfortunately, the answers to both
questions are no, see Figure 6.0.1 (b).

Figure 6.0.1 Electric resistance heater illustrating heat-and-work conversion and irreversible process
This example illustrates an important concept of heat-work conversion. Although heat and work can be converted between each
other, they are not equivalent. Work can always be converted to heat completely and directly; but heat cannot be converted to work
completely and directly even under an ideal condition, because heat is a form of energy of “low” quality (a more “random”,
“disordered” system) and work is a form of energy of “high” quality (a highly “ordered” system). A natural, spontaneous process
has a tendency to move toward a greater degree of randomness or disorder in a system. Therefore, an energy conversion process in
nature tends to occur in the direction of converting energy from a “high” quality form to a “low” quality form. The first law of
thermodynamics addresses the heat and work conversion quantitatively, but has no indication on whether or under what condition
such conversion can actually happen. Satisfying the first law of thermodynamics does not ensure a process can take place in reality.
Whether a process can happen or not is determined by the second law of thermodynamics.
This chapter introduces the concepts of reversible and irreversible processes, Carnot cycles, entropy generation and the second law
of thermodynamics, and the applications of the second law to both closed and open systems.

Media Attributions
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6.2: Heat engine
A heat engine is a continuously operating device that produces work by transferring heat from a heat source (high-temperature
body) to a heat sink (low-temperature body) using a working fluid. In a heat engine cycle, a working fluid may remain as a single-
phase fluid or experience phase changes.
A steam engine is a type of heat engine commonly used in steam power generating plants. It operates on Rankine cycles and uses
water as the working fluid. We will use a steam engine to illustrate how heat is converted to work in heat engines. A typical steam
engine consists of four main equipment: boiler, turbine, condenser, and pump, as shown in Figure 6.1.1. The T-s diagram in Figure
6.1.2 illustrates the four processes in a Rankine cycle:
1. Water at a low pressure and a low temperature (state 1) is pumped to a boiler. The pump consumes power, , in order to
maintain a continuous supply of water to the boiler while increasing the pressure of the water entering the boiler (state 2).
Process 1-2 may be assumed adiabatic.
2. In the boiler, the liquid water absorbs heat, , from an external heat source and changes into high-temperature, high-pressure
steam (state 3). The pressure drop in the boiler is usually negligible; therefore, process 2-3 may be assumed isobaric.
3. The high-temperature, high-pressure steam then expands in the turbine, making the turbine rotate continuously, and thus
generating mechanical power, . During the expansion process, the temperature and pressure of the steam decrease.
Consequently, the steam leaving the turbine (state 4) becomes a low-temperature, low-pressure, two-phase mixture. Process 3-4
may be assumed adiabatic.
4. The steam leaving the turbine then enters a condenser and is condensed to a saturated or compressed liquid (state 1). During this
process, heat, , is removed from the steam. The pressure drop in the condenser is usually negligible; therefore, process 4-1
may be assumed isobaric.

Figure 6.1.1 Rankine cycle

Figure 6.1.2 T-s diagram of a Rankine cycle

Figure 6.1.3 is a simplified schematic for analyzing the energy conservation in heat engines. Applying the first law of
thermodynamics to the cycle, we can write
˙ ˙
QH − QL = Ẇ turbine − Ẇ pump = Ẇ net,out (6.2.1)

6.2.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88852
Clearly, the heat removed by the condenser, , cannot be converted to useful work. It is wasted in order to complete the cycle. In
other words, a heat engine cannot convert all the heat supplied by the heat source (e.g., boiler) to useful work, even under ideal
conditions. Thermal efficiency is a dimensionless parameter used to measure the performance of a heat engine.

\eta_{th}=\displaystyle\frac{desired\ output}{required\ input}=\frac{\dot{W}}_{net,\ out}{\dot{Q}_H}=1-\frac{\dot{Q}_L}{\dot{Q}_H}

where
˙
QH : heat absorbed from the heat source, in kW
˙
QL : heat rejected to the heat sink, in kW
˙
W net, out : net work output from the heat engine, in kW
ηth : thermal efficiency of the heat engine, dimensionless

Figure 6.1.3 Schematic of a heat engine

Example 1

Figures 6.1.e1 and 6.1.e2 illustrate a Rankine cycle consisting of a two-stage steam engine and a feedwater heater. The steam
engine is enclosed in the red outlines in Figure 6.1.e1. The two stages of the turbine are labelled as HE1 and HE2, respectively. In
stage 1, the steam absorbs heat, , from the boiler and generates a power, . A portion of the exhaust steam from stage 1 then
enters stage 2, further generating a power, . The remaining exhaust steam from stage 1 is used to preheat the feed water. If the
thermal efficiencies of the two turbine stages are and , what is the overall thermal efficiency of the cycle as a function of
and ? Assume 90% of the exhaust steam exiting from stage 1 enters stage 2 and generates the power, .

Figure 6.1.e1 Two-stage steam turbine with a feed-water heater

6.2.2 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88852
 Figure 6.1.e2 Schematic of the two-stage heat engine
Solution:
The thermal efficiency of the first and second stages of the steam turbine can be written as

Ẇ 1
ηth,1 = (6.2.2)
˙
QH

The desired output of the cycle is the total power generated by the turbine and the required energy input comes from the boiler;
therefore,

Ẇ tot Ẇ 1 + Ẇ 2
ηth = = (6.2.3)
˙ ˙
QH QH

Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the first stage, HE1. Note that 90% of the exhaust steam from stage 1 enters stage 2;
therefore,

Q̇M + Q̇H eater = Q̇H − Ẇ 1 (6.2.4)

and
˙ ˙
QM = 0.9(QH − Ẇ 1 ) (6.2.5)

Combine the above equations and rearrange,

˙ ˙
W1 W2
∵ ηth = +
Q̇H Q̇H

˙
ηth,2 QM
= ηth,1 +
˙
QH

˙ ˙
ηth,2 × 0.9(QH − W 1 )
= ηth,1 +
˙
QH

∴ ηth = ηth,1 + 0.9 ηth,2 (1 − ηth,1 ) (6.2.6)

Media Attributions
Rankine cycle © Andrew Ainsworth is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Rankine cycle, T-s diagram © Andrew Ainsworth is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Two-stage steam turbine with a feedwater heater © Milton Beychok is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike)
license

This page titled 6.2: Heat engine is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC
Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

6.2.3 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88852
6.3: Refrigerator and heat pump
6.2.1 Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a cyclic device, which absorbs heat from a heat sink and reject heat to a heat source by consuming work. The
working fluid is called refrigerant, which usually undergoes phase changes in the cycle.
A typical vapour-compression refrigeration system consists of mainly four pieces of equipment, as shown in Figure 6.2.1:
1. An evaporator, through which the low-pressure, low-temperature refrigerant absorbs heat from a heat sink (e.g., a freezer
compartment or a space to be refrigerated) and changes from a two-phase mixture to a saturated or superheated vapour.
2. A compressor, which is used to increase the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant vapour by consuming work.
3. A condenser, through which heat is rejected to a heat source (e.g. kitchen or outdoor air). At the exit of the condenser, the
refrigerant is typically a two-phase mixture or a liquid.
4. An expansion valve, which is used to reduce the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant in order to achieve a liquid-vapour
mixture of desirable quality at the exit of the expansion valve.

Figure 6.2.1 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle consisting of a compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator
As heat cannot be transferred from a low-temperature body to a high-temperature body spontaneously in nature, refrigerators must
consume work in order to operate between a heat sink and a heat source, even under ideal conditions.
Figure 6.2.2 is a schematic for analyzing the energy conservation in a refrigerator. The same schematic may be used to represent a
heat pump by replacing the notation “Ref” with “HP” in the circular area.

Figure 6.2.2 Schematic of a refrigerator (or a heat pump)

Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the cycle, we can write

Q̇ − Q̇ = Ẇ in (6.3.1)
H L

The main purpose of refrigerators is to remove heat, , from a heat sink (cold space); therefore, we are interested in the amount of
heat that can be removed per unit of power consumption. The dimensionless ratio of is called the coefficient of performance,

6.3.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88853
 , of the refrigerator. It is an indicator of the performance of a refrigerator.

Refrigerators are typically designed to consume a power ; therefore, COP_R 1" class="latex mathjax" title="COP_R > 1"
src="/@api/deki/files/58907/5cc75464a029cd297fac2c3612602423.png"> in a well-designed refrigerator. A higher indicates a
better performance.

6.2.2 Heat pump

A heat pump uses the same vapour compression refrigeration cycle, see Figure 6.2.1, as a refrigerator. It absorbs heat from a heat
sink (e.g., outdoor air in the winter) and delivers (more) heat to a heat source (e.g., indoor air) by consuming work. Applying the
first law of thermodynamics to the heat pump cycle, we can derive
˙ ˙ ˙
W in = QH − QL (6.3.2)

Different from refrigerators, the main purpose of heat pumps is to add heat, , to a heat source, such as an indoor space of a
building. Therefore, we are interested in the amount of heat, , that can be transferred from the condenser to the heat source per
unit power consumption. The dimensionless ratio of is called the coefficient of performance, , of heat pump. It is an
indicator of the performance of a heat pump. As {\dot{Q}_H} {\dot{W}}_{in}" class="latex mathjax" title="{\dot{Q}_H} >
{\dot{W}}_{in}" src="/@api/deki/files/58912/2a25d1043445103eb8b366d80fa7f0bd.png">, {COP}_{HP} 1" class="latex mathjax"
title="{COP}_{HP} > 1" src="/@api/deki/files/58913/b115c0d561e36c3b3cd4d1e8dedf6e6a.png">.

Example 1

Consider a vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, Figure 6.2.1. The working fluid is ammonia.
At the compressor inlet, P1=0.2 MPa, T1=-10oC,
At the compressor outlet, P2=1.4 MPa, T2=150oC
At the condenser outlet, P3=1.4 MPa, T3=35oC
At the evaporator inlet, P4=0.2 MPa
Assuming that the heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting pipes are negligible, and , ,
(1) determine the rate of heat absorbed by the evaporator, , the power required by the compressor, , and the rate of heat
rejected by the condenser, .
(2) determine of the refrigeration cycle
(3) If the same vapour refrigeration cycle were used as a heat pump, what would the be?
Solution:
(1) The rates of heat transfer in the evaporator and condenser and the power consumption in the compressor depend on the changes
of enthalpies in these devices. First, determine the specific enthalpy of each state from Tables B1 and B2.
State 1, compressor inlet: P1 = 0.2 MPa, T1 = -10oC. From Table B2, h1 = 1603.63 kJ/kg.
State 2, compressor outlet: P2 = 1.4 MPa, T2 = 150oC. From Table B2, h2 = 1940.26 kJ/kg
State 3, condenser outlet: P3 = 1.4 MPa, T2 = 35oC. From Table B1, ammonia at this state is a compressed liquid; therefore, h3 ≈
hf@35oC = 509.23 kJ/kg
State 4, evaporator inlet: P4 = 0.2 MPa. Typically, the expansion valve is assumed well-insulated; therefore, the expansion
process is adiabatic, and h4 = h3 = 509.24 kJ/kg.
The rate of the heat absorbed by the evaporator
˙
QL = ṁ(h1 − h4 ) = 0.1 × (1603.63 − 509.23) = 109.44 kW (6.3.3)

The power consumption by the compressor

˙
W in = ṁ(h2 − h1 ) = 0.1 × (1940.26 − 1603.63) = 33.66 kW (6.3.4)

The rate of the heat rejected by the condenser

6.3.2 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88853
 ˙
QH = ṁ(h2 − h3 ) = 0.1 × (1940.26 − 509.23) = 143.10 kW (6.3.5)

From the above calculations, it is easy to verify that

(2) COP of the refrigeration cycle
˙
QL 109.44
C OPR = = = 3.25 (6.3.6)
Ẇ in 33.66

(3) If the same cycle is used as a heat pump, its COP will be
˙
QH 143.10
C OPH P = = = 4.25 (6.3.7)
Ẇ in 33.66

Comment:
It is noted that both and are greater than 1. By consuming a certain amount of power, the cycle transfers a much larger
amount of heat (desirable output) either by the evaporator or by the condenser. In addition, it is always true that
C OPH P = C OPR + 1 (6.3.8)

because
˙ ˙ ˙
QH QL + W in
C OPH P = = = C OPR + 1 (6.3.9)
˙ ˙
W in W in

Media Attributions
Vapor compression refrigeration cycle © WGisol is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

This page titled 6.3: Refrigerator and heat pump is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Claire
Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available
upon request.

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6.4: The second law of thermodynamics- Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements
The first law of thermodynamics focuses on energy conservation. It does not describe any restrictions or possibilities for a process
to take place. A process satisfying the first law of thermodynamics may or may not be achievable in reality. In fact, whether a
process is possible is governed by both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics. There are two classical statements of the
second law of thermodynamics; one imposes the limits on the operation of heat engines, and the other on the operation of
refrigerators and heat pumps.
Kelvin-Planck Statement: it is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce only a net amount of work. Figure 6.3.1 illustrates the Kelvin-Planck statement. Any device violating the Kelvin-Planck
statement would produce a net work output equivalent to the amount of the heat received by the device, or , thus resulting in
a thermal efficiency .

Figure 6.3.1 Schematic illustrating Kelvin-Planck statement

Clausius statement: it is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of
heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body. Figure 6.3.2 illustrates the Clausius statement. Any device
violating the Clausius statement would have zero work input and nonzero heat transfer received and delivered by the device, or
, , and thus a .

Figure 6.3.2 Schematic illustrating the Clausius statement

Although the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements refer to different cycles, they are equivalent in their consequences. Any
device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement must violate the Clausius statement, and vice versa.
Let us consider a combined system, which consists of a heat pump and an imagined engine operating between a heat source at a
higher temperature and a heat sink at a lower temperature , as shown in Figure 6.3.3.
1. Let us assume the imagined engine violates the Kelvin-Planck statement; therefore, it can convert all of the heat absorbed from
the heat source to useful power, or . The power generated from the imagined engine is then used to drive the heat pump.
2. For the heat pump, . Therefore, the heat released by the heat pump to the heat source is .
3. Applying the first law to the heat pump, the heat absorbed by the heat pump from the heat sink must be .
4. Now let us compare the net heat absorbed by the combined system from the heat sink, , and the net heat rejected
by the combined system to the heat source, . They are exactly the same! What the combined system does is to
transfer heat from the heat sink (lower-temperature body) to the heat source (higher-temperature body) without consuming any
power at all!

6.4.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88854
It is apparent that the combined system violates the Clausius statement because the imagined engine violates the Kelvin-Planck
statement. Since the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements are equivalent, both of them may be used to describe the second law of
thermodynamics.
A real process or device must satisfy both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics: the first law sets a constraint on the
amount of energy that must be conserved in a process or a device; the second law indicates whether a process is possible in reality.
Any device that violates either the first or the second law is called a perpetual-motion machine, which attempts to produce work
from nothing or convert heat completely to useful work. In fact, no perpetual-motion machine can actually work.

Figure 6.3.3 Schematic showing the equivalence of the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements

Example 1

Consider the following scenarios proposed for a heat engine or a refrigerator. For each of the scenarios, determine if the proposed
heat engine or refrigerator satisfies the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
1. Proposed heat engine:
2. Proposed refrigerator:
Solution:
(1) Proposed heat engine:

Figure 6.1.3 Schematic of a heat engine (reproduced)

The first law requires , and the second law requires \dot{Q}_L 0" class="latex mathjax" title="\dot{Q}_L > 0"
src="/@api/deki/files/58952/404c8b887c6c1373fec5621237c00120.png">. Since and \dot{Q}_L = 3 \ {\rm{kW}}0"

class="latex mathjax" title="\dot{Q}_L = 3 \ {\rm{kW}}>0"

src="/@api/deki/files/58954/ed7a99301800916f173580b45f0ce84f.png">, the proposed heat engine doesn’t satisfy the first
law of thermodynamics; but it satisfies the second law of thermodynamics or the Kelvin-Planck statement.
(2) Proposed refrigerator:

6.4.2 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88854
 Figure 6.2.2 Schematic of a refrigerator (reproduced)
The first law requires , and the second law requires \dot{W}_{in} 0" class="latex mathjax" title="\dot{W}_{in} >
0" src="/@api/deki/files/58958/dca1da7bc03b77722e2ac5378a2315f0.png">. Since and , the proposed
refrigerator satisfies neither the first nor the second laws of thermodynamics. It violates the Clausius statement.

This page titled 6.4: The second law of thermodynamics- Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and
was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the
LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

6.4.3 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88854
6.5: Carnot cycles
6.4.1 Irreversibilities
ηth → 1 (6.5.1)

A reversible process is a process that can be reversed without leaving any change in either the system or its surroundings, which
means both the system and its surroundings always return to their original states during a reversible process. A fictitious,
frictionless pendulum can be treated as a reversible process, see Figure 6.4.1; it will never stop and always returns to its original
state. However, in reality, friction always exists. A pendulum will gradually slow down and eventually stop.

Figure 6.4.1 Frictionless pendulum as an example of a reversible process

Factors that render a process irreversible are called irreversibilities. Friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of fluids, heat transfer
through a finite temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions are some
examples of irreversibilities. All processes occurring in nature are irreversible due to the existence of irreversibilities. Some
processes are more irreversible than others. A reversible process is commonly used as an idealized model to which an actual
process can be compared. The efficiency of a reversible process is the theoretical limit that an actual, irreversible process can
possibly achieve in a nearly ideal condition.

6.4.2 Carnot heat engine

A Carnot heat engine is an idealized cycle, which consists of four reversible processes. Figures 6.4.2–6.4.4 show the schematic of a
Carnot heat engine and its pressure-volume, , and temperature-entropy, , diagrams. The cycle consists of the following
four reversible processes:
1. Process A B: a reversible isothermal heat addition process of from a heat source at constant temperature .
2. Process B C: a reversible adiabatic expansion process, during which the temperature drops from to .
3. Process C D: a reversible isothermal heat removal process of from a heat sink at constant temperature .
4. Process D A: a reversible adiabatic compression process, in which the temperature increases from to .

Figure 6.4.2 Carnot heat engine

6.5.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88855
 Figure 6.4.3 Carnot heat engine: [latex]P-\mathbb{V}[/latex] diagram

Figure 6.4.4 Carnot heat engine: T-S diagram

Because the Carnot heat engine cycle is an ideal cycle consisting of only reversible processes, it produces the maximum power
output and has the maximum thermal efficiency among all heat engines operating between the same heat source at and the same
heat sink at . The thermal efficiency of a Carnot heat engine can be expressed as
QL TL
ηth, rev = 1 −( ) =1− (6.5.2)
QH TH
rev

where
TH (6.5.3)

TL (6.5.4)

QH (6.5.5)

QL (6.5.6)

ηth, rev (6.5.7)

The thermodynamic temperature scale, or absolute temperature scale is defined so that .

In summary, the thermal efficiency of an actual heat engine is always less than that of the Carnot heat engine. It is impossible for
any heat engine to achieve a better performance than the Carnot heat engine operating between the same heat source at and the
same heat sink at .
Irreversible, actual heat engine:
Carnot heat engine:
Impossible device: \eta_{th}\eta_{th,\ rev}" class="latex mathjax" title="\eta_{th}>\eta_{th,\ rev}"
src="/@api/deki/files/58983/4bfb8a6b07173aefb6d41fd1476070b6.png">
For a heat engine operating between a heat source at and a heat sink at , either increasing or decreasing can improve its
thermal efficiency. In practice, much effort is made to increase the temperature of the heat source within the material limits
because the temperature of the heat sink is usually constrained by the ambient temperature. In many large steam power plants,
the temperature of the inlet steam (heat source) is in the range of 300~600oC (573~873 K) in order to improve the thermal
efficiency of the heat engines.

Example 1

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Consider a proposal to build a 500-MW steam power plant operating on a Rankine cycle by a lake. The steam generated by the
boiler is at 250°C. The condenser is to be cooled by the lake water at a flow rate of 20 m3/s. As the cooling water will be
discharged to the lake, the design team needs to evaluate its impact on the local aquatic ecosystem. Assume the cooling water
supplied from the lake to the condenser is at a constant temperature of 18°C.
1. If the cycle were reversible (Carnot cycle), what is the thermal efficiency of the power plant? Estimate the temperature rise of
the discharge water to the lake.
2. If the cycle were reversible (Carnot cycle), and the steam temperature increases to 300oC, how would the thermal efficiency of
the power plant change?
3. The above two scenarios are ideal Carnot cycles. In fact, the projected thermal efficiency of the actual cycle is about 35%.
Estimate the temperature rise of the discharge water to the lake in this case.

Figure 6.4.e1 A schematic of a Carnot heat engine. Heat is rejected to a nearby lake.
Solution:
1. The power plant is assumed to operate on a Carnot cycle between a heat source at the steam temperature of TH = 250°C and a
heat sink at the cooling water temperature of TL = 18°C. The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is
TL 273.15 + 18
ηth,rev = 1 − =1− = 0.443 (6.5.8)
TH 273.15 + 250

Ẇ
ηth,rev = (6.5.9)
˙
QH

Therefore, the heat rejected to the discharge water to the lake is

1
˙ ˙
QL = W ( − 1)
ηth,rev

1
= 500 ( − 1) = 627.48 MW
0.443

From Table G2, Cp = 4.181 kJ/kgK for water, and the density of water is ; therefore,
˙ ˙
∵ QL = ṁCp ΔT = ρVCp ΔT (6.5.10)

˙ 3
QL 627.48 × 10
o
∴ ΔT = = = 7.5 C (6.5.11)
ρV̇Cp 1000 × 20 × 4.181

2. For a Carnot cycle with TH = 300°C and TL = 18°C,

TL 273.15 + 18
ηth,rev = 1 − =1− = 0.492 (6.5.12)
TH 273.15 + 300

Comment:
Compare the two Carnot cycles, increasing the heat source temperature TH can increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Similarly, decreasing the heat sink temperature TL can also increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

6.5.3 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88855
3. The thermal efficiency of an actual cycle is always less than that of the Carnot cycle operating between the same heat source and
heat sink. If the projected thermal efficiency of the actual cycle is 35%, then the heat absorbed by the discharge water will be
1
˙ ˙
QL = W ( − 1)
ηth

1
= 500 × ( − 1) = 928.57 MW
0.35

The temperature rise of the discharge water will be

˙
QL 928.57
o
ΔT = = = 11.1 C (6.5.13)
ρV̇Cp 1000 × 20 × ×4.181

Comment:
The actual cycle will cause a much higher temperature rise in the discharge water than the Carnot cycle due to the existence of the
irreversibilities. A large amount of heat rejection to the lake could have a negative impact on the aquatic life and should be
monitored closely.

