Kolokolova L., Kelley M. S. P., Kimura H., and Hoang T. (2024) Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with cometary dust.

In Comets III (K. J. Meech, M. R. Combi, D. Bockelée-Morvan, S. N. Raymond, and M. E. Zolensky, eds.), pp. 621–651.
Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, DOI: 10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816553631-ch019.

Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust

Ludmilla Kolokolova and Michael S. P. Kelley
University of Maryland

Hiroshi Kimura
Planetary Exploration Research Center, Chiba Institute of Technology

Thiem Hoang
Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute

The chapter overviews the recent developments in the remote sensing of cometary dust
using visible, near-infrared, and thermal-infrared radiation, as well as interaction of the dust
with electromagnetic radiation, which affects the dynamics of dust particles. It considers pho-
tometric, polarimetric, and spectral studies of cometary dust, focusing on those observables and
correlations between them that allow revealing the composition, size, and structure of the dust
particles. The analysis includes the observed brightness and polarization phase curves, color
and polarimetric color of the cometary dust, and near- and thermal-infrared spectra. Special
attention is paid to the role of gas contamination in the polarimetric and photometric data. A
review of modeling efforts to interpret the observational results is also provided, describing the
most popular (and some novel) techniques used in the computer modeling of light scattering
by dust particles with a focus on modeling the most complex type of cometary particles: fluffy
and porous agglomerates. The chapter also considers how properties of the dust particles affect
their photoelectric emission and their response to the radiation pressure and radiative torque,
including alignment and fragmentation of particles. Results of computer and some laboratory
modeling are analyzed for their consistency with the observational and in situ data. Also dis-
cussed is how the modeling results can be combined with in situ data for better characterization
of the cometary dust.

1. INTRODUCTION overviewed in section 2. The chapter also summarizes the

most efficient and broadly used techniques for interpreta-
Despite the great success of space missions studying tion of the observations (section 3). It demonstrates how
comets, remote sensing using Earth-based observations (i.e., characteristics of the cometary dust and their variations in
observations with groundbased and spacebased telescopes) the coma and along the orbit can be revealed using compu-
remains the major source of information about comets. It al- tational and laboratory modeling. Section 4 considers how
lows studying a variety of comets, enabling further statistical the interaction with solar radiation affects motion, spinning,
analysis of their properties. Also, Earth-based observations and fragmentation of the dust particles.
allow monitoring the comets at different orbital positions The main remote-sensing techniques that provide infor-
and apparitions, thus providing information about both short- mation about cometary dust are photometry and polarimetry
term and long-term evolution of the cometary environment. in the visible and near-infrared (NIR), and spectroscopy in
Most of the cometary remote-sensing information is the NIR and mid-infrared (MIR) wavelengths. Most comets
coming from observations of the interaction of cometary show similar photometric and polarimetric properties that
material with solar radiation. This chapter focuses on allowed establishing the following regularities:
characterization of the dust in cometary coma based on
how it scatters, absorbs, and emits radiation. Trying to In the visible:
avoid repetition of the facts and concepts considered in
the previous volume, Comets II (Kolokolova et al., 2004a, 1. The color of the cometary dust is mainly red, with the
hereafter K_C2), this chapter emphasizes the new develop- values very similar for long-period and short-period comets
ments in the field. The observations and their results are and decreasing with increasing wavelength. Statistically