6.4.3 Carnot refrigerator and Carnot heat pump

If the four processes, compression, evaporation, expansion and condensation, in a vapour-compression refrigeration system are all
reversible, the cycle is reversible and is called the Carnot refrigeration cycle. A refrigerator or a heat pump operating in such a
cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump.
Among all refrigerators (or heat pumps) operating between the same heat source at and the same heat sink at , the Carnot
refrigerator (or heat pump) consumes the least amount of power, thus achieving the highest coefficient of performance, or
, as expressed below:

Carnot refrigerator:

Carnot heat pump:

where

C OPR, rev (6.5.14)

C OPH P , rev (6.5.15)

TH (6.5.16)

TL (6.5.17)

Example 2

A heat pump provides 20 kW of heating to a house in winter. The house must be maintained at 24oC. If the COP of the heat pump
is 5.5, and the outdoor temperature is 0oC, answer the following questions.
1. How much power is required to drive the heat pump? Compare the power consumption of this heat pump and an electric
resistance heater providing the same amount of heating to the house.
2. If the cycle were a Carnot cycle, what would the power consumption be?
3. If the outdoor temperature decreases, will the COP of the heat pump increase, remain the same, or decrease?

6.5.4 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88855
 Figure 6.4.e2 Schematic of a heat pump
Solution:
1. The heat pump provides 20 kW of heating to the house; therefore,
˙
QH
∵ C OPH P = = 5.5 (6.5.18)
˙
W

\[\therefore \; \dot{W} = \dfrac{\dot{Q}_{H}}

= \dfrac{20}{5.5} = 3.636 \ \rm{kW}\]
If an electric resistance heater is used to provide 20 kW of heating to the house, the electric resistance heater will consume 20 kW
of electric power, assuming the efficiency of the heater is 100%. Therefore,
˙
ΔW = 20 − 3.636 = 16.364 kW (6.5.19)

Compare the power consumption of the heat pump and electric heater, using heat pump will save 16.354 kW of power.
2. If the cycle were a Carnot cycle,
TH
C OPH P ,rev =
TH − TL

273.15 + 24
= = 12.38
(273.15 + 24) − (273.15 + 0)

˙
QH
∵ C OPH P ,rev = (6.5.20)
Ẇ rev

˙
QH 20
˙
∴ W rev = = = 1.615 kW (6.5.21)
C OPH P ,rev 12.38

The actual cycle achieves a much smaller COP and consumes a much greater power than the Carnot cycle due to the
irreversibilities.

3. Since
As is a constant room temperature, will decrease if the outdoor temperature decreases. Because the Carnot cycle
always has the maximum COP compared to any real cycle operating between the same heat source and heat sink, the COP of a real
heat pump will also decrease if the outdoor temperature decreases; therefore, heat pumps are preferably used in mild winter
conditions.

Media Attributions
Frictionless pendulum © Chetvornoderivative work: Py4nf is licensed under a CC0 (Creative Commons Zero) license
Carnot heat engine © Andrew Ainsworth is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Carnot heat engine: P-v diagram © Cristian Quinzacara is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
Carnot heat engine: T-s diagram © Cristian Quinzacara is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license

This page titled 6.5: Carnot cycles is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC
Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

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6.6: Entropy and entropy generation
6.5.1 The inequality of Clausius
The inequality of Clausius states that for any cycle, reversible or irreversible, there exists the following relation:
δQ
∮ ≤0 (‘‘=" f or reversible cycles; ‘‘<" f or irreversible cycles) (6.6.1)
T

where represents the differential amount of heat transfer into or out of a system through an infinitesimal part of the system
boundary. is positive for heat transfer into the system and is negative for heat transfer out of the system. is the absolute

temperature at the infinitesimal part of the system boundary, where the heat transfer occurs. The cyclic integral symbol indicates
that the integration must be done for the entire cycle. In other words, all heat transfer into and out of the system, as well as their
corresponding boundary temperatures, must be considered in the integral.
The inequality of Clausius applies to all cycles. We will prove it by using the heat engine cycle, Figure 6.1.3, as an example. For a
reversible heat engine cycle operating between a heat source at a constant temperature of and a heat sink at a constant
temperature of , the cyclic integral can be written as
δQ QH −QL
∮ ( ) =( ) +( ) (6.6.2)
T TH TL
rev rev rev

Note that for a reversible cycle,

TH QH
( ) =( ) (6.6.3)
TL QL
rev rev

Therefore, the following equation exists for a reversible cycle.

δQ
∮ ( ) =0 (6.6.4)
T
rev

For an irreversible cycle operating between the same two heat reservoirs at constant temperatures of and , we assume that the
heat absorbed from the heat source, , remains the same as that in the reversible cycle,
∵ QH ,rev = QH ,irrev = QH (6.6.5)

∴ QL,rev < QL,irrev (6.6.6)

QH QH
∴ ( ) <( ) (6.6.7)
QL QL
irrev rev

QH TH
∴ ( ) <( ) (6.6.8)
QL TL
irrev rev

QH QL
∴ ( ) <( ) (6.6.9)
TH TL
irrev irrev

Therefore,
δQ QH −QL QH QL
∮ ( ) = ( + ) =( ) −( ) <0 (6.6.10)
T TH TL TH TL
irrev irrev irrev irrev

Now, we have proven the inequality of Clausius for heat engine cycles. A similar procedure may be applied to prove the inequality
of Clausius for refrigerator and heat pump cycles.

6.5.2 Definition of entropy

Why is the inequality of Clausius important? The cyclic integral is either equal to or less than zero depending on the nature of the
cycle: reversible or irreversible. The inequality of Clausius provides a basis for introducing the concepts of entropy and entropy
generation. Both concepts are important in the second law of thermodynamics.

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 Figure 6.5.1 A reversible cycle consisting of path A and path B
Let us apply the inequality of Clausius to a reversible cycle consisting of two reversible processes 1 2 via path A and 2 1 via path
B, see Figure 6.5.1.
2 1
δQ δQ δQ
∵ ∮ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( )
T 1
T 2
T
rev pathA pathB

2 2
δQ δQ
=∫ ( ) −∫ ( ) =0
1
T 1
T
pathA pathB

2 2
δQ δQ
∴ ∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) (6.6.11)
1
T 1
T
pathA pathB

S (6.6.12)

2
δQ
ΔS = S2 − S1 = ∫ ( ) (6.6.13)
1
T
rev

The infinitesimal change of entropy in a reversible process can thus be written as

δQ
dS = ( ) (6.6.14)
T
rev

where is the entropy and is the absolute temperature. The common SI units for entropy are kJ/K or J/K. It is important to note
that entropy, , is a state function; in a process depends on the initial and final states, not on the path of the process.

Entropy is an extensive property; its corresponding intensive property is called specific entropy, , and its common SI units are
kJ/kgK or J/kgK.

Example 1

Consider a reversible process and an irreversible process from states 1 to 2, as shown in the T-S diagram, Figure 6.5.e1. Answer the
following questions
(1) Is the change in entropy, ΔS, the same or different in these two processes?
(2) Is it possible to show the heat transfer of the reversible process in the T-S diagram?
(3) Is it possible to show the heat transfer of the irreversible process in the T-S diagram?

Figure 6.5.e1 T-S diagram for a reversible process and an irreversible process with the same initial and final states

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Solution:
(1) Entropy is a state function. The two processes have the same initial and final states, therefore, the same ΔS.
(2) From the definition of entropy, the heat transfer in the reversible process can be found from
2 2

Qrev = ∫ (δQ) =∫ (T dS) (6.6.15)

rev rev
1 1

This integral can be shown graphically as the shaded area under the T-S curve of the reversible process, see Figure 6.5.e2.

Figure 6.5.e2 T-S diagram: the shaded area represents the heat transfer of a reversible process.
(3) The heat transfer of the irreversible process cannot be simply calculated without additional information, and it cannot be shown
in the T-S diagram.

Example 2

A reversible process from states 1 2 in a piston-cylinder is shown in Figure 6.5.e3. Determine whether the change in specific
internal energy , specific work w, and specific heat transfer q are positive, zero, or negative.

Figure 6.5.e3 P-v and T-s diagrams of a reversible process

Solution:
The diagram shows an expansion process in the piston-cylinder. Its specific boundary work can be shown as the shaded area in
the diagram, see Figure 6.5.e3. It can also be expressed as
2

1 w2 =∫ P dv > 0 (6.6.16)
1

From the definition of entropy,

δQ
dS = ( ) (6.6.17)
T
rev

The process is reversible; therefore,

(δQ )rev = T dS (6.6.18)

2 2

∴ 1 Q2 = Qrev = ∫ (δQ )rev = ∫ T dS (6.6.19)

1 1

The specific heat transfer is

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\[{}_{1}q_{2} = \dfrac
{m} = \displaystyle\int_{1}^{2} Tds\]
From the diagram in Figure 6.5.e3, ; therefore,

1 q2 =0 (6.6.20)

The specific heat transfer in a reversible process can be shown graphically as the area under the process line in the diagram.
Note: this statement is only true for reversible processes; it is not valid for irreversible processes!
Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the piston-cylinder (closed system),
Δu = 1 q2 − 1 w2 = 0 − 1 w2 < 0 (6.6.21)

In conclusion, the reversible expansion process illustrated in the and diagrams in Figure 6.5.e3 has a positive boundary
work and zero heat transfer (adiabatic). The specific internal energy decreases in the process.

6.5.3 Entropy generation, Sgen

Entropy generation is another important concept in the second law of thermodynamics. Let us consider a cycle consisting of two
processes; process 2 1 is a reversible process and process 1 2 can be any process, either reversible or irreversible, see Figure
6.5.2. We will apply the definition of entropy and the inequality of Clausius in the following derivations.
2
δQ
∵ ΔS = S2 − S1 = ∫ ( ) (6.6.22)
1
T
rev

2 1
δQ δQ δQ
∴ ∮ =∫ ( ) +∫ ( )
T 1
T 2
T
rev

2 2
δQ δQ
=∫ ( ) −∫ ( )
1
T 1
T
rev

2
δQ
=∫ ( ) − (S2 − S1 ) ≤ 0
1
T

2
δQ
∴ (S2 − S1 ) ≥ ∫ ( ) (6.6.23)
1 T

We may change the above inequality to an equation by introducing entropy generation, , to the right side; therefore,
2
δQ
ΔS = (S2 − S1 ) = ∫ ( ) + Sgen (Sgen ≥ 0) (6.6.24)
1 T

This relation is valid for all processes with the “ ” sign for reversible processes, and the “" class="latex mathjax" title=">"
src="/@api/deki/files/59059/95a81a28652c14c0562699985a262099.png">” sign for irreversible processes. The differential form of
the relation can be expressed as
δQ
dS = + δSgen (δSgen ≥ 0) (6.6.25)
T

Figure 6.5.2 A cycle consisting of reversible and/or irreversible processes for introducing entropy generation
It is important to note that and are different concepts.

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 Entropy generation, , is a measure of the irreversibilities in a process. is NOT a property of the system. It depends on the
path of a process; the more irreversible a process is, the larger is.
Entropy is a thermodynamic property of the system. It is a state function. depends on the initial and final states only, not on
the path of a process.
In general, . may be positive or negative, but must be positive for irreversible processes or zero for reversible
processes.
Why is entropy generation important? how does it play a role in the universe? The universe is everything, including all the matter
and energy that could possibly exist in all space and time. We may treat the universe as an isolated system because nothing exists
outside the universe. From the entropy generation, , we can prove that the entropy in the universe always increases due to the
existence of irreversibilities in nature and in all human activities.

Figure 6.5.3 The universe as an isolated system

Let us define a system in the universe and everything outside the system boundary as the surroundings, see Figure 6.5.3. The
change of entropy in the universe can be written as

ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsur (6.6.26)

where , and represent the changes of entropy in the universe, the system, and its surroundings, respectively.
The change of entropy in the universe can be written in terms of entropy generation as
2
δQ
ΔSuniv = ∫ ( ) + (Sgen )univ (6.6.27)
1
T

Since the universe is an isolated system, heat transfer across the universe boundary . In addition, since all real processes
happening in the universe are irreversible, we can drop the “ ” sign in the inequality; therefore,
(Sgen )univ = ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsur > 0 (6.6.28)

The above relation indicates that the entropy generation in the universe is always a positive number due to the irreversibilities in all
real processes. As a result, the entropy in the universe always increases. This concept can be expressed in a general format as
follows if we divide the universe into a number of subsystems.
n

(Sgen )univ = ΔSuniv = ΔSsys,1 + ΔSsys,2 +. . . +ΔSsys,n = ∑ ΔSsys,i > 0 (6.6.29)

i=1

where is the change of entropy in the subsystem, i, in the universe.

6.5.4 The second law of thermodynamics expressed in terms of entropy generation, Sgen
The second law of thermodynamics was previously described with the Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements. In fact, any device
that violates the Kelvin-Planck or Clausius statements must have .
Take a heat pump as an example. We may prove that any heat pump that violates the Clausius statement would have . A heat
pump that violates the Clausius statement would have from the first law of thermodynamics, see Figure 6.5.4. Note that
entropy is a state function. For the heat pump cycle, the initial and final states are the same; therefore, . The change of entropy
in the heat pump cycle can be expressed as follows,
2
δQ −QH QL
∵ ΔS = ∫ ( ) + Sgen = + + Sgen = 0 (6.6.30)
1
T TH TL

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 QH QL 1 1
∴ Sgen = − = QH ( − ) <0 (6.6.31)
TH TL TH TL

Figure 6.5.4 A heat pump violating the Clausius statement

Now, we have proven that any heat pump that violates the Clausius statement would have . A similar procedure may be
applied to prove that any heat engine that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement would have .
In summary, the second law of thermodynamics requires that any process or cycle proceeds in the direction that obeys , in
which the “ ” sign applies to the ideal Carnot cycles and the “" class="latex mathjax" title=">"
src="/@api/deki/files/59059/95a81a28652c14c0562699985a262099.png">” sign applies to any real, irreversible cycles or
processes.
Actual, irreversible process or cycle: S_{gen}0" class="latex mathjax" title="S_{gen}>0"
src="/@api/deki/files/59082/06b0297b8c94b487262b45bd7b0793b8.png">
Carnot, reversible process or cycle:
Impossible process or cycle:

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6.7: The second law of thermodynamics for closed systems
The change of entropy in a system is caused by entropy transfer and entropy generation.
Δentropy = +in − out + gen (6.7.1)

Entropy can be transferred to a system via two mechanisms: (1) heat transfer and (2) mass transfer. It is noted that work is a form of
energy transfer; it does NOT contribute to entropy transfer!
For a closed system, entropy is transferred only by heat transfer, see Figure 6.6.1; therefore, the second law of thermodynamics for
a closed system undergoing a process from states 1 to 2 can be written as
2
δQ Qk
S2 − S1 = ∫ + Sgen ≅∑ + Sgen (Sgen ≥ 0) (6.7.2)
1
T Tk

This equation is also referred to as the entropy balance equation for closed systems. The integral represents the entropy
transfer caused by the heat transfer between the system and its surroundings (i.e., heat source and heat sink). Because this integral

is difficult to calculate, a common practice is to approximate it with , where is the heat transfer that takes place at location
of the system boundary, which has a constant temperature of . If heat transfer occurs in multiple locations, all locations must be
considered. Attention should be paid to , which represents the temperature of the system boundary or the surroundings if the
boundary and the surroundings are in thermal equilibrium. is NOT the temperature of the system itself!
Tk = Treserviour (6.7.3)

Tk ≠ Tsystem (6.7.4)

The entropy balance equation is often used together with the first law of thermodynamics, thermodynamic tables (for real
substances), or ideal gas equations (for ideal gases). We will demonstrate the applications of the entropy balance equation in
Section 6.8.

Figure 6.6.1 Entropy transferred into and out of a closed system due to heat transfer

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6.8: Specific entropy of a state
6.7.1 Determining the specific entropy of pure substances by using thermodynamic tables
The specific entropy of a pure substance can be found from thermodynamic tables if the tables are available. The procedures are
explained in Section 2.4. In addition to the and diagrams, the diagram is commonly used to illustrate the relation
between temperature and specific entropy of a pure substance. Figure 6.7.1 shows the diagram for water.

Figure 6.7.1 T-s diagram for water

Example 1

Fill in the table.

Substance T, oC P, kPa v, m3/kg Quality x s, kJ/kg-K Phase

Water 250 0.02

R134a -2 100

Solution:
Water: T = 250 oC, = 0.2 m3/kg
From Table A1: T = 250 oC, = 0.001252 m3/kg, = 0.050083 m3/kg
Since , water at the given state is a two phase mixture; the saturation pressure is Psat = 3976.17 kPa, and =
2.7935 kJ/kgK, = 6.0721 kJ/kgK
The quality is
v − vf 0.02 − 0.001252
x = = = 0.383936 (6.8.1)
vg − vf 0.050083 − 0.001252

The specific entropy is

R134a: T = -2 oC, P = 100 kPa

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From Table C1: by examining the saturation pressures at 0 oC and – 5 oC, we can estimate that the saturation pressure for T = -2 oC
is about 270 kPa; therefore, R134a at the given state is a superheated vapour.
From Table C2,

s (6.8.2)

s (6.8.3)

s (6.8.4)

v − 0.207433 s − 1.7986 −2 − (−10)

∵ = = (6.8.5)
0.2160303 − 0.207433 1.8288 − 1.7986 0 − (−10)

and
In summary,

S
u
b
P
s
T k v s
to Quality x Phase
C P 3/kg
m kJ/kg-K
a
a
n
c
e

3
W 9
a 7
t 250 6 0.02 0.383936 4.0523 two-phase
e .
r 1
7

R
1 1
3 -2 0 0.214529 n.a. 1.8228 superheated vapour
4 0
a

Example 2

A rigid tank contains 3 kg of R134a initially at 0oC, 200 kPa. R134a is now cooled until its temperature drops to -20oC. Determine
the change in entropy, , of R134a during this process. Is ?
Solution:
The initial state is at T1 = 0oC and P1 =200 kPa. From Table C2 in Appendix C,
s1 (6.8.6)

The tank is rigid; therefore, = = 0.104811 m3/kg.

From Table C1, at T2 = -20oC:
vf (6.8.7)

sf (6.8.8)

Because , the final state is a two-phase mixture.

v2 − vf 0.104811 − 0.000736
x2 = = = 0.70964 (6.8.9)
vg − vf 0.147395 − 0.000736

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The total entropy change is

It is important to note that in general. The total entropy of R134a decreases in this cooling process, but the entropy
generation is always greater than zero in a real process.

6.7.2 Determining the specific entropy of solids and liquids

The specific entropy of a solid or a liquid depends mainly on the temperature. The change of specific entropy in a process from
states 1 to 2 can be calculated as,
T2
s2 − s1 = Cp ln (6.8.10)
T1

where

s (6.8.11)

Cp (6.8.12)

T (6.8.13)

6.7.3 Determining the specific entropy of ideal gases

The specific entropy of an ideal gas is a function of both temperature and pressure. Here we will introduce a simplified method for
calculating the change of the specific entropy of an ideal gas in a process by assuming constant specific heats. This method is
reasonably accurate for a process undergoing a small temperature change.
T2 P2
s2 − s1 = Cp ln − Rln (6.8.14)
T1 P1

T2 v2
s2 − s1 = Cv ln + Rln (6.8.15)
T1 v1

where
Cp (6.8.16)

T (6.8.17)

P (6.8.18)

s (6.8.19)

v (6.8.20)

Example 3

Air is compressed from an initial state of 100 kPa, 27oC to a final state of 600 kPa, 67oC. Treat air as an ideal gas. Calculate the
change of specific entropy, , in this process. Is ?
Solution:
From Table G1: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK

It is important to note that in general. The specific entropy decreases in this process, but the rate of entropy generation is
always greater than zero in a real process.

6.7.4 Isentropic relations for an ideal gas

If a process is reversible and adiabatic, it is called an isentropic process and its entropy remains constant. An isentropic process is
an idealized process. It is commonly used as a basis for evaluating real processes. The concept of isentropic applies to all

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substances including ideal gases. The following isentropic relations, however, are ONLY valid for ideal gases.
k
Pv = constant (6.8.21)

where
Cp
k = (6.8.22)
Cv

T (6.8.23)

P (6.8.24)

v (6.8.25)

It is noted that the isentropic relation for ideal gases is actually a special case of the polytropic relation with

Example 4

Derive the isentropic relation

Solution:
For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process,
T2 P2
Δs = s2 − s1 = Cp ln − Rln =0 (6.8.26)
T1 P1

Substitute in the above equation and rearrange,

k T2 P2
∵ ln = ln (6.8.27)
k−1 T1 P1

T2 k−1 P2
∴ ln( ) = ln (6.8.28)
T1 P1

P2 T2 k−1
∴ =( ) (6.8.29)
P1 T1

Combine with the ideal gas law, ,

k k

P2 T2 k−1 P2 v2 k−1
∴ =( ) =( ) (6.8.30)
P1 T1 P1 v1

k
P2 v1
∴ =( ) (6.8.31)
P1 v2

k
∴ Pv = constant (6.8.32)

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6.9: Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in closed systems
6.8 Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in closed systems
The first and second laws of thermodynamics are often used together with the thermodynamic tables or ideal gas equations in
thermal analysis. The following strategy may be adapted when solving problems requiring the second law of thermodynamics:
1. Identify the process(es), e.g., isobaric, isothermal, isochoric, or isentropic process.
2. Determine the initial, final, and any intermediate states. Find the properties, such as, , by using the thermodynamic
tables or equations, e.g., for an ideal gas, solid, or liquid.
3. Determine the heat transfer, , or other unknowns by applying the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems.
4. Determine the entropy generation, , or other unknowns by applying the second law of thermodynamics for closed systems.

Example 1

A piston-cylinder contains ammonia at 2000 kPa, 80°C. The piston is loaded with a linear spring, see Figure 6.8.e1. The outside
ambient is at 15°C. The ammonia is now cooled down to saturated liquid at 15°C. Assuming the cylinder is always at the ambient
temperature during the cooling process, determine the specific boundary work, the specific heat transfer, and the specific entropy
generation in the process.

Figure 6.8.e1 A piston-cylinder device containing pressurized ammonia

Solution:
Analysis:
Ammonia in the piston-cylinder device can be treated as a closed system.
As the piston is loaded with a linear spring, the pressure of ammonia changes linearly with its specific volume, see the
diagram, Figure 6.8.e2. Please refer to example 5 in Section 4.3 for a detailed analysis. The specific boundary work can be
found from
2
1
1 w2 =∫ P dv = (P1 + P2 )(v2 − v1 ) (6.9.1)
1
2

Apply both the first and second laws of thermodynamics to ammonia, we can then find the specific heat transfer and specific
entropy generation.
The first law:

The second law:

We will need to determine the following properties to complete the calculations.
State 1:
State 2:

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 Figure 6.8.e2 P-v diagram of ammonia in a piston-cylinder device
Now let us solve the problem in detail.
From Table B1: T1 = 80°C, Psat = 4.14197 MPa. Ammonia in state 1 is a superheated vapour because P1 = 2000 kPa = 2 MPa <
Psat. From Table B2: for state 1 at T1 = 80°C, P1 = 2000 kPa, = 0.075952 m3/kg, = 1583.81 kJ/kg, = 5.8292 kJ/kgK

u2 (6.9.2)

The specific boundary work is

The specific heat transfer is

The specific entropy generation is

0\end{align*}">
Comment:
The cooling process is irreversible; therefore, the specific entropy generation, s_{gen}0" class="latex mathjax"
title="s_{gen}>0" src="/@api/deki/files/59172/4124f17657bce60e58aba8d594a87f91.png">.
When applying the second law of thermodynamics, it is important to note that is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin) of the
system boundary or the surroundings if the boundary is in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.

Example 2

Three kilograms of CO2 at 150 kPa, 300 K is mixed with two kilograms of CO2 at 220 kPa, 500 K, in a rigid, well-insulated tank,
see Figure 6.8.e3. Find the final state (P, T) and the entropy generation in this process. Assume CO2 is an ideal gas in this mixing
process.

Figure 6.8.e3 A rigid tank with two compartments containing CO2

Solution:
Analysis:
CO2 in the whole tank can be treated as a closed system.

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 The mixing occurs after the partition is removed. As the tank is well-insulated, the heat transfer between the system and the
surroundings is zero in this mixing process:
Since the tank is rigid, the total volume of CO2 remains constant; therefore, the boundary work is zero in the mixing process:

Apply the first law to the system (whole tank)

ΔU = 1 Q2 − 1 W2 = 0 (6.9.3)

The entropy generation can be found by applying the second law to the system.
\[\because \Delta S =\sum\dfrac
{T_{surr}}+S_{gen}\]
∴ Sgen = ΔS (6.9.4)

To complete the calculation, we will apply the ideal gas relations to determine the final pressure, temperature, , and .
Now let us solve the problem in detail.
From Table G1 for CO2: = 0.1889 kJ/kgK, = 0.846 kJ/kgK, = 0.657 kJ/kgK.
First, the volumes of compartments A and B at the initial state, state 1, can be found from the ideal gas law.
∵ P V = mRT (6.9.5)

m1A RT1A 3 × 0.1889 × 300

3
∴ VA = = = 1.1334 m (6.9.6)
P1A 150

m1B RT1B 2 × 0.1889 × 500

3
∴ VB = = = 0.8586 m (6.9.7)
P1B 220

The total volume of the tank is

3
Vtot = VA + VB = 1.1334 + 0.8586 = 1.992 m (6.9.8)

Next, the final temperature can be calculated by applying the first law to the whole tank. Note that the tank is rigid and well
insulated; therefore, .

∵ ΔU = (m1A + m1B )u2 − (m1A u1A + m1B u1B ) = 0 (6.9.9)

∴ m1A (u2 − u1A ) + m1B (u2 − u1B ) = 0 (6.9.10)

∴ m1A Cv (T2 − T1A ) + m1B Cv (T2 − T1B ) = 0 (6.9.11)

m1A T1A + m1B T1B

∴ T2 =
m1A + m1B

3 × 300 + 2 × 500
= = 380 K
3 +2

Then, the final pressure can be determined from the ideal gas law.
(m1A + m1B )RT2
P2 =
Vtot

(3 + 2) × 0.1889 × 380
= = 180.17 kPa
1.992

Last, the entropy generation can be calculated from the second law.

Sgen = ΔS

= (m1A + m1B )s2 − (m1A s1A + m1B s1B )

= m1A (s2 − s1A ) + m1B (s2 − s1B )

\ 0\end{align*}">

6.9.3 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88859
Comment:
The entropy in a process can increase or decrease. In this example, the entropy of CO2 originally in compartment A increases and
the entropy of CO2 originally in compartment B decreases in this mixing process, but the entropy generation because the
mixing process is irreversible.

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6.10: The second law of thermodynamics for open systems
Entropy can be transferred to a system via two mechanisms: (1) heat transfer and (2) mass transfer. For open systems, the second
law of thermodynamics is often written in the rate form; therefore, we are interested in the time rate of entropy transfer due to heat
transfer and mass transfer.
˙
dSheat Qk
˙
S heat = ≅∑ (6.10.1)
dt Tk

dSmass
˙
S mass = ∑ = ∑ ṁk sk (6.10.2)
dt

where

ṁ (6.10.3)

˙
Qk (6.10.4)

˙
S heat (6.10.5)

˙
S mass (6.10.6)

sk (6.10.7)

Applying the entropy balance equation, , to a control volume, see Figure 6.9.1, we can write the following
equations:
General equation for both steady and transient flow devices
\[\dfrac
=\displaystyle\left(\sum+\displaystyle\sum\frac\right)-\displaystyle\left(\sum\right)+\displaystyle{\dot}_\ \ \ \ \ \ ({\dot}_ \ge 0)\]

For steady-state, steady-flow devices, ; therefore,

\[\displaystyle \sum
-\sum=\displaystyle \sum\dfrac+{\dot}_\ \ \ \ \ \ ({\dot}_ \ge 0)\]
For steady and isentropic flow devices, and ; therefore,
\[\displaystyle\sum
=\displaystyle\sum\]
where

ṁ (6.10.8)

˙
Qc.v. (6.10.9)

Sc.v. (6.10.10)

\[\dfrac
{dt}\]
˙
S gen (6.10.11)

s (6.10.12)

T (6.10.13)

6.10.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88860
 Figure 6.9.1 Flow through a control volume, showing the entropy transfers and entropy generation

Example 1

The diagrams in Figure 6.9.e1 show a reversible process in a steady-state, single flow of air. The letters i and e represent the initial
and final states, respectively. Treat air as an ideal gas and assume ΔKE=ΔPE=0. Are the change in specific enthalpy Δh=he−hi,
specific work w, and specific heat transferq positive, zero, or negative values? What is the relation between w and q?

Figure 6.9.e1 T-s and P-v diagrams of a reversible process for an ideal gas
Solution:
The specific work can be evaluated mathematically and graphically.
(1) Mathematically,
∵ ve > vi (6.10.14)

∴ w =∫ P dv > 0 (6.10.15)
i

(2) Graphically, the specific work is the area under the process curve in the diagram; therefore is positive, see Figure
6.9.e2.
In a similar fashion, the specific heat transfer can also be evaluated graphically and mathematically.
(1) Graphically,
δq
∵ ds = ( ) (6.10.16)
T
rev

∴ qrev = ∫ T ds = T (se − si ) > 0 (6.10.17)

i

For a reversible process, the area under the process curve in the diagram represents the specific heat transfer of the
reversible process; therefore is positive, see Figure 6.9.e2.
(2) The same conclusion, q_{rev}0" class="latex mathjax" title="q_{rev}>0"
src="/@api/deki/files/59236/d00f283ba44c47860e35c0b010cd6fb7.png">, can also be derived from the second law of
thermodynamics mathematically, as follows.

6.10.2 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88860
 Q̇
˙
ṁ(se − si ) = ∑ + S gen (6.10.18)
Tsurr

For a reversible process, = 0, and the fluid is assumed to be always in thermal equilibrium with the system boundary, or
; therefore,

Q̇
qrev = = T (se − si ) > 0 (6.10.19)
ṁ

The change in specific enthalpy can then be evaluated. For an ideal gas,
Δh = he − hi = Cp (Te − Ti ) (6.10.20)

∵ Te = Ti (6.10.21)

∴ he = hi (6.10.22)

Now, we can determine the relation between and from the first law of thermodynamics for control volumes.
˙
∵ ṁ(he − hi ) = Qrev − Ẇ = 0 (6.10.23)

˙ ˙
∴ Qrev = W (6.10.24)

∴ qrev = w (6.10.25)

In this reversible process, the specific heat transfer and specific work must be the same. Graphically, the two areas under the
and diagrams must be the same.

Figure 6.9.e2 T-s and P-v diagrams, showing the solutions for a reversible process of an ideal gas

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6.11: Applications of the second law of thermodynamics in open systems
When solving problems in a control volume, the first and second laws of thermodynamics are often used together with the
continuity equation and the thermodynamic tables or the ideal gas equation. The following strategy may be adapted:
1. Set up a proper control volume to enclose the device of interest and identify the flow condition, i.e., steady or transient flow,
through the control volume.
2. Determine the relations among the mass flow rates at the inlet(s) and outlet(s) by using the continuity equation.
3. Find the fluid properties at the inlet(s) and outlet(s), such as, , by using the thermodynamic tables or equations, e.g., for
an ideal gas, solid or liquid.
4. Determine the rate of heat transfer, , or other unknowns by applying the first law of thermodynamics for open systems;
5. Determine the rate of entropy generation, , or other unknowns by applying the second law of thermodynamics for open
systems.

Example 1

Steam is used to provide heating to air in a building through a well-insulated heat exchanger, see Figure 6.10.e1.
Saturated steam at 100oC enters the heat exchanger at a mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/s and leaves the heat exchanger as a saturated
liquid at 100oC
Air enters the heat exchanger at 5oC, 101 kPa, and leaves at 25oC, 101 kPa.
Assume air is an ideal gas. Determine the mass flow rate of air and in this process.

Figure 6.10.e1 Well-insulated heat exchanger

Solution:
Analysis
The mass flow rate of air can be found by using the first law of thermodynamics
∵ ṁw (h1 − h2 ) = ṁa (h4 − h3 ) = ṁa Cp (T4 − T3 ) (6.11.1)

h1 − h2
∴ ṁa = ṁw (6.11.2)
Cp (T4 − T3 )

The rate of entropy generation can be found by using the second law of thermodynamics. Note that the heat exchanger is well-
insulated.
˙
Qk
˙
∵ ∑ ṁe se − ∑ ṁi si = ∑ + S gen (6.11.3)
Tk

˙
∴ S gen = ∑ ṁe se − ∑ ṁi si

= (ṁw s2 + ṁa s4 ) − (ṁw s1 + ṁa s3 )

= ṁw (s2 − s1 ) + ṁa (s4 − s3 )

The following properties are needed in order to complete the calculations:

For the steam-water stream:
For the air stream:
Now, let us solve the problem in detail.
From Table A1, we can find the specific enthalpies and specific entropies of the saturated steam and saturated liquid water at
100oC.

6.11.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88861
 h1 = hg = 2675.57 kJ/kg , h2 = hf = 419.17 kJ/kg
s1 = sg = 7.3541 kJ/kgK, s2 = sf = 1.3072 kJ/kgK
From Table G1 for air: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK
T4 P4
∵ s4 − s3 = Cp ln − Rln (6.11.4)
T3 P3

Now, we can complete the calculations. The mass flow rate of air is

The rate of entropy generation is

0 \end{align*}">
Comment:
The heat transfer process is irreversible; therefore, the rate of entropy generation is greater than zero.

Example 2

R134a at 300 kPa, 20°C is heated to 50°C isobarically in a heat exchanger. The mass flow rate of R134a is 1.5 kg/s. The heat at a
rate of is supplied by a heat pump, which absorbs heat at a rate of from the ambient at 280 K, see Figure 6.10.e2. If ,
and there is no heat loss in the heat exchanger, find the power input, , and the rate of heat transfer, . Is this setup consisting of
the heat exchanger and heat pump possible?

Figure 6.10.e2 A device consisting of a heat exchanger and a heat pump

Solution:
The control volume is set up to enclose both the heat pump and heat exchanger, as shown in Figure 6.10.e2.
From Table C1, we can tell that, at the given pressures and temperatures, R134a remains a superheated vapour at both the inlet and
the outlet of the heat exchanger. The specific enthalpies and specific entropies of R134a can be found in Table C2.
At the inlet, P1 = 300 kPa, T1= 20oC; therefore, h1 = 416.24 kJ/kg, s1 = 1.7876 kJ/kgK
At the outlet, P2 = 300 kPa, T2 = 50oC; therefore, h2 = 443.31 kJ/kg, s1 = 1.8755 kJ/kgK
Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the control volume.
˙ ˙
ṁh1 + QL + W H P = ṁh2 (6.11.5)

For the heat pump

˙
QH
C OPH P = (6.11.6)
Ẇ H P

6.11.2 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88861
Combine the above three relations, we can derive
ṁ(h2 − h1 )
Ẇ H P =
C OPH P

1.5 × (443.31 − 416.24)

= = 8.121 kW
5

˙ ˙
QL = (C OPH P − 1)W H P

= (5 − 1) × 8.121 = 32.484 kW

Apply the second law of thermodynamics to the control volume.

˙
Qk
˙
∵ ṁ(s2 − s1 ) = ∑ + S gen (6.11.7)
Tk

0 \end{align*}">
Comment:
The rate of entropy generation in this control volume (consisting of both heat exchanger and heat pump) is positive; therefore, it is
very likely that this setup can work in reality, and the processes in the heat exchanger and heat pump are irreversible.
To further verify this, we can calculate the rate of entropy generation for each individual device, i.e., heat exchanger and heat
pump, separately. However, with the given information, there exists a challenge to evaluate the amount of entropy transfer due to

the heat transfer provided by the heat pump to the heat exchanger. Strictly speaking, should be evaluated because the
temperature of the heat exchanger varies, leading to a possible variation of temperature, , at the boundary between the heat pump
and the heat exchanger. The relation between the instantaneous rate of heat transfer from the heat pump to the heat exchanger, ,
and the boundary temperature, , must be obtained to enable a detailed analysis.
Here, let us perform a simplified calculation to demonstrate the concept. Assume that remains constant as the average
temperature between the inlet and the outlet of the heat exchanger, thus .
Apply the second law of thermodynamics to the heat pump. Note that , and for the heat pump cycle.

0 \end{align*}">
Furthermore, the COP of the Carnot cycle operating between the heat sink of 280 K and the heat source of 308.15 K is
308.15
C OPH P ,rev = = 10.9 > 5 = C OPH P (6.11.8)
308.15 − 280

Because \dot{S}_{gen, HP}0" class="latex mathjax" title="\dot{S}_{gen, HP}>0"

src="/@api/deki/files/59287/247c630009c7aa2f90477b01ba277ada.png"> and , this heat pump cycle is an
irreversible, realistic cycle.
Similarly, let us apply the second law of thermodynamics to the heat exchanger.

Because , the process in this heat exchanger is almost ideal and reversible. It is noted that heat losses are typically
unavoidable in real devices, but they are not considered in this example. Due to heat losses from the heat exchanger, the real
process will have \dot{S}_{gen, HE}0" class="latex mathjax" title="\dot{S}_{gen, HE}>0"
src="/@api/deki/files/59291/350287d39e0ba98311a18a7bf3ae8466.png">. Consequently, the outlet temperature may not be able to
reach 50oC.

Example 3

Consider an adiabatic two-stage compressor having an intercooler, as shown in Figure 6.10.e3.

6.11.3 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88861
 Air at 10°C, 101 kPa enters the first stage of the compressor and is compressed to 300 kPa, 150°C.
After being cooled to 30°C in a well-insulated intercooler, the air then enters the second stage cylinder and is compressed to 900
kPa.
Assume that (1) the pressure drop in the intercooler is negligible, (2) air is an ideal gas, and (3) the two compression processes are
polytropic with the same polytropic exponent. Determine
1. The total specific work of the two-stage compressor.
2. The specific entropy generation in each of the two stages.
3. The total specific entropy generation in the system consisting of the two-stage compressor and the intercooler, assuming a
constant temperature of 30°C at the system boundary.
4. Assume there is no intercooler. The air from the first stage enters directly to the second stage and is compressed to 900 kPa,
what is the air temperature at the exit of the second stage? What is the total specific work of the compressor? Assume the
polytropic exponent remains the same in both stages.

Figure 6.10.e3 Two stage compressor with an intercooler

Solution:
(1) Assume air is an ideal gas. From Table G1 for air: R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK.
The compressor is adiabatic with the following inlet and outlet conditions for each stage:
Stage 1
Inlet P1 = 101 kPa, T1 = 10°C
Outlet P2 = 300 kPa, T2 =150°C
Therefore, the specific work of stage 1 is

The polytropic exponent can be found by combining the polytropic relation and the ideal gas law.
n n
∵ P1 v = P2 v (6.11.9)
1 2

P2 T2 n−1
∴ =( ) (6.11.10)
P1 T1

P2
ln
P1
∴ n =
P2 T1
ln ( )
P1 T2

300
ln
101
= = 1.58486
300 × (273.15 + 10)
ln [ ]
101 × (273.15 + 150)

Stage 2

6.11.4 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88861
 Inlet P3 = 300 kPa, T3 = 30°C
Outlet P4 = 900 kPa
The air temperature at the outlet of stage 2 can be found from the polytropic relation.
n

P4 T4 n−1
∵ =( ) (6.11.11)
P3 T3

n−1

P4 n
∴ T4 = T3 ( )
P3

1.58486 − 1

900
1.58486
= (273.15 + 30) ×
300
o
= 454.7 K = 181.56 C

Therefore, the specific work of stage 2 is

The total specific work of the two stage compressor is

(2) Both stages are adiabatic; therefore, for each stage

˙
Qk
˙
∵ ṁ(se − si ) = ∑ + S gen (6.11.12)
Tk

˙
S gen Te Pe
∴ sgen = = se − si = Cp ln − Rln (6.11.13)
ṁ Ti Pi

For stage 1,

For stage 2,

(3) To calculate the total specific entropy generation in the system consisting of the compressor and the heat exchanger, we can set
up the control volume as shown in Figure 6.10.e4.

Figure 6.10.e4 Schematic of a two-stage compressor with an intercooler

The specific heat transfer rejected from the cooler to the surroundings is

Apply the second law of thermodynamics to the control volume as outlined in Figure 6.10.e4, we can find the total specific entropy
generation.

6.11.5 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/88861
 ˙
Qk
˙
∵ ṁ(se − si ) = ∑ + S gen (6.11.14)
Tk

˙
−Q
˙
∴ ṁ(s4 − s1 ) = + S gen (6.11.15)
Tsurr

˙
S gen −q
∴ sgen = = (s4 − s1 ) − (6.11.16)
ṁ Tsurr

Since

Therefore, the total specific entropy generation is

0 \end{align*}">
Comment:
Compare the results from part (2) and part (3), s_{gen} s_{gen,1} + s_{gen,2}" class="latex mathjax" title="s_{gen} > s_{gen,1} +
s_{gen,2}" src="/@api/deki/files/59312/d566f132ace9cdf8337d452d228a313f.png">, because the heat transfer process in the heat
exchanger is irreversible and generates additional entropy.
(4) If the air is directly compressed from P1 = 101 kPa to P4 = 900 kPa in a polytropic process with n = 1.58486, then its final
temperature at the exit of stage 2 will be
n

P4 T4′ n−1
∵ =( ) (6.11.17)
P1 T1

n−1

P4 n
∴ T4′ = T1 ( )
P1

0.58486

900 1.58486
= (273.15 + 10)( )
101
∘
= 634.7 K = 361.5 C

The specific work of the compressor will be

Comment:
Intercoolers are commonly used in multiple-stage compressors. Without intercoolers, the air temperature in the compressor may
increase significantly, which may reduce the efficiency of the compressor. In addition, by comparing the specific work in part 1 and
part 4, w_{tot'}w_{tot}" class="latex mathjax" title="w_{tot'}>w_{tot}"
src="/@api/deki/files/59316/adeb8e901388ced638765ce9764daaf8.png">, it is apparent that without intercoolers, the compressor
will need to consume much more power in order to achieve the same final pressure.

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6.12: Chapter review
In this chapter, we have introduced two statements of the second law of thermodynamics including the Kelvin-Planck statement
and the Clausius statement, and the ideal model of Carnot cycles. These concepts establish a theoretical foundation for evaluating
the best possible performance, in terms of the thermal efficiency or COP, of heat engines, refrigerators, or heat pumps operating
between two heat reservoirs.
The second law of thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of entropy generation. Due to the existence of irreversibilities, a real
process or cycle always proceeds in the direction that obeys . For an ideal, reversible process or cycle, such as the Carnot
cycles, . Any real or ideal process or cycle must satisfy both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.
The first and second laws of thermodynamics are often used together with the thermodynamic tables or ideal gas equations in
thermal analysis. When applying the second law of thermodynamics for closed or open systems, it is important to write an
appropriate entropy balance equation. Entropy, entropy transfer, and entropy generation are three important concepts in the entropy
balance equation. They have different physical meanings.
Entropy is a measure of the degree of the “randomness” or “disorder” of a system. It is a thermodynamic property of the system
and a state function. The change of entropy, , in a process only depends on the initial and final states of the process.
Entropy generation, , is a measure of the irreversibilities in a process. It is not a property of the system. It depends on the
path of a process; the more irreversible a process is, the larger is.
Entropy transfer always accompanies mass transfer and heat transfer in a process or a cycle. Entropy transfer is a boundary
phenomenon. It relates to the mass flow rate or heat transfer across the system boundary, as well as the temperature of the
boundary.