621
622   Comets III

averaged cometary color does not show stable tendencies powerful computers, especially computer clusters, which
with phase angle or heliocentric distance (see more in allow reaching a significant increase in the efficiency of
section 2.1). the computations by using parallelized computer codes,
2. Polarization of cometary dust is characterized by a nega- described in section 3.1. Very beneficial for the interpreta-
tive (polarization plane is parallel to the scattering plane) tion of Earth-based observations have been the results of
parabolic-shaped branch at phase angles smaller than laboratory and in situ studies of cometary dust, specifically
20° and a positive (polarization plane is perpendicular to based on the results of the Stardust and Rosetta missions.
the scattering plane) bell-shaped branch at larger phase Information from those studies, reviewed in the chapters in
angles, reaching the minimum values at about –2% at this volume by Poch et al. and Engrand et al., allows prese-
the phase angle ~10° and the maximum values varying lecting some characteristics of the dust particles, specifically
within 10–35% at phase angle ~90°–95°. For details, see their size, structure, and composition. This narrows down
section 2.2. the parameter pool involved in the modeling, thus increasing
3. In the majority of comets, polarization increases with the modeling efficiency.
wavelength, although there are some exceptions.
4. Some comets demonstrate circular polarization. which 2. OBSERVATIONAL RESULTS
usually does not exceed 2%.
5. The spectra of cometary dust show no absorption features. Interaction of cometary dust particles with solar radiation
results in radiation being scattered, absorbed, and reemitted
In the NIR: by the dust particles. This interaction varies depending on
the location in the coma and distance to the Sun, but being
1. The increase of brightness with wavelength, i.e., red averaged, produces the fundamental observational charac-
color, is also typical for the NIR; however, it is less red teristics of the cometary dust: dependence of the brightness
than in the visible and polarization on phase angle (i.e., the Sun-comet-observer
2. The dependence of polarization on phase angle in the NIR angle) and on wavelength.
looks similar to the one in the visible for comets with high In general, the measured brightness of the scattered light
polarization maximum. does not characterize the physical properties of the dust
3. The majority of comets show a decrease of polarization particles as it represents a combined effect of the intrinsic
with wavelength in the NIR. physical properties of the dust particles (size, composi-
4. Comets may demonstrate absorption bands of ice at 1.5, tion) and their number, i.e., the column density of the dust
2.2, and 3.1 µm, especially at large heliocentric distances. particles. To cancel the effect of the column density and
thus find out the intrinsic properties of the cometary dust,
In the MIR (thermal emission): the observational characteristics defined by the ratio of the
brightness — color and degree of linear polarization — are
1. The main features in cometary spectra are silicate bands used. There are two other fundamental characteristics of the
at 10 and 20 µm whose strength varies by comet and can scattered light that are defined by the intrinsic dust proper-
vary with time. ties: the dust albedo and its phase function.
2. The effective continuum temperature (based on the In the light-scattering theory, the particle albedo is usu-
spectral shape) tends to be warmer (up to 30%) than the ally defined as a single-scattering albedo, i.e., the ratio of
isothermal temperature of a large blackbody sphere at the the particle scattering efficiency to its extinction efficiency
same heliocentric distance. (van de Hulst, 1957). However, this characteristic cannot
be directly obtained from the observations. In cometary
The majority of the above regularities were obtained using physics, albedo of a dust particle means its reflectivity and
aperture observations and were already discussed in K_C2. is analogous to the geometric albedo in planetary physics,
The main advantage of the recent observations is that the i.e., it is the ratio of the energy scattered at phase angle
aperture observations were replaced by imaging observations equal to 0° to that scattered by a white Lambert disk of
with a high spatial resolution. This brought an understanding the same geometric cross section. The detailed descrip-
that some of the listed regularities describe the cometary tion of how to determine the cometary dust albedo from
dust on average, whereas the dust experiences significant observations as well as some other definitions of the
changes as the particles move out of the nucleus. Also, the particle albedo can be found in K_C2, section 2.1. The
dust was found to show different observational characteristics geometric albedo of a single particle is defined as a0 =
in cometary jets and other morphological features. pS/(Gk2) (Hanner, 1981; K_C2) where S is the intensity
Another recent development in cometary dust studies is of the light scattered by the particle in the direction of
a huge progress in computational modeling of light scat- the Sun (zero phase angle) divided by the intensity of
tering by non-spherical particles, specifically development the solar light incident to the particle, G is the geometric
of powerful computer packages to compute aggregated/ cross-section of the particle, and k is the wave number
agglomerated particles (see section 3). An important role related to the radiation wavelength λ as k = 2π/λ. It is
in this development is played by an availability of more clear from the definition that the geometric albedo is an
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   623

intrinsic particle characteristic defined mainly by the par- 10000.0

ticle composition and probably structure, as the intensity Comet composite curve
of the scattered light can be reduced by the scattering on 1000.0 67P