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6.13: Key equations
6.12 Key equations
Heat engine

Net work output

Thermal efficiency of any heat engine

Thermal efficiency of Carnot heat engine

Refrigerator and heat pump

Net work input

COP of any refrigerator

COP of Carnot refrigerator

COP of any heat pump

COP of Carnot heat pump

Entropy and entropy generation

The inequality of
Clausius

Definition of entropy

{\rm{Infinitesimal \ \ form:}} \ dS =\displaystyle\frac{\delta Q}{T}+\delta S_{gen} \\ {\rm{where}} \ \delta S_{gen}\geq0 \\ \rm{(= for \ reversible \ processes; \ for \ irreversible \

Definition of entropy process)}" class="latex mathjax" title="{\rm{Infinitesimal \ \ form:}} \ dS =\displaystyle\frac{\delta Q}{T}+\delta

generation S_{gen} \\ {\rm{where}} \ \delta S_{gen}\geq0 \\ \rm{(= for \ reversible \ processes; \ > for \ irreversible \ process)}"
src="/@api/deki/files/59331/84a1c10887a25607359ac46762759083.png">

The second law of thermodynamics

For closed systems

(control mass)
where is the absolute temperature of the system boundary, in Kelvin.

For steady-state,
steady flow in a
control volume (open
systems)

For steady and

isentropic flow

Change of specific
entropy between two
states of a solid or
liquid

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 Change of specific Assume constant and in the temperature range,
entropy between two T2 v2

states of an ideal gas s2 − s1 = Cv ln

T1
+ Rln
v1
(6.13.1)

Isentropic relations for

ideal gases
where and is in Kelvin

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 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

7: Appendices
7.1: Appendix A - Thermodynamic Properties of Water
7.2: Appendix B - Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia
7.3: Appendix C - Thermodynamic Properties of R134a
7.4: Appendix D - Thermodynamic Properties of Carbon Dioxide
7.5: Appendix E - Critical Properties of Selected Fluids
7.6: Appendix F - Triple Point of Selected Substances
7.7: Appendix G - Properties of Various Substances

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1
7.1: Appendix A - Thermodynamic Properties of Water
Table A1: Saturated Water
Specific Internal Energy
T (oC) P (MPa) Specific Volume m3/kg Specific Enthalpy kJ/kg Specific Entropy kJ/kgK
kJ/kg

vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg

0.01 0.00061 0.001000 205.991 0.00 2374.90 0.00 2500.92 0.0000 9.1555

5 0.00087 0.001000 147.011 21.02 2381.78 21.02 2510.06 0.0763 9.0248

10 0.00123 0.001000 106.303 42.02 2388.65 42.02 2519.21 0.1511 8.8998

15 0.00171 0.001001 77.8755 62.98 2395.49 62.98 2528.33 0.2245 8.7803

20 0.00234 0.001002 57.7567 83.91 2402.32 83.91 2537.43 0.2965 8.6660

25 0.00317 0.001003 43.3373 104.83 2409.13 104.83 2546.51 0.3672 8.5567

30 0.00425 0.001004 32.8783 125.73 2415.91 125.73 2555.55 0.4368 8.4520

35 0.00563 0.001006 25.2053 146.63 2422.67 146.63 2564.55 0.5051 8.3517

40 0.00738 0.001008 19.5151 167.53 2429.39 167.53 2573.51 0.5724 8.2556

45 0.00960 0.001010 15.2521 188.43 2436.08 188.44 2582.43 0.6386 8.1633

50 0.01235 0.001012 12.0269 209.33 2442.73 209.34 2591.29 0.7038 8.0748

55 0.01576 0.001015 9.56428 230.24 2449.34 230.26 2600.09 0.7680 7.9898

60 0.01995 0.001017 7.66723 251.16 2455.90 251.18 2608.83 0.8313 7.9082

65 0.02504 0.001020 6.19354 272.09 2462.41 272.12 2617.50 0.8937 7.8296

70 0.03120 0.001023 5.03954 293.03 2468.86 293.07 2626.10 0.9551 7.7540

75 0.03860 0.001026 4.12894 313.99 2475.24 314.03 2634.60 1.0158 7.6812

80 0.04741 0.001029 3.40516 334.96 2481.56 335.01 2643.02 1.0756 7.6111

85 0.05787 0.001032 2.82584 355.96 2487.81 356.02 2651.33 1.1346 7.5434

90 0.07018 0.001036 2.35906 376.97 2493.97 377.04 2659.53 1.1929 7.4781

95 0.08461 0.001040 1.98056 398.00 2500.04 398.09 2667.61 1.2504 7.4151

100 0.10142 0.001043 1.67177 419.06 2506.02 419.17 2675.57 1.3072 7.3541

105 0.12090 0.001047 1.41838 440.15 2511.90 440.27 2683.39 1.3634 7.2952

110 0.14338 0.001052 1.20929 461.26 2517.67 461.42 2691.06 1.4188 7.2381

115 0.16918 0.001056 1.03584 482.42 2523.33 482.59 2698.58 1.4737 7.1828

120 0.19867 0.001060 0.891212 503.60 2528.86 503.81 2705.93 1.5279 7.1291

125 0.23224 0.001065 0.770026 524.83 2534.27 525.07 2713.10 1.5816 7.0770

130 0.27028 0.001070 0.668004 546.10 2539.53 546.38 2720.08 1.6347 7.0264

135 0.31323 0.001075 0.581729 567.41 2544.65 567.75 2726.87 1.6872 6.9772

140 0.36154 0.001080 0.508454 588.77 2549.62 589.16 2733.44 1.7392 6.9293

145 0.41569 0.001085 0.445962 610.19 2554.42 610.64 2739.80 1.7908 6.8826

150 0.47617 0.001091 0.392453 631.66 2559.05 632.18 2745.93 1.8418 6.8371

155 0.54350 0.001096 0.346460 653.19 2563.51 653.79 2751.81 1.8924 6.7926

160 0.61824 0.001102 0.306782 674.79 2567.78 675.47 2757.44 1.9426 6.7491

7.1.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89827
 Specific Internal Energy
T (oC) P (MPa) Specific Volume m3/kg Specific Enthalpy kJ/kg Specific Entropy kJ/kgK
kJ/kg

165 0.70093 0.001108 0.272431 696.46 2571.85 697.24 2762.81 1.9923 6.7066

170 0.79219 0.001114 0.242589 718.20 2575.73 719.08 2767.90 2.0417 6.6650

175 0.89260 0.001121 0.216581 740.02 2579.39 741.02 2772.71 2.0906 6.6241

180 1.00281 0.001127 0.193842 761.92 2582.83 763.05 2777.21 2.1393 6.5841

185 1.12346 0.001134 0.173901 783.91 2586.04 785.19 2781.41 2.1875 6.5447

190 1.25524 0.001141 0.156362 806.00 2589.01 807.43 2785.28 2.2355 6.5059

195 1.39882 0.001149 0.140892 828.18 2591.74 829.79 2788.82 2.2832 6.4678

200 1.55493 0.001157 0.127210 850.47 2594.20 852.27 2792.01 2.3305 6.4302

205 1.72430 0.001164 0.115078 872.87 2596.40 874.88 2794.83 2.3777 6.3930

210 1.90767 0.001173 0.104292 895.39 2598.31 897.63 2797.27 2.4245 6.3563

215 2.10584 0.001181 0.094680 918.04 2599.94 920.53 2799.32 2.4712 6.3200

220 2.31959 0.001190 0.086092 940.82 2601.25 943.58 2800.95 2.5177 6.2840

225 2.54972 0.001199 0.078404 963.74 2602.24 966.80 2802.15 2.5640 6.2483

230 2.79709 0.001209 0.071504 986.81 2602.90 990.19 2802.90 2.6101 6.2128

235 3.06253 0.001219 0.065298 1010.04 2603.20 1013.77 2803.17 2.6561 6.1775

240 3.34693 0.001229 0.059705 1033.44 2603.13 1037.55 2802.96 2.7020 6.1423

245 3.65117 0.001240 0.054654 1057.02 2602.67 1061.55 2802.22 2.7478 6.1072

250 3.97617 0.001252 0.050083 1080.79 2601.79 1085.77 2800.93 2.7935 6.0721

255 4.32289 0.001264 0.045939 1104.77 2600.49 1110.23 2799.07 2.8392 6.0369

260 4.69226 0.001276 0.042173 1128.97 2598.72 1134.96 2796.60 2.8850 6.0016

265 5.08529 0.001289 0.038746 1153.41 2596.45 1159.96 2793.49 2.9307 5.9661

270 5.50299 0.001303 0.035621 1178.10 2593.67 1185.27 2789.69 2.9765 5.9304

275 5.94639 0.001318 0.032766 1203.07 2590.33 1210.90 2785.17 3.0224 5.8944

280 6.41658 0.001333 0.030153 1228.33 2586.39 1236.88 2779.87 3.0685 5.8579

285 6.91466 0.001349 0.027756 1253.92 2581.81 1263.25 2773.73 3.1147 5.8209

290 7.44178 0.001366 0.025555 1279.86 2576.53 1290.03 2766.70 3.1612 5.7834

295 7.99911 0.001385 0.023529 1306.19 2570.49 1317.27 2758.70 3.2080 5.7451

300 8.58790 0.001404 0.021660 1332.95 2563.62 1345.01 2749.64 3.2552 5.7059

305 9.20943 0.001425 0.019934 1360.18 2555.85 1373.30 2739.43 3.3028 5.6657

310 9.86505 0.001448 0.018335 1387.93 2547.07 1402.22 2727.95 3.3510 5.6244

315 10.55620 0.001472 0.016851 1416.28 2537.17 1431.83 2715.05 3.3998 5.5816

320 11.28430 0.001499 0.015471 1445.31 2526.01 1462.22 2700.59 3.4494 5.5372

325 12.05100 0.001528 0.014183 1475.11 2513.41 1493.52 2684.33 3.5000 5.4909

330 12.85810 0.001561 0.012979 1505.80 2499.15 1525.87 2666.03 3.5518 5.4422

335 13.70730 0.001597 0.011847 1537.56 2482.96 1559.45 2645.35 3.6050 5.3906

340 14.60070 0.001638 0.010781 1570.62 2464.44 1594.53 2621.85 3.6601 5.3356

345 15.54060 0.001685 0.009769 1605.30 2443.09 1631.48 2594.90 3.7176 5.2762

7.1.2 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89827
 Specific Internal Energy
T (oC) P (MPa) Specific Volume m3/kg Specific Enthalpy kJ/kg Specific Entropy kJ/kgK
kJ/kg

350 16.52940 0.001740 0.008802 1642.13 2418.14 1670.89 2563.64 3.7784 5.2110

355 17.57010 0.001808 0.007868 1681.96 2388.40 1713.72 2526.65 3.8439 5.1380

360 18.66600 0.001895 0.006949 1726.28 2351.78 1761.66 2481.49 3.9167 5.0536

365 19.82140 0.002017 0.006012 1777.79 2303.79 1817.77 2422.95 4.0014 4.9497

370 21.04360 0.002215 0.004954 1844.07 2230.26 1890.69 2334.52 4.1112 4.8012

373.95 22.06400 0.003106 0.003106 2015.73 2015.73 2084.26 2084.26 4.4070 4.4070

Table A2: Superheated Vapor, Water

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 10 kPa (Sat. T = 45.80oC) P = 50 kPa (Sat. T = 81.31oC

Sat 14.6701 2437.16 2583.86 8.1488 3.24003 2483.21 2645.22 7.5930

50 14.8670 2443.30 2591.97 8.1741 - - - -

100 17.1964 2515.49 2687.46 8.4489 3.41867 2511.49 2682.42 7.6953

150 19.5132 2587.91 2783.04 8.6892 3.88973 2585.73 2780.21 7.9413

200 21.8256 2661.34 2879.60 8.9049 4.35616 2659.96 2877.77 8.1592

250 24.1361 2736.09 2977.45 9.1015 4.82061 2735.12 2976.15 8.3568

300 26.4456 2812.28 3076.74 9.2827 5.28405 2811.56 3075.76 8.5386

350 28.7545 2890.00 3177.55 9.4513 5.74690 2889.44 3176.78 8.7076

400 31.0631 2969.32 3279.95 9.6094 6.20940 2968.86 3279.33 8.8659

450 33.3714 3050.27 3383.98 9.7584 6.67166 3049.89 3383.47 9.0151

500 35.6796 3132.89 3489.69 9.8998 7.13376 3132.58 3489.27 9.1566

550 37.9876 3217.24 3597.11 10.0344 7.59574 3216.96 3596.75 9.2913

600 40.2956 3303.32 3706.27 10.1631 8.05763 3303.08 3705.96 9.4201

650 42.6035 3391.17 3817.20 10.2866 8.51946 3390.96 3816.93 9.5436

700 44.9113 3480.79 3929.90 10.4055 8.98123 3480.60 3929.66 9.6626

750 47.2191 3572.18 4044.37 10.5202 9.44296 3572.02 4044.17 9.7773

800 49.5269 3665.35 4160.62 10.6311 9.90467 3665.20 4160.44 9.8882

850 51.8347 3760.27 4278.61 10.7386 10.3663 3760.13 4278.45 9.9957

900 54.1424 3856.91 4398.33 10.8429 10.8280 3856.79 4398.19 10.1000

950 56.4501 3955.25 4519.75 10.9442 11.2896 3955.14 4519.62 10.2014

1000 58.7578 4055.24 4642.82 11.0428 11.7513 4055.14 4642.70 10.3000

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 100 kPa (Sat. T = 99.60oC) P = 200 kPa (Sat. T = 120.21oC)

Sat 1.69393 2505.55 2674.95 7.3589 0.885682 2529.09 2706.23 7.1269

150 1.93665 2582.94 2776.60 7.6148 0.959855 2577.13 2769.10 7.2810

200 2.17243 2658.21 2875.45 7.8356 1.080480 2654.63 2870.73 7.5081

7.1.3 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89827
 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

250 2.40615 2733.90 2974.51 8.0346 1.198890 2731.43 2971.21 7.7100

300 2.63885 2810.65 3074.53 8.2172 1.316230 2808.82 3072.07 7.8941

350 2.87095 2888.73 3175.83 8.3866 1.432970 2887.31 3173.90 8.0644

400 3.10269 2968.29 3278.56 8.5452 1.549330 2967.15 3277.02 8.2236

450 3.33420 3049.42 3382.84 8.6946 1.665460 3048.48 3381.57 8.3734

500 3.56553 3132.18 3488.73 8.8362 1.781420 3131.39 3487.67 8.5152

550 3.79675 3216.62 3596.30 8.9710 1.897260 3215.95 3595.40 8.6502

600 4.02788 3302.79 3705.58 9.0998 2.013010 3302.20 3704.80 8.7792

650 4.25895 3390.70 3816.60 9.2235 2.128700 3390.18 3815.92 8.9030

700 4.48997 3480.37 3929.37 9.3424 2.244330 3479.92 3928.78 9.0220

750 4.72094 3571.82 4043.91 9.4572 2.359930 3571.41 4043.39 9.1369

800 4.95189 3665.02 4160.21 9.5682 2.475500 3664.65 4159.75 9.2479

850 5.18280 3759.97 4278.25 9.6757 2.591030 3759.64 4277.84 9.3555

900 5.41370 3856.64 4398.01 9.7800 2.706550 3856.34 4397.65 9.4598

950 5.64458 3955.00 4519.46 9.8813 2.822050 3954.72 4519.13 9.5612

1000 5.87545 4055.01 4642.56 9.9800 2.937540 4054.76 4642.27 9.6599

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 300 kPa (Sat. T = 133.52oC) P = 400 kPa (Sat. T = 143.60oC)

Sat 0.60576 2543.15 2724.88 6.9916 0.462383 2553.10 2738.05 6.8955

150 0.63401 2570.98 2761.19 7.0791 0.470883 2564.43 2752.78 6.9306

200 0.71642 2650.96 2865.89 7.3131 0.534334 2647.19 2860.93 7.1723

250 0.79644 2728.93 2967.87 7.5180 0.595196 2726.39 2964.47 7.3804

300 0.87534 2806.98 3069.58 7.7037 0.654892 2805.12 3067.08 7.5677

350 0.95363 2885.88 3171.97 7.8750 0.713958 2884.45 3170.03 7.7399

400 1.03154 2966.00 3275.47 8.0347 0.772645 2964.85 3273.91 7.9002

450 1.10921 3047.53 3380.29 8.1849 0.831085 3046.58 3379.02 8.0508

500 1.18671 3130.59 3486.60 8.3271 0.889357 3129.79 3485.54 8.1933

550 1.26409 3215.26 3594.49 8.4623 0.947510 3214.58 3593.59 8.3287

600 1.34139 3301.61 3704.03 8.5914 1.005570 3301.02 3703.25 8.4580

650 1.41861 3389.67 3815.25 8.7153 1.063570 3389.15 3814.58 8.5820

700 1.49579 3479.46 3928.20 8.8344 1.121520 3479.00 3927.61 8.7012

750 1.57293 3571.00 4042.88 8.9494 1.179430 3570.59 4042.36 8.8162

800 1.65003 3664.28 4159.29 9.0604 1.237300 3663.92 4158.84 8.9273

850 1.72711 3759.30 4277.44 9.1680 1.295150 3758.97 4277.03 9.0350

900 1.80417 3856.03 4397.28 9.2724 1.352980 3855.73 4396.92 9.1394

950 1.88121 3954.45 4518.81 9.3739 1.410790 3954.17 4518.49 9.2409

7.1.4 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89827
 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

1000 1.95823 4054.51 4641.98 9.4726 1.468580 4054.25 4641.69 9.3396

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 500 kPa (Sat. T = 151.83oC) P = 600 kPa (Sat. T = 158.82oC)

Sat 0.37481 2560.71 2748.11 6.8207 0.315583 2566.79 2756.14 6.7593

200 0.42503 2643.32 2855.84 7.0610 0.352121 2639.34 2850.61 6.9683

250 0.47443 2723.82 2961.04 7.2724 0.393901 2721.21 2957.55 7.1832

300 0.52261 2803.25 3064.55 7.4614 0.434418 2801.36 3062.01 7.3740

350 0.57015 2883.01 3168.08 7.6346 0.474275 2881.56 3166.12 7.5481

400 0.61730 2963.70 3272.35 7.7955 0.513741 2962.54 3270.78 7.7097

450 0.66421 3045.63 3377.74 7.9465 0.552957 3044.68 3376.46 7.8611

500 0.71094 3129.00 3484.47 8.0892 0.592002 3128.20 3483.40 8.0041

550 0.75756 3213.90 3592.68 8.2249 0.630925 3213.22 3591.77 8.1399

600 0.80409 3300.43 3702.47 8.3543 0.669761 3299.84 3701.69 8.2695

650 0.85055 3388.63 3813.90 8.4784 0.708529 3388.11 3813.23 8.3937

700 0.89696 3478.54 3927.02 8.5977 0.747246 3478.08 3926.43 8.5131

750 0.94332 3570.18 4041.84 8.7128 0.785923 3569.77 4041.33 8.6283

800 0.98966 3663.55 4158.38 8.8240 0.824568 3663.18 4157.92 8.7395

850 1.03597 3758.64 4276.63 8.9317 0.863187 3758.31 4276.22 8.8472

900 1.08226 3855.43 4396.56 9.0362 0.901785 3855.13 4396.20 8.9518

950 1.12853 3953.90 4518.16 9.1377 0.940365 3953.62 4517.84 9.0533

1000 1.17479 4054.00 4641.40 9.2364 0.978931 4053.75 4641.11 9.1521

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 800 kPa (Sat. T = 170.40oC) P = 1000 kPa (Sat. T = 179.87oC)

Sat 0.24034 2576.03 2768.30 6.6616 0.194362 2582.75 2777.11 6.5850

200 0.26088 2631.04 2839.75 6.8176 0.206022 2622.24 2828.26 6.6955

250 0.29321 2715.87 2950.44 7.0401 0.232747 2710.38 2943.12 6.9265

300 0.32416 2797.53 3056.86 7.2345 0.257988 2793.64 3051.63 7.1246

350 0.35442 2878.63 3162.17 7.4106 0.282504 2875.68 3158.18 7.3029

400 0.38428 2960.21 3267.64 7.5734 0.306606 2957.87 3264.47 7.4669

450 0.41389 3042.77 3373.88 7.7257 0.330447 3040.85 3371.30 7.6200

500 0.44332 3126.60 3481.25 7.8692 0.354113 3124.99 3479.10 7.7642

550 0.47263 3211.85 3589.96 8.0055 0.377655 3210.48 3588.14 7.9008

600 0.50185 3298.65 3700.14 8.1354 0.401108 3297.47 3698.58 8.0310

650 0.53101 3387.08 3811.88 8.2598 0.424494 3386.04 3810.53 8.1557

700 0.56011 3477.17 3925.26 8.3794 0.447828 3476.25 3924.08 8.2755

750 0.58917 3568.95 4040.29 8.4947 0.471121 3568.14 4039.26 8.3909

7.1.5 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89827
 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

800 0.61820 3662.45 4157.01 8.6061 0.494382 3661.71 4156.09 8.5024

850 0.64721 3757.64 4275.41 8.7139 0.517618 3756.98 4274.60 8.6103

900 0.67619 3854.52 4395.48 8.8185 0.540832 3853.92 4394.75 8.7150

950 0.70516 3953.07 4517.19 8.9201 0.564028 3952.52 4516.54 8.8166

1000 0.73411 4053.24 4640.53 9.0189 0.587210 4052.74 4639.95 8.9155

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1200 kPa (Sat. T = 187.95oC) P = 1400 kPa (Sat. T = 195.03oC)

Sat 0.16326 2587.83 2783.74 6.5217 0.140778 2591.76 2788.85 6.4675

200 0.16934 2612.85 2816.06 6.5909 0.143025 2602.72 2802.96 6.4975

250 0.19241 2704.71 2935.60 6.8313 0.163561 2698.88 2927.86 6.7488

300 0.21386 2789.69 3046.32 7.0335 0.182324 2785.67 3040.92 6.9552

350 0.23455 2872.70 3154.16 7.2139 0.200292 2869.68 3150.09 7.1379

400 0.25482 2955.51 3261.29 7.3793 0.217820 2953.14 3258.08 7.3046

450 0.27482 3038.93 3368.71 7.5332 0.235078 3036.99 3366.10 7.4594

500 0.29464 3123.38 3476.94 7.6779 0.252156 3121.76 3474.78 7.6047

550 0.31434 3209.11 3586.31 7.8150 0.269109 3207.73 3584.48 7.7422

600 0.33395 3296.28 3697.01 7.9455 0.285970 3295.09 3695.45 7.8730

650 0.35349 3385.00 3809.18 8.0704 0.302764 3383.96 3807.83 7.9982

700 0.37297 3475.33 3922.90 8.1904 0.319505 3474.41 3921.72 8.1183

750 0.39242 3567.32 4038.22 8.3060 0.336206 3566.50 4037.18 8.2340

800 0.41184 3660.98 4155.18 8.4176 0.352874 3660.24 4154.26 8.3457

850 0.43123 3756.31 4273.78 8.5256 0.369516 3755.65 4272.97 8.4538

900 0.45059 3853.32 4394.03 8.6303 0.386137 3852.71 4393.30 8.5587

950 0.46994 3951.96 4515.90 8.7320 0.402741 3951.41 4515.25 8.6604

1000 0.48928 4052.23 4639.37 8.8310 0.419330 4051.72 4638.78 8.7594

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1600 kPa (Sat. T = 201.37oC) P = 1800 kPa (Sat. T = 207.11oC)

Sat 0.12374 2594.83 2792.82 6.4199 0.110368 2597.24 2795.91 6.3775

250 0.19241 2704.71 2935.60 6.8313 0.163561 2698.88 2927.86 6.7488

300 0.21386 2789.69 3046.32 7.0335 0.182324 2785.67 3040.92 6.9552

350 0.23455 2872.70 3154.16 7.2139 0.200292 2869.68 3150.09 7.1379

400 0.25482 2955.51 3261.29 7.3793 0.217820 2953.14 3258.08 7.3046

450 0.27482 3038.93 3368.71 7.5332 0.235078 3036.99 3366.10 7.4594

500 0.29464 3123.38 3476.94 7.6779 0.252156 3121.76 3474.78 7.6047

550 0.31434 3209.11 3586.31 7.8150 0.269109 3207.73 3584.48 7.7422

600 0.33395 3296.28 3697.01 7.9455 0.285970 3295.09 3695.45 7.8730

7.1.6 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89827
 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

650 0.35349 3385.00 3809.18 8.0704 0.302764 3383.96 3807.83 7.9982

700 0.37297 3475.33 3922.90 8.1904 0.319505 3474.41 3921.72 8.1183

750 0.39242 3567.32 4038.22 8.3060 0.336206 3566.50 4037.18 8.2340

800 0.41184 3660.98 4155.18 8.4176 0.352874 3660.24 4154.26 8.3457

850 0.43123 3756.31 4273.78 8.5256 0.369516 3755.65 4272.97 8.4538

900 0.45059 3853.32 4394.03 8.6303 0.386137 3852.71 4393.30 8.5587

950 0.46994 3951.96 4515.90 8.7320 0.402741 3951.41 4515.25 8.6604

1000 0.48928 4052.23 4639.37 8.8310 0.419330 4051.72 4638.78 8.7594

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 2000 kPa (Sat. T = 212.37oC) P = 2500 kPa (Sat. T = 223.95oC)

Sat 0.09959 2599.12 2798.29 6.3390 0.079949 2602.06 2801.93 6.2558

250 0.11150 2680.25 2903.24 6.5475 0.087053 2663.26 2880.89 6.4107

300 0.12551 2773.17 3024.18 6.7684 0.098937 2762.24 3009.58 6.6459

350 0.13860 2860.45 3137.65 6.9583 0.109786 2852.53 3127.00 6.8424

400 0.15122 2945.91 3248.34 7.1292 0.120119 2939.78 3240.08 7.0170

450 0.16354 3031.13 3358.22 7.2866 0.130152 3026.19 3351.57 7.1767

500 0.17568 3116.87 3468.24 7.4337 0.139992 3112.77 3462.75 7.3254

550 0.18770 3203.58 3578.97 7.5725 0.149700 3200.10 3574.35 7.4653

600 0.19962 3291.51 3690.74 7.7043 0.159314 3288.51 3686.79 7.5979

650 0.21147 3380.83 3803.75 7.8302 0.168858 3378.21 3800.35 7.7243

700 0.22326 3471.64 3918.17 7.9509 0.178349 3469.33 3915.21 7.8455

750 0.23502 3564.03 4034.07 8.0670 0.187798 3561.98 4031.47 7.9620

800 0.24674 3658.03 4151.51 8.1791 0.197215 3656.18 4149.22 8.0743

850 0.25844 3753.65 4270.53 8.2874 0.206605 3751.98 4268.49 8.1830

900 0.27012 3850.90 4391.13 8.3925 0.215974 3849.38 4389.32 8.2882

950 0.28178 3949.76 4513.31 8.4945 0.225325 3948.37 4511.69 8.3904

1000 0.29342 4050.20 4637.04 8.5936 0.234661 4048.94 4635.59 8.4896

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 3000 kPa (Sat. T = 233.85oC) P = 4000 kPa (Sat. T = 250.35oC

Sat 0.06666 2603.16 2803.15 6.1856 0.049776 2601.72 2800.82 6.0696

250 0.07063 2644.65 2856.53 6.2893 - - - -

300 0.08118 2750.80 2994.33 6.5412 0.058870 2726.21 2961.69 6.3639

350 0.09056 2844.39 3116.06 6.7449 0.066473 2827.43 3093.32 6.5843

400 0.09938 2933.55 3231.69 6.9235 0.073431 2920.75 3214.47 6.7714

450 0.10789 3021.18 3344.84 7.0856 0.080043 3011.00 3331.17 6.9386

500 0.11620 3108.63 3457.22 7.2359 0.086442 3100.25 3446.02 7.0922

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

550 0.12437 3196.60 3569.70 7.3769 0.092700 3189.54 3560.34 7.2355

600 0.13245 3285.50 3682.83 7.5103 0.098859 3279.43 3674.87 7.3705

650 0.14045 3375.58 3796.94 7.6373 0.104945 3370.30 3790.08 7.4988

700 0.14841 3467.02 3912.24 7.7590 0.110976 3462.37 3906.28 7.6214

750 0.15632 3559.91 4028.87 7.8758 0.116966 3555.78 4023.64 7.7390

800 0.16420 3654.33 4146.92 7.9885 0.122922 3650.63 4142.32 7.8523

850 0.17205 3750.31 4266.46 8.0973 0.128852 3746.97 4262.38 7.9616

900 0.17988 3847.87 4387.50 8.2028 0.134759 3844.83 4383.87 8.0674

950 0.18769 3946.99 4510.06 8.3051 0.140649 3944.22 4506.82 8.1701

1000 0.19549 4047.67 4634.14 8.4045 0.146525 4045.13 4631.23 8.2697

Table A3: Compressed Liquid Water

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 500 kPa (Sat. T = 151.83oC) P = 2000 kPa (Sat. T = 212.38oC)

Sat 0.001093 639.54 640.09 1.8604 0.001177 906.15 908.50 2.4468

0.01 0.001000 0.01 0.51 0.0000 0.000999 0.04 2.03 0.0001

20 0.001002 83.88 84.38 0.2964 0.001001 83.79 85.79 0.2961

40 0.001008 167.47 167.97 0.5722 0.001007 167.28 169.30 0.5716

60 0.001017 251.08 251.58 0.8310 0.001016 250.81 252.84 0.8302

80 0.001029 334.86 335.37 1.0753 0.001028 334.51 336.57 1.0743

100 0.001043 418.94 419.47 1.3069 0.001042 418.51 420.59 1.3057

120 0.001060 503.49 504.02 1.5276 0.001059 502.96 505.08 1.5263

140 0.001080 588.71 589.25 1.7391 0.001079 588.07 590.22 1.7375

160 - - - - 0.001101 674.08 676.28 1.9409

180 - - - - 0.001127 761.30 763.56 2.1379

200 - - - - 0.001156 850.14 852.45 2.3298

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 5000 kPa (Sat. T = 263.94oC) P = 10000 kPa (Sat. T = 311.00oC)

Sat 0.001286 1148.21 1154.64 2.9210 0.001453 1393.54 1408.06 3.3607

0.01 0.000998 0.09 5.07 0.0003 0.000995 0.16 10.11 0.0005

20 0.001000 83.61 88.61 0.2954 0.000997 83.31 93.28 0.2943

40 0.001006 166.92 171.95 0.5705 0.001004 166.33 176.37 0.5685

60 0.001015 250.29 255.36 0.8287 0.001013 249.43 259.55 0.8260

80 0.001027 333.82 338.96 1.0723 0.001024 332.69 342.94 1.0691

100 0.001041 417.65 422.85 1.3034 0.001038 416.23 426.62 1.2996

120 0.001058 501.91 507.19 1.5236 0.001055 500.18 510.73 1.5191

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

140 0.001077 586.79 592.18 1.7344 0.001074 584.71 595.45 1.7293

160 0.001099 672.55 678.04 1.9374 0.001095 670.06 681.01 1.9316

180 0.001124 759.46 765.08 2.1338 0.001120 756.48 767.68 2.1271

200 0.001153 847.91 853.68 2.3251 0.001148 844.31 855.80 2.3174

220 0.001187 938.39 944.32 2.5127 0.001181 934.00 945.81 2.5037

240 0.001227 1031.58 1037.71 2.6983 0.001219 1026.14 1038.34 2.6876

260 0.001275 1128.53 1134.91 2.8841 0.001265 1121.61 1134.26 2.8710

280 - - - - 0.001323 1221.80 1235.03 3.0565

300 - - - - 0.001398 1329.35 1343.33 3.2488

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 15000 kPa (Sat. T = 342.16oC) P = 20000 kPa (Sat. T = 365.75oC)

Sat 0.001657 1585.35 1610.20 3.6846 0.002040 1786.41 1827.21 4.0156

0.01 0.000993 0.22 15.11 0.0006 0.000990 0.27 20.07 0.0006

20 0.000995 83.01 97.93 0.2932 0.000993 82.71 102.57 0.2921

40 0.001001 165.75 180.77 0.5666 0.000999 165.17 185.16 0.5646

60 0.001011 248.58 263.74 0.8234 0.001008 247.75 267.92 0.8208

80 0.001022 331.59 346.92 1.0659 0.001020 330.50 350.90 1.0627

100 0.001036 414.85 430.39 1.2958 0.001034 413.50 434.17 1.2920

120 0.001052 498.49 514.28 1.5148 0.001050 496.85 517.84 1.5105

140 0.001071 582.69 598.75 1.7243 0.001068 580.71 602.07 1.7194

160 0.001092 667.63 684.01 1.9259 0.001089 665.28 687.05 1.9203

180 0.001116 753.58 770.32 2.1206 0.001112 750.77 773.02 2.1143

200 0.001144 840.84 857.99 2.3100 0.001139 837.49 860.27 2.3027

220 0.001175 929.80 947.43 2.4951 0.001170 925.77 949.16 2.4867

240 0.001212 1020.98 1039.16 2.6774 0.001205 1016.07 1040.17 2.6676

260 0.001256 1115.12 1133.96 2.8586 0.001247 1109.02 1133.96 2.8469

280 0.001310 1213.36 1233.00 3.0409 0.001298 1205.55 1231.50 3.0265

300 0.001378 1317.63 1338.30 3.2279 0.001361 1307.15 1334.37 3.2091

320 0.001473 1431.93 1454.02 3.4263 0.001445 1416.59 1445.49 3.3996

340 0.001631 1567.89 1592.36 3.6555 0.001569 1540.20 1571.58 3.6086

360 - - - - 0.001825 1703.60 1740.10 3.8787

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 30000 kPa P = 50000 kPa

0.01 0.000986 0.33 29.90 0.0004 0.000977 0.33 49.17 -0.0009

20 0.000989 82.11 111.77 0.2897 0.000980 80.93 129.95 0.2845

40 0.000995 164.05 193.90 0.5607 0.000987 161.90 211.25 0.5528

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

60 0.001004 246.14 276.26 0.8156 0.000996 243.08 292.88 0.8055

80 0.001016 328.40 358.86 1.0564 0.001007 324.42 374.78 1.0442

100 0.001029 410.87 441.74 1.2847 0.001020 405.94 456.94 1.2705

120 0.001045 493.66 525.00 1.5020 0.001035 487.69 539.43 1.4859

140 0.001062 576.90 608.76 1.7098 0.001052 569.77 622.36 1.6916

160 0.001082 660.74 693.21 1.9094 0.001070 652.32 705.84 1.8889

180 0.001105 745.40 778.55 2.1020 0.001091 735.49 790.06 2.0790

200 0.001130 831.10 865.02 2.2888 0.001115 819.45 875.19 2.2628

220 0.001159 918.14 952.93 2.4707 0.001141 904.39 961.45 2.4414

240 0.001193 1006.87 1042.66 2.6491 0.001171 990.55 1049.09 2.6156

260 0.001231 1097.77 1134.71 2.8250 0.001204 1078.22 1138.44 2.7864

280 0.001277 1191.47 1229.77 3.0001 0.001243 1167.74 1229.89 2.9547

300 0.001332 1288.92 1328.89 3.1760 0.001288 1259.57 1323.96 3.1218

320 0.001401 1391.65 1433.69 3.3557 0.001341 1354.33 1421.37 3.2888

340 0.001493 1502.34 1547.14 3.5438 0.001405 1452.87 1523.11 3.4575

360 0.001628 1626.74 1675.57 3.7498 0.001485 1556.46 1630.70 3.6301

380 0.001873 1782.04 1838.22 4.0025 0.001588 1667.07 1746.49 3.8101

Reference States, default for fluid

Enthalpy H = 2551.013479 kJ/kg at 26.9 C and 0.0010 MPa.
Entropy S = 9.103679 J/g*K at 26.9 C and 0.0010 MPa.
Source: Eric W. Lemmon, Mark O. McLinden and Daniel G. Friend, “Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems” in NIST
Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, Eds. P.J. Linstrom and W.G. Mallard, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg MD, 20899, https://doi.org/10.18434/T4D303, (retrieved May 2021).

This page titled 7.1: Appendix A - Thermodynamic Properties of Water is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.

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7.2: Appendix B - Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia
Table B1: Saturated Ammonia
Specific Volume Specific Internal Energy Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
T (oC) P (MPa)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg

-50 0.04084 0.001424 2.627750 118.37 1427.03 118.43 1534.34 0.5661 6.9112

-45 0.05449 0.001436 2.007080 140.23 1433.38 140.31 1542.75 0.6630 6.8100

-40 0.07169 0.001449 1.553280 162.22 1439.56 162.33 1550.92 0.7583 6.7141

-35 0.09310 0.001462 1.216780 184.34 1445.55 184.48 1558.83 0.8522 6.6232

-30 0.11943 0.001475 0.963963 206.58 1451.34 206.76 1566.47 0.9446 6.5367

-25 0.15147 0.001489 0.771672 228.94 1456.92 229.17 1573.81 1.0357 6.4543

-20 0.19008 0.001503 0.623730 251.42 1462.27 251.71 1580.83 1.1254 6.3757

-15 0.23617 0.001518 0.508679 274.01 1467.39 274.37 1587.52 1.2137 6.3005

-10 0.29071 0.001534 0.418303 296.72 1472.25 297.16 1593.86 1.3009 6.2285

-5 0.35476 0.001550 0.346635 319.54 1476.85 320.09 1599.82 1.3868 6.1593

0 0.42939 0.001566 0.289297 342.48 1481.17 343.16 1605.39 1.4716 6.0926

5 0.51575 0.001583 0.243039 365.55 1485.20 366.36 1610.55 1.5553 6.0284

10 0.61505 0.001601 0.205426 388.74 1488.92 389.72 1615.27 1.6380 5.9662

15 0.72853 0.001619 0.174614 412.06 1492.32 413.24 1619.53 1.7197 5.9060

20 0.85748 0.001639 0.149198 435.53 1495.38 436.94 1623.31 1.8005 5.8475

25 1.00324 0.001659 0.128092 459.16 1498.08 460.82 1626.59 1.8804 5.7904

30 1.16720 0.001680 0.110457 482.95 1500.40 484.91 1629.32 1.9597 5.7347

35 1.35077 0.001702 0.095633 506.93 1502.32 509.23 1631.49 2.0382 5.6802

40 1.55542 0.001726 0.083101 531.11 1503.81 533.79 1633.06 2.1161 5.6265

45 1.78266 0.001750 0.072450 555.51 1504.84 558.63 1633.99 2.1936 5.5736

50 2.03403 0.001777 0.063350 580.16 1505.37 583.77 1634.23 2.2706 5.5213

55 2.31113 0.001804 0.055538 605.09 1505.37 609.26 1633.73 2.3473 5.4693

60 2.61560 0.001834 0.048797 630.33 1504.79 635.12 1632.42 2.4239 5.4174

65 2.94913 0.001866 0.042955 655.91 1503.56 661.42 1630.24 2.5004 5.3655

70 3.31347 0.001900 0.037868 681.90 1501.62 688.20 1627.09 2.5770 5.3131

75 3.71045 0.001937 0.033419 708.34 1498.88 715.53 1622.88 2.6539 5.2601

80 4.14197 0.001978 0.029509 735.31 1495.24 743.50 1617.46 2.7312 5.2060

85 4.61002 0.002022 0.026058 762.88 1490.56 772.20 1610.69 2.8093 5.1505

90 5.11672 0.002071 0.022997 791.16 1484.67 801.76 1602.34 2.8884 5.0929

95 5.66432 0.002127 0.020268 820.29 1477.36 832.34 1592.16 2.9689 5.0328

100 6.25527 0.002190 0.017820 850.46 1468.32 864.16 1579.79 3.0513 4.9691

105 6.89227 0.002263 0.015610 881.91 1457.14 897.51 1564.72 3.1363 4.9007

110 7.57834 0.002350 0.013596 915.03 1443.19 932.84 1546.23 3.2249 4.8258

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 Specific Volume Specific Internal Energy Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
T (oC) P (MPa)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

115 8.31700 0.002456 0.011740 950.47 1425.51 970.89 1523.15 3.3190 4.7418

120 9.11249 0.002594 0.009993 989.44 1402.32 1013.08 1493.38 3.4218 4.6435

125 9.97022 0.002795 0.008283 1034.97 1369.69 1062.84 1452.28 3.5417 4.5199

130 10.89770 0.003202 0.006379 1100.28 1312.96 1135.17 1382.47 3.7153 4.3287

132.25 11.33930 0.004444 0.004444 1211.98 1211.98 1262.38 1262.38 4.0258 4.0258

Table B2: Superheated Ammonia

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 50 kPa (Sat. T = -46.51oC) P = 100 kPa (Sat. T = -33.58oC)

Sat 2.17495 1431.47 1540.22 6.8401 1.13809 1447.21 1561.01 6.5983

-30 2.34496 1458.80 1576.05 6.9927 1.15730 1453.48 1569.21 6.6323

-20 2.44645 1475.09 1597.42 7.0788 1.21016 1470.67 1591.69 6.7229

-10 2.54720 1491.30 1618.66 7.1611 1.26220 1487.57 1613.79 6.8085

0 2.64739 1507.47 1639.84 7.2402 1.31365 1504.29 1635.65 6.8900

10 2.74715 1523.67 1661.02 7.3163 1.36463 1520.91 1657.37 6.9681

20 2.84657 1539.91 1682.24 7.3899 1.41527 1537.50 1679.03 7.0433

30 2.94572 1556.23 1703.51 7.4613 1.46562 1554.10 1700.66 7.1159

40 3.04466 1572.64 1724.88 7.5306 1.51576 1570.75 1722.33 7.1862

50 3.14343 1589.17 1746.34 7.5981 1.56571 1587.48 1744.05 7.2544

60 3.24205 1605.83 1767.93 7.6639 1.61552 1604.30 1765.85 7.3209

70 3.34056 1622.63 1789.65 7.7281 1.66521 1621.23 1787.76 7.3857

80 3.43896 1639.57 1811.52 7.7910 1.71480 1638.30 1809.78 7.4490

90 3.53729 1656.68 1833.54 7.8525 1.76431 1655.51 1831.94 7.5108

100 3.63554 1673.95 1855.73 7.9127 1.81374 1672.88 1854.25 7.5714

110 3.73373 1691.40 1878.08 7.9718 1.86311 1690.40 1876.71 7.6308

120 3.83187 1709.02 1900.62 8.0299 1.91243 1708.10 1899.34 7.6891

130 3.92996 1726.83 1923.33 8.0869 1.96170 1725.97 1922.14 7.7464

140 4.02801 1744.83 1946.23 8.1431 2.01094 1744.02 1945.12 7.8027

150 4.12603 1763.03 1969.33 8.1983 2.06013 1762.27 1968.28 7.8581

160 4.22402 1781.42 1992.62 8.2527 2.10930 1780.70 1991.63 7.9126

170 4.32198 1800.01 2016.11 8.3063 2.15844 1799.34 2015.18 7.9664

180 4.41991 1818.81 2039.80 8.3592 2.20755 1818.17 2038.92 8.0194

190 4.51783 1837.81 2063.70 8.4113 2.25664 1837.21 2062.87 8.0716

200 4.61572 1857.03 2087.81 8.4628 2.30572 1856.45 2087.02 8.1232

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 150 kPa (Sat. T = -25.20 oC) P = 200 kPa (Sat. T = -18.84 oC)