Normalized Brightness
the inhomogeneities within the particle. The parameter S HD 61005

depends on size, which in light scattering is characterized 100.0 HD 191089

through the size parameter x = kr, where r is the particle

radius, but for large particles S/G becomes constant, which 10.0
makes the effect of size negligible for particles of x > 10
(Mishchenko and Travis, 1994). 1.0
Often the albedo of a particle at other than zero phase
angles is considered, i.e., a(α) = pS(α)/(Gk2), where α is 0.1
0 50 100 150
phase angle. This is also an intrinsic property of the particle,
and a(α)/a0 is identical to the phase function, which demon- Phase Angle (°)
strates how the reflectivity of the particle changes with phase Fig. 1. Phase curves for comets and debris disks. A thin
angle. Often the phase curve is defined as the normalized solid line shows the composite dust phase function for com-
intensity curve, i.e., the observed brightness at each phase ets by Schleicher (2010). The thick solid line is the phase
is divided by the brightness at zero phase angle. In this curve for Comet 67P measured by the Rosetta OSIRIS
case the phase curve is identical to a(α)/a0, thus, a(α) is the camera (Bertini et al., 2017). Dashed lines show the phase
particle geometric albedo multiplied by the phase function. curves for debris disks HD 61005 [thin line (Oloffson et al.,
The phase curve of the particles strongly depends on their 2016)] and HD 191089 [thick line (Ren et al., 2019)]. Two
types of the phase curves can be seen for both comets
size parameter (van de Hulst, 1957; Bohren and Huffman,
and debris disks.
2008). Small particles with x < 1 scatter light in the Ray-
leigh regime; their phase function is symmetric, smoothly
decreasing from 0° to 90° and then smoothly increasing.
For larger particles, the curve becomes more asymmetric particles affected by the gas flow and radiation torque
with forward scattering increasing with size. Monodisperse (see section 4.3). However, later a similar phase curve
compact particles with x between 1 and 20 usually have was observed for some debris disks (Hughes et al., 2018)
a phase curve with a complex oscillating structure, which (see Fig. 1 for examples). The laboratory measurements
disappears for larger particles where light scattering occurs by Muñoz et al. (2020) showed that such curves are typi-
in the geometric-optics regime. The large particles usually cal for large, millimeter-sized, porous particles that can
have a strong forward-scattering peak; at smaller phase be a reasonable explanation for the case of near-nucleus
angles, the curve becomes less steep and at some sizes and particles in Comet 67P where the near-nucleus coma is
composition may show a backscattering peak. The current dominated by particles hundreds of micrometers in size
envision of the cometary phase curve mainly attributes to (see the chapter in this volume by Engrand et al.).
the composite phase curve compiled by Schleicher (2010)
based on an empirical function fit to Comet 1P/Halley data 2.1. Color of Cometary Dust
from Schleicher et al. (1998) and a Henyey-Greenstein
model fit to near-Sun comet photometry by Marcus (2007). The color of cometary dust is traditionally defined as
It has a medium-backscattering peak after which the bright- the difference of the magnitudes in two continuum filters,
ness decreases, reaches minimum at about 50°–60° and then e.g., mc = mB–mR in the case of B-band and R-band filters.
increases, becoming steeper as it approaches the forward Since the magnitude is –2.5logI where I is the brightness in
scattering. Similar phase curves were found for zodiacal physical units, the color can be presented as –2.5 log(IB/IR).
dust, Saturn’s rings, and protoplanetary and debris disks As it is a ratio of the brightness in two filters, it cancels the
(Fig. 1) (see also Hughes et al., 2018). A smooth shape effect of dust particle column density and becomes a char-
with a large forward-scattering and some backscattering acteristic of the dust particles per se. It is worth noting that
peaks can be attributed to a polydisperse distribution of the the presented definition of the color contains information on
particles comparable with wavelength, i.e., of size parameter the solar spectrum as it represents the solar light scattered
x = 1–5 (K_C2). by the comet. Subtraction of the solar color calculated for
A rather different shape of the phase curve for Com- the same filters, i.e., ms = msB–msR, from the observed dust
et 67P (hereafter 67P) with the minimum around 100°, color, gives the intrinsic color of the cometary dust equal
a steeper increase in the backscattering direction, and to mc–ms.
a rather gradual increase in the direction to the forward The other popular definition of the cometary dust color
scattering (Bertini et al., 2017) was acquired during the uses the gradient of the cometary spectrum, i.e., the steep-
Rosetta rendezvous mission. Moreno et al. (2018) ex- ness of the cometary continuum. Presenting the cometary
plained this unusual curve by light scattering on oriented spectrum as S(l) = Fc(l)/FSun(l), i.e., the comet spectrum
elongated particles. This explanation was supported by Fc(l) divided by the solar spectrum FSun(l), one can calcu-
a specific position of the camera that was observing the late cometary color (A’Hearn et al., 1984) as the normalized
624   Comets III