Sat 0.778759 1456.69 1573.50 6.4577 0.594648 1463.47 1582.40 6.3581

-20 0.797792 1466.08 1585.75 6.5066 – – – –

-10 0.833689 1483.73 1608.78 6.5958 0.619287 1479.77 1603.63 6.4401

0 0.868939 1501.03 1631.37 6.6801 0.646486 1497.69 1626.98 6.5272

10 0.903705 1518.10 1653.66 6.7602 0.673171 1515.24 1649.87 6.6096

20 0.938100 1535.05 1675.77 6.8370 0.699467 1532.57 1672.46 6.6880

30 0.972207 1551.95 1697.78 6.9108 0.725463 1549.77 1694.86 6.7631

40 1.006090 1568.84 1719.75 6.9821 0.751222 1566.91 1717.15 6.8354

50 1.039780 1585.76 1741.73 7.0512 0.776793 1584.04 1739.40 6.9054

60 1.073330 1602.75 1763.75 7.1183 0.802212 1601.20 1761.64 6.9732

70 1.106750 1619.83 1785.85 7.1836 0.827505 1618.42 1783.93 7.0391

80 1.140070 1637.02 1808.03 7.2474 0.852693 1635.74 1806.28 7.1033

90 1.173310 1654.34 1830.34 7.3096 0.877795 1653.16 1828.72 7.1659

100 1.206470 1671.79 1852.76 7.3706 0.902823 1670.71 1851.27 7.2272

110 1.239570 1689.40 1875.34 7.4303 0.927789 1688.40 1873.95 7.2872

120 1.272610 1707.17 1898.06 7.4888 0.952700 1706.23 1896.77 7.3460

130 1.305610 1725.10 1920.94 7.5463 0.977565 1724.23 1919.75 7.4037

140 1.338570 1743.21 1944.00 7.6028 1.002390 1742.40 1942.88 7.4604

150 1.371500 1761.51 1967.23 7.6583 1.027180 1760.74 1966.18 7.5161

160 1.404390 1779.99 1990.65 7.7130 1.051930 1779.27 1989.66 7.5709

170 1.437260 1798.66 2014.25 7.7669 1.076660 1797.99 2013.32 7.6249

180 1.470100 1817.53 2038.05 7.8200 1.101370 1816.89 2037.17 7.6781

190 1.502920 1836.60 2062.04 7.8724 1.126050 1836.00 2061.21 7.7306

200 1.535710 1855.88 2086.24 7.9241 1.150710 1855.31 2085.45 7.7824

210 1.568500 1875.36 2110.64 7.9751 1.175360 1874.82 2109.89 7.8335

220 1.601260 1895.06 2135.25 8.0255 1.199990 1894.54 2134.54 7.8840

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 300 kPa (Sat. T = -9.224 oC) P = 400 kPa (Sat. T = -1.88 oC)

Sat 0.406085 1472.98 1594.81 6.2175 0.309410 1479.58 1603.34 6.1174

0 0.423819 1490.74 1617.89 6.3035 0.312249 1483.41 1608.31 6.1356

10 0.442489 1509.34 1642.08 6.3905 0.326987 1503.18 1633.97 6.2279

20 0.460728 1527.48 1665.70 6.4725 0.341246 1522.21 1658.71 6.3138

30 0.478641 1545.32 1688.91 6.5503 0.355149 1540.75 1682.81 6.3946

40 0.496302 1562.98 1711.87 6.6249 0.368782 1558.96 1706.48 6.4714

50 0.513762 1580.54 1734.67 6.6965 0.382202 1576.97 1729.85 6.5449

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

60 0.531063 1598.05 1757.37 6.7657 0.395454 1594.86 1753.04 6.6156

70 0.548233 1615.58 1780.05 6.8328 0.408571 1612.70 1776.12 6.6839

80 0.565296 1633.15 1802.74 6.8979 0.421576 1630.53 1799.16 6.7500

90 0.582269 1650.79 1825.47 6.9614 0.434489 1648.39 1822.19 6.8143

100 0.599166 1668.53 1848.28 7.0234 0.447324 1666.32 1845.25 6.8770

110 0.616000 1686.38 1871.18 7.0839 0.460094 1684.35 1868.38 6.9382

120 0.632778 1704.36 1894.19 7.1432 0.472807 1702.48 1891.60 6.9980

130 0.649508 1722.49 1917.34 7.2014 0.485473 1720.73 1914.92 7.0566

140 0.666198 1740.77 1940.63 7.2584 0.498096 1739.13 1938.37 7.1140

150 0.682851 1759.22 1964.07 7.3145 0.510683 1757.68 1961.95 7.1704

160 0.699473 1777.83 1987.68 7.3696 0.523238 1776.39 1985.69 7.2258

170 0.716066 1796.63 2011.45 7.4239 0.535764 1795.27 2009.58 7.2804

180 0.732635 1815.61 2035.40 7.4774 0.548266 1814.33 2033.64 7.3341

190 0.749181 1834.79 2059.54 7.5300 0.560745 1833.57 2057.87 7.3870

200 0.765708 1854.16 2083.87 7.5820 0.573204 1853.01 2082.29 7.4391

210 0.782217 1873.73 2108.39 7.6333 0.585645 1872.63 2106.89 7.4906

220 0.798710 1893.50 2133.11 7.6839 0.598070 1892.46 2131.69 7.5414

230 0.815188 1913.48 2158.04 7.7340 0.610480 1912.49 2156.68 7.5915

240 0.831653 1933.67 2183.17 7.7834 0.622877 1932.72 2181.87 7.6411

250 0.848105 1954.08 2208.51 7.8323 0.635261 1953.17 2207.27 7.6901

260 0.864547 1974.69 2234.06 7.8807 0.647635 1973.83 2232.88 7.7386

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 500 kPa (Sat. T = 4.13 oC) P = 600 kPa (Sat. T = 9.28 oC)

Sat 0.250324 1484.53 1609.69 6.0393 0.210353 1488.41 1614.62 5.9750

10 0.257544 1496.73 1625.50 6.0957 0.211117 1489.97 1616.64 5.9821

20 0.269459 1516.75 1651.48 6.1859 0.221513 1511.08 1643.99 6.0771

30 0.280985 1536.04 1676.54 6.2699 0.231480 1531.20 1670.09 6.1646

40 0.292219 1554.85 1700.96 6.3492 0.241132 1550.64 1695.32 6.2465

50 0.303228 1573.34 1724.95 6.4246 0.250546 1569.63 1719.96 6.3240

60 0.314060 1591.62 1748.65 6.4968 0.259773 1588.32 1744.18 6.3978

70 0.324751 1609.77 1772.15 6.5663 0.268852 1606.81 1768.13 6.4686

80 0.335327 1627.88 1795.54 6.6335 0.277812 1625.20 1791.89 6.5369

90 0.345807 1645.98 1818.88 6.6987 0.286674 1643.53 1815.54 6.6029

100 0.356208 1664.10 1842.21 6.7621 0.295454 1661.87 1839.14 6.6670

110 0.366541 1682.30 1865.57 6.8239 0.304166 1680.24 1862.73 6.7294

120 0.376818 1700.58 1888.99 6.8842 0.312819 1698.67 1886.36 6.7903

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

130 0.387045 1718.97 1912.49 6.9432 0.321422 1717.19 1910.05 6.8498

140 0.397230 1737.48 1936.10 7.0011 0.329982 1735.83 1933.82 6.9080

150 0.407378 1756.14 1959.83 7.0578 0.338505 1754.59 1957.69 6.9651

160 0.417494 1774.94 1983.69 7.1136 0.346995 1773.49 1981.68 7.0212

170 0.427580 1793.91 2007.70 7.1683 0.355455 1792.54 2005.81 7.0762

180 0.437642 1813.04 2031.86 7.2223 0.363891 1811.75 2030.08 7.1304

190 0.447681 1832.35 2056.19 7.2754 0.372303 1831.13 2054.51 7.1837

200 0.457700 1851.85 2080.70 7.3277 0.380695 1850.69 2079.11 7.2363

210 0.467700 1871.54 2105.39 7.3794 0.389069 1870.43 2103.88 7.2881

220 0.477684 1891.41 2130.26 7.4303 0.397427 1890.37 2128.82 7.3392

230 0.487654 1911.49 2155.32 7.4806 0.405769 1910.50 2153.96 7.3896

240 0.497610 1931.77 2180.58 7.5303 0.414099 1930.82 2179.28 7.4395

250 0.507554 1952.26 2206.04 7.5795 0.422416 1951.35 2204.80 7.4887

260 0.517487 1972.96 2231.70 7.6281 0.430721 1972.09 2230.52 7.5374

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 800 kPa (Sat. T = 17.84oC) P = 1000 kPa (Sat. T = 24.89oC)

Sat 0.159551 1494.11 1621.75 5.8725 0.128497 1498.03 1626.52 5.7916

20 0.161354 1499.04 1628.12 5.8943 – – – –

30 0.169445 1521.03 1656.59 5.9898 0.132037 1510.15 1642.19 5.8437

40 0.177166 1541.90 1683.63 6.0776 0.138657 1532.67 1671.32 5.9383

50 0.184614 1561.99 1709.68 6.1595 0.144962 1554.01 1698.97 6.0252

60 0.191854 1581.56 1735.04 6.2367 0.151035 1574.55 1725.59 6.1063

70 0.198934 1600.77 1759.91 6.3103 0.156931 1594.54 1751.47 6.1829

80 0.205884 1619.74 1784.45 6.3808 0.162688 1614.15 1776.84 6.2558

90 0.212730 1638.57 1808.76 6.4487 0.168333 1633.51 1801.85 6.3256

100 0.219490 1657.33 1832.92 6.5143 0.173887 1652.71 1826.60 6.3929

110 0.226178 1676.06 1857.01 6.5780 0.179366 1671.83 1851.19 6.4579

120 0.232805 1694.81 1881.06 6.6400 0.184782 1690.91 1875.69 6.5210

130 0.239381 1713.61 1905.12 6.7004 0.190144 1709.99 1900.14 6.5824

140 0.245912 1732.49 1929.22 6.7595 0.195460 1729.12 1924.58 6.6423

150 0.252405 1751.47 1953.39 6.8173 0.200737 1748.32 1949.05 6.7008

160 0.258864 1770.56 1977.65 6.8739 0.205979 1767.61 1973.59 6.7581

170 0.265294 1789.78 2002.02 6.9295 0.211191 1787.01 1998.20 6.8143

180 0.271697 1809.15 2026.51 6.9842 0.216376 1806.54 2022.91 6.8695

190 0.278077 1828.68 2051.14 7.0380 0.221538 1826.21 2047.74 6.9237

200 0.284437 1848.36 2075.91 7.0909 0.226678 1846.02 2072.70 6.9770

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

210 0.290778 1868.23 2100.85 7.1430 0.231800 1866.01 2097.81 7.0295

220 0.297102 1888.27 2125.95 7.1945 0.236905 1886.16 2123.06 7.0812

230 0.303412 1908.49 2151.22 7.2452 0.241995 1906.48 2148.48 7.1322

240 0.309708 1928.91 2176.68 7.2953 0.247071 1926.99 2174.07 7.1826

250 0.315991 1949.53 2202.32 7.3448 0.252135 1947.69 2199.83 7.2323

260 0.322263 1970.34 2228.15 7.3937 0.257187 1968.59 2225.77 7.2814

270 0.328525 1991.36 2254.18 7.4420 0.262229 1989.68 2251.91 7.3300

280 0.334778 2012.58 2280.40 7.4899 0.267262 2010.97 2278.23 7.3780

290 0.341022 2034.01 2306.83 7.5372 0.272286 2032.47 2304.76 7.4256

300 0.347258 2055.66 2333.47 7.5841 0.277301 2054.18 2331.48 7.4726

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1200 kPa (Sat. T = 30.93oC) P = 1400 kPa (Sat. T = 36.25oC)

Sat 0.107487 1500.79 1629.77 5.7244 0.092296 1502.73 1631.95 5.6666

40 0.112860 1522.88 1658.31 5.8169 0.094311 1512.44 1644.48 5.7069

50 0.118442 1545.65 1687.78 5.9096 0.099416 1536.87 1676.05 5.8062

60 0.123761 1567.28 1715.79 5.9950 0.104221 1559.71 1705.62 5.8963

70 0.128884 1588.12 1742.78 6.0748 0.108808 1581.49 1733.82 5.9797

80 0.133856 1608.42 1769.05 6.1502 0.113230 1602.53 1761.05 6.0579

90 0.138708 1628.34 1794.79 6.2221 0.117523 1623.05 1787.59 6.1320

100 0.143464 1648.01 1820.17 6.2911 0.121715 1643.22 1813.62 6.2028

110 0.148141 1667.52 1845.29 6.3575 0.125823 1663.15 1839.30 6.2707

120 0.152753 1686.94 1870.25 6.4218 0.129863 1682.93 1864.73 6.3362

130 0.157308 1706.33 1895.10 6.4842 0.133844 1702.62 1890.00 6.3997

140 0.161816 1725.71 1919.89 6.5450 0.137777 1722.27 1915.16 6.4613

150 0.166284 1745.14 1944.68 6.6043 0.141668 1741.93 1940.26 6.5213

160 0.170716 1764.63 1969.49 6.6622 0.145523 1761.63 1965.36 6.5800

170 0.175117 1784.21 1994.35 6.7190 0.149346 1781.40 1990.48 6.6373

180 0.179491 1803.90 2019.29 6.7746 0.153141 1801.25 2015.65 6.6935

190 0.183841 1823.72 2044.33 6.8293 0.156912 1821.22 2040.89 6.7486

200 0.188170 1843.67 2069.48 6.8830 0.160661 1841.31 2066.23 6.8027

210 0.192480 1863.77 2094.75 6.9358 0.164391 1861.53 2091.68 6.8559

220 0.196772 1884.04 2120.16 6.9879 0.168104 1881.91 2117.25 6.9083

230 0.201049 1904.47 2145.72 7.0392 0.171801 1902.44 2142.96 6.9599

240 0.205313 1925.07 2171.45 7.0898 0.175484 1923.14 2168.82 7.0108

250 0.209563 1945.86 2197.33 7.1398 0.179154 1944.01 2194.83 7.0610

260 0.213803 1966.83 2223.39 7.1891 0.182813 1965.07 2221.00 7.1106

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

270 0.218032 1988.00 2249.63 7.2379 0.186461 1986.31 2247.35 7.1595

280 0.222251 2009.36 2276.06 7.2861 0.190100 2007.74 2273.88 7.2079

290 0.226461 2030.92 2302.67 7.3338 0.193729 2029.37 2300.59 7.2558

300 0.230664 2052.69 2329.48 7.3810 0.197351 2051.19 2327.49 7.3031

310 0.234859 2074.66 2356.49 7.4277 0.200965 2073.23 2354.58 7.3500

320 0.239047 2096.84 2383.70 7.4740 0.204572 2095.46 2381.86 7.3964

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1600 kPa (Sat. T = 41.02oC) P = 2000 kPa (Sat. T = 49.35oC)

Sat 0.080782 1504.06 1633.31 5.6156 0.064453 1505.33 1634.24 5.5281

50 0.085064 1527.59 1663.69 5.7110 0.064729 1507.24 1636.69 5.5357

60 0.089509 1551.82 1695.03 5.8066 0.068754 1534.87 1672.38 5.6445

70 0.093710 1574.63 1724.57 5.8939 0.072463 1560.13 1705.06 5.7411

80 0.097730 1596.48 1752.84 5.9751 0.075952 1583.81 1735.72 5.8292

90 0.101612 1617.64 1780.22 6.0516 0.079278 1606.42 1764.97 5.9109

100 0.105385 1638.34 1806.95 6.1242 0.082480 1628.26 1793.22 5.9876

110 0.109071 1658.71 1833.22 6.1937 0.085583 1649.58 1820.75 6.0604

120 0.112684 1678.85 1859.15 6.2605 0.088608 1670.52 1847.73 6.1300

130 0.116238 1698.86 1884.84 6.3250 0.091567 1691.20 1874.33 6.1968

140 0.119741 1718.79 1910.37 6.3876 0.094473 1711.71 1900.65 6.2613

150 0.123200 1738.69 1935.81 6.4484 0.097332 1732.11 1926.78 6.3237

160 0.126623 1758.60 1961.20 6.5077 0.100152 1752.47 1952.77 6.3845

170 0.130013 1778.56 1986.58 6.5657 0.102939 1772.81 1978.69 6.4436

180 0.133375 1798.58 2011.98 6.6223 0.105696 1793.19 2004.58 6.5014

190 0.136713 1818.70 2037.44 6.6779 0.108427 1813.62 2030.47 6.5579

200 0.140028 1838.93 2062.97 6.7324 0.111136 1834.13 2056.40 6.6133

210 0.143323 1859.28 2088.59 6.7860 0.113824 1854.73 2082.38 6.6676

220 0.146601 1879.77 2114.33 6.8387 0.116494 1875.45 2108.44 6.7210

230 0.149863 1900.40 2140.18 6.8907 0.119148 1896.30 2134.60 6.7735

240 0.153111 1921.20 2166.18 6.9418 0.121788 1917.29 2160.87 6.8252

250 0.156347 1942.16 2192.31 6.9923 0.124414 1938.44 2187.26 6.8762

260 0.159570 1963.30 2218.61 7.0420 0.127029 1959.74 2213.80 6.9264

270 0.162783 1984.61 2245.07 7.0912 0.129632 1981.21 2240.47 6.9760

280 0.165986 2006.12 2271.69 7.1398 0.132226 2002.86 2267.31 7.0249

290 0.169180 2027.81 2298.50 7.1878 0.134811 2024.68 2294.30 7.0733

300 0.172366 2049.70 2325.48 7.2353 0.137387 2046.70 2321.47 7.1211

310 0.175544 2071.79 2352.66 7.2823 0.139956 2068.90 2348.81 7.1684

7.2.7 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89828
 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

320 0.178716 2094.08 2380.02 7.3288 0.142518 2091.30 2376.34 7.2152

330 0.181881 2116.57 2407.58 7.3749 0.145073 2113.90 2404.04 7.2615

340 0.185040 2139.28 2435.34 7.4206 0.147622 2136.70 2431.94 7.3074

350 0.188194 2162.19 2463.30 7.4658 0.150166 2159.71 2460.04 7.3529

360 0.191342 2185.32 2491.47 7.5106 0.152704 2182.92 2488.33 7.3979

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 5000 kPa (Sat. T = 88.88oC) P = 10000 kPa (Sat. T = 125.16oC)

Sat 0.023651 1486.10 1604.35 5.1060 0.008225 1368.34 1450.60 4.5150

100 0.026362 1532.44 1664.25 5.2690 – – – –

110 0.028403 1566.88 1708.89 5.3871 – – – –

120 0.030227 1597.55 1748.68 5.4897 – – – –

130 0.031907 1625.81 1785.34 5.5818 0.009934 1433.77 1533.11 4.7211

140 0.033481 1652.43 1819.83 5.6663 0.011935 1505.07 1624.42 4.9451

150 0.034976 1677.89 1852.76 5.7451 0.013381 1554.67 1688.48 5.0983

160 0.036407 1702.51 1884.54 5.8193 0.014589 1595.47 1741.36 5.2219

170 0.037788 1726.51 1915.45 5.8898 0.015656 1631.40 1787.95 5.3283

180 0.039128 1750.06 1945.69 5.9573 0.016629 1664.22 1830.51 5.4232

190 0.040432 1773.27 1975.43 6.0222 0.017534 1694.94 1870.27 5.5100

200 0.041706 1796.24 2004.77 6.0849 0.018386 1724.14 1908.00 5.5906

210 0.042954 1819.05 2033.82 6.1457 0.019197 1752.22 1944.20 5.6663

220 0.044180 1841.75 2062.65 6.2047 0.019975 1779.47 1979.22 5.7381

230 0.045386 1864.39 2091.32 6.2623 0.020725 1806.07 2013.32 5.8065

240 0.046575 1887.00 2119.88 6.3185 0.021451 1832.18 2046.69 5.8722

250 0.047748 1909.63 2148.37 6.3735 0.022156 1857.92 2079.48 5.9355

260 0.048908 1932.29 2176.83 6.4274 0.022844 1883.37 2111.81 5.9967

270 0.050056 1955.01 2205.29 6.4802 0.023517 1908.61 2143.78 6.0561

280 0.051192 1977.81 2233.77 6.5322 0.024176 1933.70 2175.46 6.1139

290 0.052318 2000.70 2262.29 6.5833 0.024823 1958.69 2206.92 6.1703

300 0.053435 2023.71 2290.88 6.6336 0.025459 1983.61 2238.20 6.2254

310 0.054543 2046.84 2319.55 6.6832 0.026086 2008.50 2269.36 6.2793

320 0.055644 2070.10 2348.32 6.7321 0.026704 2033.39 2300.43 6.3321

330 0.056738 2093.51 2377.20 6.7804 0.027314 2058.31 2331.45 6.3839

340 0.057825 2117.06 2406.19 6.8281 0.027916 2083.27 2362.43 6.4349

350 0.058906 2140.78 2435.31 6.8752 0.028513 2108.30 2393.42 6.4850

360 0.059982 2164.66 2464.57 6.9218 0.029103 2133.40 2424.43 6.5344

370 0.061053 2188.72 2493.98 6.9679 0.029687 2158.60 2455.47 6.5830

7.2.8 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89828
 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

380 0.062119 2212.95 2523.54 7.0135 0.030267 2183.91 2486.57 6.6310

390 0.063181 2237.36 2553.26 7.0586 0.030841 2209.33 2517.74 6.6784

400 0.064238 2261.95 2583.14 7.1034 0.031412 2234.88 2548.99 6.7252

410 0.065292 2286.74 2613.20 7.1477 0.031978 2260.56 2580.34 6.7714

420 0.066342 2311.72 2643.42 7.1916 0.032540 2286.39 2611.79 6.8171

Reference States, default for fluid

Enthalpy H = 1699.663687 kJ/kg at 26.9 C and 0.0010 MPa.
Entropy S = 9.356091 kJ/kg-K at 26.9 C and 0.0010 MPa.
Source: Eric W. Lemmon, Mark O. McLinden and Daniel G. Friend, “Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems” in NIST
Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, Eds. P.J. Linstrom and W.G. Mallard, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg MD, 20899, https://doi.org/10.18434/T4D303, (retrieved May 2021).

This page titled 7.2: Appendix B - Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed
edit history is available upon request.

7.2.9 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89828
7.3: Appendix C - Thermodynamic Properties of R134a
Table C1: Saturated R134a
Specific Volume Specific Internal Energy Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
T (oC) P (MPa)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg

-70 0.00798 0.000666 2.058960 111.19 338.59 111.20 355.02 0.6262 1.8264

-65 0.01138 0.000672 1.476490 117.26 341.35 117.27 358.16 0.6557 1.8130

-60 0.01591 0.000678 1.079030 123.35 344.15 123.36 361.31 0.6846 1.8010

-55 0.02183 0.000685 0.802362 129.49 346.96 129.50 364.48 0.7131 1.7902

-50 0.02945 0.000691 0.606198 135.65 349.80 135.67 367.65 0.7410 1.7806

-45 0.03912 0.000698 0.464726 141.86 352.65 141.89 370.83 0.7685 1.7720

-40 0.05121 0.000705 0.361076 148.11 355.51 148.14 374.00 0.7956 1.7643

-35 0.06614 0.000713 0.284018 154.40 358.38 154.45 377.17 0.8223 0.8223

-30 0.08438 0.000720 0.225945 160.73 361.25 160.79 380.32 0.8486 1.7515

-25 0.10640 0.000728 0.181623 167.11 364.13 167.19 383.45 0.8746 1.7461

-20 0.13274 0.000736 0.147395 173.54 366.99 173.64 386.55 0.9002 1.7413

-15 0.16394 0.000745 0.120671 180.02 369.85 180.14 389.63 0.9256 1.7371

-10 0.20060 0.000754 0.099590 186.55 372.69 186.70 392.67 0.9506 1.7334

-5 0.24334 0.000763 0.082801 193.13 375.51 193.32 395.66 0.9754 1.7300

0 0.29280 0.000772 0.069309 199.77 378.31 200.00 398.60 1.0000 1.7271

5 0.34966 0.000782 0.058374 206.48 381.08 206.75 401.49 1.0243 1.7245

10 0.41461 0.000793 0.049442 213.25 383.82 213.58 404.32 1.0485 1.7221

15 0.48837 0.000804 0.042090 220.09 386.52 220.48 407.07 1.0724 1.7200

20 0.57171 0.000816 0.035997 227.00 389.17 227.47 409.75 1.0962 1.7180

25 0.66538 0.000829 0.030912 233.99 391.77 234.55 412.33 1.1199 1.7162

30 0.77020 0.000842 0.026642 241.07 394.30 241.72 414.82 1.1435 1.7145

35 0.88698 0.000857 0.023033 248.25 396.76 249.01 417.19 1.1670 1.7128

40 1.01659 0.000872 0.019966 255.52 399.13 256.41 419.43 1.1905 1.7111

45 1.15992 0.000889 0.017344 262.91 401.40 263.94 421.52 1.2139 1.7092

50 1.31791 0.000907 0.015089 270.43 403.55 271.62 423.44 1.2375 1.7073

55 1.49151 0.000927 0.013140 278.09 405.56 279.47 425.15 1.2611 1.7050

60 1.68178 0.000950 0.011444 285.91 407.38 287.51 426.63 1.2848 1.7024

65 1.88982 0.000975 0.009960 293.92 408.99 295.76 427.82 1.3088 1.6994

70 2.11683 0.001004 0.008653 302.16 410.33 304.28 428.65 1.3332 1.6956

75 2.36412 0.001037 0.007491 310.68 411.32 313.13 429.03 1.3580 1.6910

80 2.63320 0.001077 0.006448 319.55 411.83 322.39 428.81 1.3836 1.6850

85 2.92583 0.001127 0.005499 328.93 411.67 332.22 427.76 1.4104 1.6771

90 3.24418 0.001194 0.004613 339.06 410.45 342.93 425.42 1.4390 1.6662

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 Specific Volume Specific Internal Energy Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
T (oC) P (MPa)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

95 3.59123 0.001294 0.003743 350.60 407.23 355.25 420.67 1.4715 1.6493

100 3.97238 0.001536 0.002681 367.20 397.03 373.30 407.68 1.5188 1.6109

101.06 4.05911 0.001954 0.001954 381.71 381.71 389.64 389.64 1.5621 1.5621

Table C2: Superheated R134a

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 50 kPa (Sat. T = -40.45 oC) P = 100 kPa (Sat. T = -26.36 oC)

Sat 0.369253 355.25 373.72 1.7650 0.192558 363.34 382.60 1.7475

-20 0.404876 368.97 389.21 1.8288 0.198410 367.81 387.65 1.7677

-10 0.421989 375.89 396.99 1.8590 0.207433 374.89 395.64 1.7986

0 0.438974 382.98 404.93 1.8885 0.216303 382.10 403.73 1.8288

10 0.455859 390.22 413.02 1.9176 0.225060 389.45 411.95 1.8584

20 0.472664 397.64 421.27 1.9463 0.233731 396.94 420.31 1.8874

30 0.489404 405.22 429.69 1.9745 0.242333 404.59 428.82 1.9160

40 0.506090 412.97 438.28 2.0024 0.250878 412.40 437.49 1.9441

50 0.522731 420.89 447.03 2.0299 0.259376 420.37 446.30 1.9718

60 0.539334 428.98 455.94 2.0571 0.267835 428.49 455.28 1.9991

70 0.555904 437.23 465.02 2.0839 0.276260 436.78 464.41 2.0261

80 0.572447 445.64 474.26 2.1105 0.284657 445.23 473.70 2.0528

90 0.588966 454.22 483.67 2.1367 0.293029 453.84 483.14 2.0792

100 0.605464 462.96 493.24 2.1627 0.301380 462.61 492.74 2.1053

110 0.621943 471.87 502.96 2.1884 0.309713 471.53 502.50 2.1311

120 0.638407 480.93 512.85 2.2139 0.318029 480.61 512.42 2.1566

130 0.654857 490.15 522.89 2.2391 0.326331 489.85 522.49 2.1819

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 150 kPa (Sat. T = -17.13 oC) P = 200 kPa (Sat. T = -10.07 oC)

Sat 0.131283 368.63 388.32 1.7388 0.099877 372.64 392.62 1.7334

-10 0.135816 373.84 394.21 1.7615 0.099915 372.70 392.68 1.7337

0 0.142013 381.19 402.49 1.7924 0.104811 380.24 401.20 1.7654

10 0.148081 388.64 410.86 1.8225 0.109552 387.82 409.73 1.7961

20 0.154053 396.23 419.33 1.8519 0.114185 395.49 418.33 1.8259

30 0.159950 403.95 427.94 1.8808 0.118737 403.29 427.04 1.8551

40 0.165787 411.82 436.68 1.9092 0.123226 411.22 435.87 1.8838

50 0.171576 419.83 445.57 1.9371 0.127663 419.29 444.83 1.9120

60 0.177323 428.01 454.60 1.9646 0.132057 427.51 453.92 1.9397

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

70 0.183036 436.33 463.79 1.9918 0.136415 435.88 463.16 1.9670

80 0.188719 444.82 473.12 2.0186 0.140744 444.40 472.54 1.9940

90 0.194377 453.45 482.61 2.0451 0.145046 453.06 482.07 2.0206

100 0.200014 462.25 492.25 2.0713 0.149326 461.88 491.75 2.0468

110 0.205631 471.20 502.04 2.0972 0.153588 470.86 501.57 2.0728

120 0.211233 480.30 511.98 2.1228 0.157832 479.98 511.55 2.0985

130 0.216819 489.56 522.08 2.1481 0.162062 489.26 521.67 2.1240

140 0.222394 498.97 532.33 2.1732 0.166278 498.69 531.95 2.1491

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 300 kPa (Sat. T = 0.67 oC) P = 400 kPa (Sat. T = 8.93 oC)

Sat 0.067704 378.68 399.00 1.7267 0.051207 383.24 403.72 1.7226

10 0.070931 386.06 407.34 1.7567 0.051506 384.12 404.72 1.7261

20 0.074254 393.96 416.24 1.7876 0.054214 392.32 414.01 1.7584

30 0.077478 401.93 425.18 1.8175 0.056797 400.50 423.22 1.7893

40 0.080629 410.00 434.19 1.8468 0.059293 408.73 432.45 1.8192

50 0.083723 418.19 443.31 1.8755 0.061724 417.05 441.74 1.8484

60 0.086770 426.50 452.54 1.9036 0.064105 425.47 451.11 1.8770

70 0.089779 434.95 461.89 1.9312 0.066443 434.01 460.58 1.9050

80 0.092755 443.54 471.37 1.9585 0.068748 442.67 470.17 1.9325

90 0.095705 452.27 480.99 1.9853 0.071023 451.47 479.88 1.9597

100 0.098631 461.15 490.74 2.0118 0.073275 460.41 489.72 1.9864

110 0.101537 470.17 500.63 2.0380 0.075505 469.48 499.68 2.0127

120 0.104426 479.34 510.67 2.0638 0.077717 478.69 509.78 2.0387

130 0.107299 488.66 520.85 2.0894 0.079914 488.05 520.02 2.0645

140 0.110160 498.12 531.17 2.1147 0.082097 497.55 530.39 2.0899

150 0.113009 507.74 541.64 2.1397 0.084268 507.20 540.91 2.1150

160 0.115847 517.50 552.25 2.1645 0.086429 516.99 551.56 2.1399

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 500 kPa (Sat. T = 15.73 oC) P = 600 kPa (Sat. T = 21.57 oC)

Sat 0.041123 386.91 407.47 1.7197 0.034300 389.99 410.57 1.7175

20 0.042116 390.55 411.61 1.7339 – – – –

30 0.044338 398.99 421.16 1.7659 0.035984 397.37 418.96 1.7455

40 0.046456 407.40 430.63 1.7967 0.037866 406.01 428.73 1.7772

50 0.048500 415.86 440.11 1.8265 0.039659 414.63 438.43 1.8077

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

60 0.050486 424.40 449.64 1.8555 0.041389 423.30 448.13 1.8373

70 0.052427 433.04 459.25 1.8839 0.043070 432.04 457.88 1.8661

80 0.054332 441.78 468.95 1.9118 0.044711 440.87 467.70 1.8943

90 0.056205 450.65 478.76 1.9392 0.046319 449.82 477.61 1.9220

100 0.058054 459.65 488.68 1.9661 0.047900 458.88 487.62 1.9492

110 0.059880 468.78 498.72 1.9927 0.049459 468.06 497.74 1.9759

120 0.061688 478.04 508.88 2.0189 0.050998 477.37 507.97 2.0023

130 0.063479 487.44 519.18 2.0447 0.052520 486.82 518.33 2.0283

140 0.065257 496.98 529.60 2.0703 0.054027 496.39 528.81 2.0540

150 0.067022 506.66 540.17 2.0955 0.055522 506.11 539.42 2.0794

160 0.068776 516.48 550.86 2.1205 0.057006 515.96 550.16 2.1045

170 0.070521 526.44 561.70 2.1453 0.058480 525.95 561.04 2.1293

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 800 kPa (Sat. T = 31.32 oC) P = 1000 kPa (Sat. T = 39.38 oC)

Sat 0.025625 394.96 415.46 1.7140 0.020316 398.85 419.16 1.7113

40 0.027036 402.97 424.59 1.7436 0.020407 399.45 419.86 1.7135

50 0.028547 412.00 434.84 1.7758 0.021796 409.09 430.88 1.7482

60 0.029974 420.98 444.95 1.8067 0.023068 418.46 441.53 1.7806

70 0.031340 429.96 455.03 1.8365 0.024262 427.74 452.00 1.8116

80 0.032659 438.99 465.12 1.8654 0.025399 437.00 462.40 1.8415

90 0.033942 448.10 475.25 1.8937 0.026493 446.30 472.79 1.8705

100 0.035194 457.30 485.45 1.9214 0.027552 455.65 483.21 1.8988

110 0.036420 466.60 495.74 1.9486 0.028584 465.09 493.67 1.9264

120 0.037626 476.02 506.12 1.9754 0.029593 474.62 504.21 1.9536

130 0.038813 485.55 516.60 2.0017 0.030582 484.25 514.83 1.9803

140 0.039985 495.21 527.20 2.0277 0.031554 494.00 525.55 2.0065

150 0.041144 504.99 537.91 2.0533 0.032512 503.86 536.37 2.0324

160 0.042291 514.91 548.74 2.0786 0.033458 513.84 547.30 2.0579

170 0.043427 524.96 559.70 2.1036 0.034393 523.95 558.35 2.0831

180 0.044554 535.14 570.78 2.1283 0.035318 534.19 569.51 2.1081

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1200 kPa (Sat. T = 46.31 oC) P = 1400 kPa (Sat. T = 52.42 oC)

Sat 0.016718 401.98 422.04 1.7087 0.014110 404.54 424.30 1.7062

50 0.017201 405.77 426.41 1.7223 – – – –

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

60 0.018404 415.70 437.79 1.7570 0.015005 412.61 433.62 1.7345

70 0.019502 425.36 448.76 1.7895 0.016060 422.77 445.25 1.7689

80 0.020530 434.90 459.53 1.8204 0.017023 432.65 456.48 1.8012

90 0.021506 444.41 470.22 1.8502 0.017923 442.42 467.52 1.8320

100 0.022443 453.94 480.87 1.8792 0.018778 452.16 478.45 1.8617

110 0.023348 463.53 491.54 1.9074 0.019597 461.91 489.34 1.8905

120 0.024228 473.18 502.25 1.9350 0.020388 471.70 500.24 1.9186

130 0.025087 482.92 513.03 1.9621 0.021156 481.55 481.55 1.9460

140 0.025928 492.76 523.87 1.9886 0.021904 491.49 522.16 1.9730

150 0.026753 502.70 534.81 2.0148 0.022637 501.52 533.21 1.9994

160 0.027566 512.76 545.84 2.0406 0.023355 511.65 544.35 2.0254

170 0.028367 522.93 556.97 2.0660 0.024062 521.90 555.58 2.0510

180 0.029159 533.23 568.22 2.0911 0.024758 532.25 566.91 2.0763

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1600 kPa (Sat. T = 57.90 oC) P = 2000 kPa (Sat. T = 67.48 oC)

Sat 0.012127 406.64 426.04 1.7036 0.009291 409.70 428.28 1.6976

60 0.012373 409.04 428.84 1.7120 – – – –

70 0.013430 419.91 441.40 1.7491 0.009573 412.91 432.06 1.7086

80 0.014362 430.24 453.22 1.7831 0.010539 424.70 445.78 1.7481

90 0.015216 440.32 464.66 1.8150 0.011363 435.66 458.39 1.7833

100 0.016015 450.29 475.91 1.8456 0.012105 446.24 470.45 1.8160

110 0.016773 460.22 487.06 1.8751 0.012791 456.63 482.21 1.8471

120 0.017500 470.16 498.16 1.9037 0.013436 466.93 493.80 1.8770

130 0.018202 480.15 509.27 1.9316 0.014051 477.21 505.31 1.9059

140 0.018882 490.19 520.40 1.9589 0.014640 487.49 516.78 1.9340

150 0.019546 500.32 531.59 1.9856 0.015210 497.82 528.24 1.9614

160 0.020194 510.53 542.84 2.0119 0.015764 508.21 539.74 1.9883

180 0.021456 531.26 565.59 2.0632 0.016830 529.23 562.89 2.0405

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 3000 kPa (Sat. T = 86.20oC) P = 4000 kPa (Sat. T = 100.34 oC)

Sat 0.005281 411.50 427.34 1.6748 0.002563 395.13 405.38 1.6046

90 0.005752 418.53 435.78 1.6982 – – – –

100 0.006641 433.18 453.10 1.7453 – – – –

110 0.007327 445.79 467.77 1.7841 0.004273 429.17 446.26 1.7131

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

120 0.007917 457.57 481.32 1.8190 0.004993 445.13 465.10 1.7616

130 0.008447 468.92 494.26 1.8515 0.005549 458.71 480.90 1.8013

140 0.008937 480.05 506.86 1.8824 0.006024 471.28 495.38 1.8368

150 0.009396 491.05 519.24 1.9120 0.006450 483.32 509.12 1.8697

160 0.009832 502.00 531.50 1.9406 0.006842 495.07 522.43 1.9008

170 0.010250 512.93 543.68 1.9684 0.007208 506.64 535.47 1.9305

180 0.010652 523.89 555.84 1.9956 0.007554 518.11 548.33 1.9592

Reference States, IIR Convention

Enthalpy H = 200 kJ/kg at 0°C for saturated liquid.
Entropy S = 1 kJ/kg-K at 0°C for saturated liquid.
Source: Eric W. Lemmon, Mark O. McLinden and Daniel G. Friend, “Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems” in NIST
Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, Eds. P.J. Linstrom and W.G. Mallard, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg MD, 20899, https://doi.org/10.18434/T4D303, (retrieved May 2021).

This page titled 7.3: Appendix C - Thermodynamic Properties of R134a is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.

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7.4: Appendix D - Thermodynamic Properties of Carbon Dioxide
Table D1: Saturated CO2
Specific Volume Specific Internal Energy Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
T (oC) P (MPa)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg

-50 0.68234 0.000866 0.055789 92.35 394.61 92.94 432.68 0.5794 2.1018

-48 0.73949 0.000872 0.051618 96.26 395.12 96.90 433.29 0.5968 2.0909

-46 0.80015 0.000878 0.047819 100.18 395.60 100.88 433.86 0.6142 2.0801

-44 0.86445 0.000883 0.044352 104.11 396.05 104.87 434.39 0.6314 2.0694

-42 0.93252 0.000889 0.041184 108.05 396.47 108.88 434.88 0.6486 2.0589

-40 1.00450 0.000896 0.038284 112.00 396.87 112.90 435.32 0.6656 2.0485

-38 1.08051 0.000902 0.035624 115.97 397.23 116.95 435.72 0.6826 2.0382

-36 1.16071 0.000909 0.033181 119.96 397.56 121.01 436.07 0.6995 2.0281

-34 1.24522 0.000915 0.030935 123.96 397.85 125.10 436.37 0.7163 2.0180

-32 1.33419 0.000922 0.028865 127.97 398.11 129.20 436.62 0.7331 2.0079

-30 1.42776 0.000930 0.026956 132.01 398.33 133.34 436.82 0.7498 1.9980

-28 1.52607 0.000937 0.025192 136.07 398.52 137.50 436.96 0.7665 1.9880

-26 1.62926 0.000945 0.023560 140.15 398.65 141.69 437.04 0.7831 1.9781

-24 1.73749 0.000953 0.022048 144.25 398.75 145.91 437.06 0.7997 1.9683

-22 1.85089 0.000961 0.020645 148.38 398.80 150.16 437.01 0.8163 1.9584

-20 1.96963 0.000969 0.019343 152.54 398.79 154.45 436.89 0.8328 1.9485

-18 2.09384 0.000978 0.018131 156.73 398.74 158.78 436.70 0.8494 1.9387

-16 2.22370 0.000987 0.017002 160.95 398.63 163.14 436.44 0.8659 1.9287

-14 2.35935 0.000997 0.015950 165.20 398.46 167.55 436.09 0.8825 1.9187

-12 2.50095 0.001007 0.014967 169.49 398.23 172.01 435.66 0.8991 1.9087

-10 2.64868 0.001017 0.014048 173.83 397.93 176.52 435.14 0.9157 1.8985

-8 2.80269 0.001028 0.013188 178.20 397.55 181.09 434.51 0.9324 1.8882

-6 2.96316 0.001040 0.012381 182.63 397.10 185.71 433.79 0.9491 1.8778

-4 3.13027 0.001052 0.011624 187.11 396.57 190.40 432.95 0.9660 1.8672

-2 3.30420 0.001065 0.010912 191.64 395.93 195.16 431.99 0.9829 1.8564

0 3.48514 0.001078 0.010241 196.24 395.20 200.00 430.89 1.0000 1.8453

2 3.67329 0.001093 0.009609 200.91 394.36 204.93 429.65 1.0172 1.8340

4 3.86884 0.001108 0.009011 205.66 393.39 209.95 428.25 1.0346 1.8223

6 4.07202 0.001124 0.008445 210.50 392.28 215.08 426.67 1.0523 1.8103

8 4.28306 0.001142 0.007909 215.44 391.02 220.34 424.89 1.0702 1.7977

10 4.50218 0.001161 0.007399 220.50 389.57 225.73 422.88 1.0884 1.7847

12 4.72966 0.001182 0.006912 225.69 387.92 231.29 420.62 1.1070 1.7710

14 4.96577 0.001205 0.006447 231.05 386.03 237.03 418.05 1.1261 1.7565

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 Specific Volume Specific Internal Energy Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
T (oC) P (MPa)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

16 5.21080 0.001231 0.006000 236.59 383.86 243.01 415.12 1.1458 1.7411

18 5.46511 0.001260 0.005569 242.38 381.33 249.26 411.77 1.1663 1.7244

20 5.72905 0.001293 0.005149 248.46 378.37 255.87 407.87 1.1877 1.7062

22 6.00308 0.001332 0.004737 254.93 374.83 262.93 403.27 1.2105 1.6860

24 6.28773 0.001379 0.004327 261.94 370.50 270.61 397.70 1.2352 1.6629

26 6.58368 0.001440 0.003908 269.78 364.98 279.26 390.71 1.2628 1.6353

28 6.89182 0.001526 0.003459 279.11 357.36 289.62 381.20 1.2958 1.5999

30 7.21369 0.001685 0.002898 292.40 344.23 304.55 365.13 1.3435 1.5433

30.9782 7.37730 0.002139 0.002139 316.47 316.47 332.25 332.25 1.4336 1.4336

Table D2: Superheated CO2

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 400 kPa P = 800 kPa (Sat. T = -46.00 oC)

Sat – – – – 0.046807 395.73 434.01 2.0771

-40 0.10499 405.37 447.36 2.2603 0.049662 399.96 439.69 2.1054

-20 0.11538 418.21 464.36 2.3302 0.055455 414.03 458.40 2.1825

0 0.12552 431.21 481.42 2.3951 0.060937 427.82 476.57 2.2516

20 0.13551 444.47 498.67 2.4561 0.066231 441.64 494.62 2.3153

40 0.14538 458.04 516.19 2.5139 0.071401 455.61 512.73 2.3751

60 0.15518 471.93 534.00 2.5690 0.076484 469.81 530.99 2.4316

80 0.16491 486.15 552.12 2.6218 0.081503 484.27 549.47 2.4855

100 0.17460 500.70 570.54 2.6725 0.086474 499.02 568.20 2.5371

120 0.18425 515.57 589.28 2.7214 0.091408 514.05 587.18 2.5866

140 0.19388 530.76 608.31 2.7687 0.096313 529.37 606.42 2.6343

160 0.20348 546.25 627.64 2.8143 0.101194 544.97 625.93 2.6805

180 0.21307 562.04 647.26 2.8586 0.106056 560.86 645.70 2.7251

200 0.22264 578.11 667.16 2.9016 0.110902 577.01 665.73 2.7683

220 0.23219 594.45 687.33 2.9433 0.115734 593.43 686.01 2.8103

240 0.24174 611.06 707.75 2.9839 0.120555 610.10 706.55 2.8511

260 0.25127 627.92 728.43 3.0235 0.125367 627.02 727.32 2.8908

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 1000 kPa (Sat. T = -40.12 oC) P = 1400 kPa (Sat. T = -30.58 oC)

Sat 0.03779 396.93 435.40 2.0467 0.027145 398.31 436.80 1.9990

-20 0.04342 411.80 455.21 2.1312 0.029569 406.95 448.34 2.0476

0 0.04799 426.05 474.04 2.2028 0.033153 422.32 468.73 2.1251

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

20 0.05236 440.17 492.53 2.2681 0.036483 437.13 488.21 2.1939

40 0.05660 454.36 510.96 2.3289 0.039661 451.80 507.33 2.2570

60 0.06074 468.73 529.47 2.3862 0.042739 466.52 526.35 2.3159

80 0.06482 483.32 548.14 2.4406 0.045746 481.38 545.43 2.3715

100 0.06885 498.17 567.01 2.4926 0.048700 496.44 564.62 2.4244

120 0.07284 513.28 586.12 2.5425 0.051615 511.73 583.99 2.4750

140 0.07680 528.67 605.47 2.5905 0.054499 527.26 603.56 2.5235

160 0.08074 544.33 625.07 2.6368 0.057358 543.04 623.34 2.5703

180 0.08465 560.26 644.92 2.6816 0.060197 559.07 643.35 2.6154

200 0.08856 576.46 665.02 2.7250 0.063019 575.36 663.58 2.6591

220 0.09244 592.91 685.36 2.7671 0.065828 591.89 684.05 2.7015

240 0.09632 609.62 705.94 2.8080 0.068625 608.66 704.73 2.7426

260 0.10019 626.57 726.76 2.8478 0.071413 625.67 725.65 2.7826

280 0.10405 643.76 747.81 2.8866 0.074192 642.91 746.78 2.8215

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 2000 kPa (Sat. T = -19.50 oC) P = 3000 kPa (Sat. T = -5.55 oC)

Sat 0.01885 398.78 436.83 1.9446 0.012124 396.93 433.52 1.8743

0 0.02193 416.15 460.00 2.0341 0.012931 403.43 442.22 1.9073

20 0.02453 432.27 481.32 2.1095 0.015116 423.12 468.46 2.0001

40 0.02693 447.78 501.65 2.1766 0.016980 440.52 491.46 2.0760

60 0.02922 463.09 521.54 2.2381 0.018683 457.04 513.09 2.1430

80 0.03143 478.40 541.27 2.2956 0.020287 473.21 534.07 2.2041

100 0.03359 493.80 560.97 2.3499 0.021824 489.25 554.73 2.2610

120 0.03570 509.36 580.76 2.4016 0.023313 505.32 575.26 2.3146

140 0.03777 525.12 600.67 2.4509 0.024766 521.48 595.77 2.3655

160 0.03982 541.09 620.73 2.4984 0.026191 537.77 616.35 2.4142

180 0.04186 557.27 640.99 2.5441 0.027594 554.24 637.02 2.4608

200 0.04387 573.69 661.43 2.5882 0.028979 570.89 657.83 2.5058

220 0.04587 590.34 682.08 2.6310 0.030350 587.74 678.79 2.5491

240 0.04786 607.21 702.92 2.6724 0.031708 604.79 699.91 2.5911

260 0.04983 624.31 723.98 2.7127 0.033057 622.04 721.21 2.6318

280 0.05180 641.63 745.24 2.7518 0.034396 639.49 742.68 2.6714

300 0.05377 659.17 766.70 2.7899 0.035729 657.15 764.34 2.7098

v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

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 v u h s v u h s
T (oC)
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

P = 6000 kPa (Sat. T = 21.97 oC) P = 10000 kPa

Sat 0.00474 374.87 403.32 1.6862 – – – –

20 – – – – 0.001168 231.02 242.70 1.1251

40 0.00670 411.53 451.72 1.8462 0.001591 297.13 313.04 1.3563

60 0.00801 435.41 483.45 1.9445 0.003449 390.53 425.02 1.7045

80 0.00908 455.64 510.12 2.0223 0.004513 425.72 470.85 1.8384

100 0.01004 474.37 534.60 2.0898 0.005303 451.11 504.14 1.9302

120 0.01092 492.37 557.92 2.1507 0.005977 473.09 532.86 2.0052

140 0.01176 510.00 580.59 2.2069 0.006584 493.44 559.28 2.0708

160 0.01257 527.46 602.88 2.2596 0.007147 512.90 584.37 2.1301

180 0.01335 544.87 624.96 2.3094 0.007679 531.85 608.64 2.1849

200 0.01411 562.31 646.95 2.3569 0.008188 550.51 632.39 2.2362

220 0.01485 579.81 668.91 2.4024 0.008679 569.03 655.82 2.2847

240 0.01558 597.43 690.90 2.4461 0.009156 587.48 679.04 2.3308

260 0.01630 615.17 712.95 2.4882 0.009622 605.94 702.16 2.3750

280 0.01701 633.05 735.09 2.5290 0.010078 624.44 725.22 2.4175

300 0.01771 651.09 757.34 2.5685 0.010527 643.01 748.28 2.4584

320 0.01840 669.28 779.70 2.6069 0.010969 661.67 771.36 2.4980

Reference States, IIR Convention

Enthalpy H = 200 kJ/kg at 0°C for saturated liquid.
Entropy S = 1 kJ/kg-K at 0°C for saturated liquid.
Source: Eric W. Lemmon, Mark O. McLinden and Daniel G. Friend, “Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems” in NIST
Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, Eds. P.J. Linstrom and W.G. Mallard, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg MD, 20899, https://doi.org/10.18434/T4D303, (retrieved May 2021).

This page titled 7.4: Appendix D - Thermodynamic Properties of Carbon Dioxide is shared under a not declared license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.

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7.5: Appendix E - Critical Properties of Selected Fluids
Table E1: Critical Constants of Selected Fluids
Molecular Mass Temperature Pressure Specific Volume
Substance Formula
(g/mol) (K) (MPa) (m3/kg)

Water H2O 18.015 647.1 22.06 0.003110

Ammonia NH3 17.031 405.4 11.34 0.004444

Nitrogen N2 28.013 126.2 3.40 0.003192

Hydrogen H2 2.0160 33.1 1.30 0.031986

Oxygen O2 31.999 154.6 5.04 0.002293

Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.010 304.1 7.38 0.002139

Methane CH4 16.043 190.6 4.60 0.006148

Ethane C2H6 30.069 305.3 4.87 0.004841

Propane C3H8 44.096 369.8 4.25 0.004536

Refrigerant, R12 CCl2F2 120.914 385.1 4.14 0.001770

Refrigerant, R22 CHClF2 86.468 369.3 4.99 0.001908

Refrigerant, R134a CF3CH2F 102.03 374.2 4.06 0.001954

Source: Eric W. Lemmon, Mark O. McLinden and Daniel G. Friend, “Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Systems” in NIST
Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, Eds. P.J. Linstrom and W.G. Mallard, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg MD, 20899, https://doi.org/10.18434/T4D303, (retrieved May 2021).

This page titled 7.5: Appendix E - Critical Properties of Selected Fluids is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
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history is available upon request.

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7.6: Appendix F - Triple Point of Selected Substances
Table F1: Triple Point of Selected Fluids
Temperature Pressure
Substance
K (°C) kPa (atm)

Acetylene 192.4 K (−80.7 °C) 120 kPa (1.2 atm)

Ammonia 195.40 K (−77.75 °C) 6.060 kPa (0.05981 atm)

Argon 83.8058 K (−189.3442 °C) 68.9 kPa (0.680 atm)

Butane 134.6 K (−138.6 °C) 7×10−4 kPa (6.9×10−6 atm)

Carbon dioxide 216.55 K (−56.60 °C) 517 kPa (5.10 atm)

Carbon monoxide 68.10 K (−205.05 °C) 15.37 kPa (0.1517 atm)

Ethane 89.89 K (−183.26 °C) 1.1×10−3 kPa (1.1×10−5 atm)

Ethanol 150 K (−123 °C) 4.3×10−7 kPa (4.2×10−9 atm)

Ethylene 104.0 K (−169.2 °C) 0.12 kPa (0.0012 atm)

Hexafluoroethane 173.08 K (−100.07 °C) 26.60 kPa (0.2625 atm)

Hydrogen 13.8033 K (−259.3467 °C) 7.04 kPa (0.0695 atm)

Hydrogen chloride 158.96 K (−114.19 °C) 13.9 kPa (0.137 atm)

Isobutane 113.55 K (−159.60 °C) 1.9481×10−5 kPa (1.9226×10−7 atm)

Krypton 115.76 K (−157.39 °C) 74.12 kPa (0.7315 atm)

Mercury 234.3156 K (−38.8344 °C) 1.65×10−7 kPa (1.63×10−9 atm)

Methane 90.68 K (−182.47 °C) 11.7 kPa (0.115 atm)

Neon 24.5561 K (−248.5939 °C) 43.332 kPa (0.42765 atm)

Nitric oxide 109.50 K (−163.65 °C) 21.92 kPa (0.2163 atm)

Nitrogen 63.18 K (−209.97 °C) 12.6 kPa (0.124 atm)

Nitrous oxide 182.34 K (−90.81 °C) 87.85 kPa (0.8670 atm)

Oxygen 54.3584 K (−218.7916 °C) 0.14625 kPa (0.0014434 atm)

Radon 202 K (−71 °C) 70 kPa (0.69 atm)

Water 273.16 K (0.01 °C) 0.611657 kPa (0.00603659 atm)

Xenon 161.3 K (−111.8 °C) 81.5 kPa (0.804 atm)

Source: Wikipedia contributors. (2021b, June 8). Triple point. Wikipedia. https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_point, (retrieved
June 10, 2021).

This page titled 7.6: Appendix F - Triple Point of Selected Substances is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.

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7.7: Appendix G - Properties of Various Substances
Table G1: Properties of various ideal gases (at 300K)
Gas Formula R (kJ/kgK) Cp (kJ/kgK) Cv (kJ/kgK) k = Cp/Cv

Air — 0.287 1.005 0.718 1.4

Argon Ar 0.2081 0.5203 0.3122 1.667

Butane C4H10 0.1433 1.7164 1.5734 1.091

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.1889 0.846 0.657 1.289

Carbon Monoxide CO 0.2968 1.04 0.744 1.4

Ethane C2H6 0.2765 1.7662 1.4897 1.186

Ethylene C2H4 0.2964 1.5482 1.2518 1.237

Helium He 2.0769 5.1926 3.1156 1.667

Hydrogen H2 4.124 14.307 10.183 1.405

Methane CH4 0.5182 2.2537 1.7354 1.299

Neon Ne 0.4119 1.0299 0.6179 1.667

Nitrogen N2 0.2968 1.039 0.743 1.4

Octane C8H18 0.0729 1.7113 1.6385 1.044

Oxygen O2 0.2598 0.918 0.658 1.395

Propane C3H8 0.1885 1.6794 1.4909 1.126

Steam H2O 0.4615 1.8723 1.4108 1.327

Table G2: Properties of various liquids (at 300K)

Liquid Cp (kJ/kgK)

Ammonia 4.700

Ethanol 2.440

Gasoline 2.220

Mercury 0.1395

Methanol 2.140

Water 4.181

Table G3: Properties of various solids (at 300K)

Solid Cp (kJ/kgK)

Aluminum 0.897

Brick 0.840

Carbon, graphite 0.790

Concrete 0.880

Copper 0.385

Gold 0.129

Glass, silica 0.840

7.7.1 https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/89833
 Solid Cp (kJ/kgK)

Glass, crown 0.670

Glass, flint 0.503

Glass, pyrex 0.753

Granite 0.790

Gypsum 1.090

Lead 0.129

Marble, mica 0.880

Magnesium 1.020

Sand 0.835

Silver 0.233

Soil 0.800

Steel 0.466

Tin 0.227

Tungsten 0.134

Wood 1.70

Zinc 0.387

Source: Wikipedia contributors. (May 1, 2021). Table of specific heat capacities. Wikipedia.
https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_specific_heat_capacities, (retrieved June 10, 2021).

This page titled 7.7: Appendix G - Properties of Various Substances is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Claire Yu Yan (BC Campus) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.

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Index
D
dire
Glossary
Extensive property | An extensive property refers Pressure | Pressure is the normal force exerted by an
Absolute Pressure | Absolute pressure is a to a thermodynamic property of a system, whose object on a surface per unit area of the surface.
pressure that is measured relative to an ideal reference,
magnitude depends on the mass of the system.
or absolute vacuum. It is the sum of the atmospheric
Examples of extensive properties include mass,
Process | A process refers to the change in a system
pressure and the gauge pressure. Absolute pressure is from one state to another state.
volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy.
ALWAYS a positive number.
Fusion line | Fusion line is a curve that represents Pure substance | A pure substance refers to a
Absolute temperature | Absolute temperature, the transition between the solid and liquid phases of a
matter that has a homogeneous and definite chemical
also called thermodynamic temperature, is the composition. A pure substance may exist in a single
substance.
temperature expressed on the Kelvin or Rankine phase or as a multi-phase mixture.
scale. Absolute zero (0 K or 0 R) is the minimum Heat | Heat is a form of energy. Heat transfer will
possible temperature. Matter at absolute zero is in the take place between two objects if they are at different Quasi-equilibrium process | A quasi-
state of lowest possible (minimum) energy. temperatures. equilibrium process refers to a process, in which all
states are equilibrium states.
Adiabatic process | An adiabatic process is a Heat engine | Heat engine is a device that produces
process, in which heat transfer does NOT occur work by absorbing heat from a high-temperature body
Real gas | A real gas refers to a gas, whose pressure,
temperate and specific volume behaviour cannot be
between a system and its surroundings. (heat source) and rejecting the waste heat to a low-
represented by the ideal gas equation of state.
temperature body (heat sink).
Boundary | Boundary or system boundary refers to
the surface that separates the system and its Heat sink | A heat engine, refrigerator or heat pump Reversible process | A reversible process refers to
surroundings. must operate between a high-temperature body and a a process that can be reversed without leaving any
low-temperature body. The low-temperature body is changes in either the system or its surroundings. In a
Boundary work | Boundary work refers to the called heat sink. reversible process, both the system and its
work done by a substance at the system boundary due surroundings can always return to their original states.
to the expansion or compression of the substance. Heat source | A heat engine, refrigerator or heat
pump must operate between a high-temperature body
Single phase | Single phase refers to the solid,
Chemical equilibrium | Chemical equilibrium is and a low temperature body. The high-temperature
liquid or vapour (or gaseous) phase that a substance
a state in which the forward and backward reactions exists at a certain condition.
body is called heat source.
proceed at the same rate, causing no net change of the
concentrations in either the reactants or the products. A Ideal gas | An ideal gas is a gas that obeys the ideal Specific boundary work | Specific boundary
work is the boundary work done by one unit mass of a
system free from chemical reactions is in chemical gas equation of state, Pv=RT.
substance.
equilibrium.
Intensive property | An intensive property is a
Clausius statement | It is impossible to construct a thermodynamic property that does not depend on the Specific enthalpy | Specific enthalpy is the
device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect mass of a system. Examples of intensive properties enthalpy per unit mass of a system.
other than the transfer of heat from a lower- include pressure, temperature, density, specific Specific entropy | Specific entropy is the entropy
temperature body (heat sink) to a higher-temperature volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and per unit mass of a system.
body (heat source). specific entropy.
Specific heat | Specific heat, also called heat
Closed system | A closed system is a system of a Internal energy | Internal energy is a form of capacity, is a thermodynamic property to quantify the
fixed mass. Mass transfer cannot happen between a thermal energy. From a macroscopic level, it is energy storage capacity of a substance. It is defined as
closed system and its surroundings. strongly associated with the temperature of a system. the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
From a microscopic level, it is associated with the one unit mass of a substance by one degree.
Constant-pressure specific heat | Constant- motions and structure of the molecules of a system.
pressure specific heat is a property of a substance. It Specific internal energy | Specific internal
equals to the amount of energy required to raise the Irreversibilities | Irreversibilities refer to factors energy is the internal energy per unit mass of a system.
temperature of one unit mass (i.e., 1 kg) of the that render a process irreversible.
substance by one degree in an isobaric process. Specific property | A specific property is the
Isentropic process | An isentropic process refers to corresponding extensive property per unit mass.
Constant-volume specific heat | Constant- a process that is reversible and adiabatic. The entropy Examples of specific properties include specific
volume specific heat is a property of a substance. It remains constant in an isentropic process. volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and
equals to the amount of energy required to raise the specific entropy. Specific properties are intensive
temperature of one unit mass of the substance by one Isobaric process | An isobaric process refers to a
properties.
degree in an isochoric process. process whose pressure remains constant.
Isochoric process | An isochoric process refers to a Specific volume | Specific volume is the volume
Continuum | Continuum refers to a continuous per unit mass of a system. It is the reciprocal of
process of constant specific volume.
homogeneous matter distributed throughout a system. density.
Control volume | Control volume is also called Isolated system | An isolated system cannot
exchange mass or energy with its surroundings.
State | A state refers to a specific condition of a
open system. It is a selected region in space, which system that is described by a unique set of
allows mass and energy to transfer across the boundary Isothermal process | An isothermal process refers thermodynamic properties, such as pressure,
between the system and its surroundings. to a process whose temperature remains constant. temperature, specific volume, specific enthalpy, and so
on.
Cycle | A cycle consists of a series of processes. The Kelvin-Planck Statement | It is impossible for
final state of a cycle is always identical to its initial any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat Steady flow | A steady flow through a control
state. from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of volume refers to a flow, in which the properties, such
work. as the mass and energy of the control volume remain
Density | Density is the mass per unit volume of a
unchanged over time.
body or a system. Mechanical equilibrium | Mechanical
Enthalpy | Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property. It equilibrium refers to an equilibrium condition, in Sublimation line | The sublimation line is the
is defined as the sum of the internal energy of a system which the pressure of a system has no tendency to curve that represents the transition between the solid
and the flow work associated with the flowing fluid. change over time. and vapour phases of a substance in a phase diagram.

Entropy | Entropy is a thermodynamic property, Open system | Open system is also called control Surroundings | In thermodynamic analysis, the
volume. It is a selected region in space, which allows universe is divided into two parts: a system and its
which quantifies the degree of disorder of a system
mass and energy to transfer across the boundary surroundings. Surroundings refer to the rest of the
resulting from the dispersal of energy and matter in a
between the system and its surroundings. universe outside of the system.
process.
Equation of state | An equation of state is an Phase diagram | Phase diagram is a graphical System | In thermodynamic analysis, the universe is
expression that relates pressure, temperature and representation of a substance's state (solid, liquid or divided into two parts: a system and its surroundings.
specific volume of a gas. vapour) under different conditions of temperature and A system refers to a selected quantity of matter or a
pressure. region in space.
Equilibrium | Equilibrium refers to a uniform
condition throughout a system.
Phase equilibrium | Phase equilibrium is an Temperature | Temperature is a measurable
equilibrium condition. For a system consisting of a thermodynamic property that indicates the hotness or
Equilibrium state | An equilibrium state refers to mixture of multiple phases, if the composition of the coldness of a body.
a state of a system in equilibrium. mixture remains constant over time, the system is in
phase equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium | Thermal equilibrium is an Transient flow | A transient flow refers to a flow Vapourization line | The vapourization line refers
equilibrium condition. A system in thermal through a control volume, in which the properties, to the curve that represents the transition between the
equilibrium has a uniform temperature everywhere. such as the mass and energy of the control volume liquid and vapour phases of a substance in a phase
change over time. diagram.
Thermodynamics | Thermodynamics is a branch
of science. It originally focused on the scientific Triple point | The triple point refers to a unique Work | Work is a form of energy that is transferred to
theories of heat-work conversion, and the operations state of a substance, at which the three phases, solid, or from a body by applying a force on that body along
and efficiency improvement of heat engines. liquid and vapour, coexist in equilibrium. a displacement.
Nowadays, the applications of thermodynamics have
extended to all fields related to energy conversion and
conservation.
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2: Thermodynamic Properties of a Pure Substance - CC 5.3: Mass and energy conservation equations in a
BY-NC-SA 4.0 control volume - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
2.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives - 5.4: Applications of the mass and energy
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 conservation equations in steady flow devices - CC
2.2: Pure substance - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 BY-NC-SA 4.0
2.3: Thermodynamic properties - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 5.5: Chapter review - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
2.4: Phase diagrams - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 5.6: Key equations - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
2.5: Thermodynamic tables - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 6: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics -
2.6: Chapter review - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
2.7: Key Equations - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 6.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives -
3: Ideal and Real Gasses - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
3.1: Chapter introduction and learning objectives - 6.2: Heat engine - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 6.3: Refrigerator and heat pump - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
3.2: Ideal gas and ideal gas equation of state - CC BY- 6.4: The second law of thermodynamics- Kelvin-
NC-SA 4.0 Planck and Clausius statements - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
6.5: Carnot cycles - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

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 6.6: Entropy and entropy generation - CC BY-NC-SA 7.2: Appendix B - Thermodynamic Properties of
4.0 Ammonia - Undeclared
6.7: The second law of thermodynamics for closed 7.3: Appendix C - Thermodynamic Properties of
systems - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 R134a - Undeclared
6.8: Specific entropy of a state - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 7.4: Appendix D - Thermodynamic Properties of
6.9: Applications of the second law of Carbon Dioxide - Undeclared
thermodynamics in closed systems - CC BY-NC-SA 7.5: Appendix E - Critical Properties of Selected
4.0 Fluids - Undeclared
6.10: The second law of thermodynamics for open 7.6: Appendix F - Triple Point of Selected Substances
systems - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 - Undeclared
6.11: Applications of the second law of 7.7: Appendix G - Properties of Various Substances -
thermodynamics in open systems - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Undeclared
6.12: Chapter review - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Back Matter - Undeclared
6.13: Key equations - CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Index - Undeclared
7: Appendices - Undeclared Glossary - Undeclared
7.1: Appendix A - Thermodynamic Properties of Detailed Licensing - Undeclared
Water - Undeclared

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