gradient of reflectivity: Progress in studying cometary colors is characterized by

two main developments: (1) collection of many new values
of the colors for different comets and at their different posi-
2000 S( 2 ) – S(1 ) (1)
S(1 2 ) = * tions on the orbit that allow accomplishment of a statistical
 2 – 1 S( 2 ) + S(1 )
analysis of the cometary colors; and (2) acquiring images
of the brightness in different filters, thus producing maps
where S(l1) and S(l2) correspond to the dust reflectivity of cometary colors that reveal changes in the color with
at the wavelengths l1 and l2 under the condition l2 > l1. the distance from the nucleus and in different cometary
S′(l1, l2) is expressed in percent per 1000 Å. features. The color variations in the coma will be considered

R–I (mag) Heliocentric Distance (au)

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 100 101
0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5
V–R (mag)

V–R (mag)
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

100 100
20

10

N
Heliocentric Distance (au)

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
V–R (mag)

10
101 101
N

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
R–I (mag) R–I (mag)

Fig. 2. Broadband coma colors based on photometry in the V, R, and I bandpasses, or transformed to V, R, I from
equivalent filters. Solid lines are the mean colors, dashed lines are solar colors. Shaded regions indicate 1 and 2 standard
deviations from the mean colors. Upper left: Color-color plot and covariance ellipses. Upper right and lower left: All V–R
and R–I data points vs. heliocentric distance. The axes are configured so that individual points in the V–R vs. R–I plot
may be traced to the color-heliocentric distance plots. Lower right: Color histograms.
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   625

in section 2.2.1. spectroscopic measurements (e.g., Jewitt and Meech, 1986).

Observations of cometary coma continua span a moder- The average and standard deviation broadband colors
ate range of colors, from slightly blue to red. We searched are V–R = 0.46 ± 0.05 mag (N = 66) and R–I = 0.43 ±
the literature for surveys of broadband optical colors of ac- 0.08 mag (N = 40). Figure 2 shows histograms of the V–R
tive comets. Based on the results of Solontoi et al. (2012), and R–I color sets. The distributions are unimodal and
we added the requirement that any color uncertainties must nearly symmetric.
be better than 0.1 mag. In Fig. 2, we present V–R and Coma broadband colors may be expected to have a
R–I colors from Solontoi et al. (2012), Jewitt (2015), and heliocentric distance dependence due to gas contamination
Betzler et al. (2017). A minimum uncertainty of 0.05 mag as discussed above, the presence of water ice, or the varia-
was adopted for all Beltzer et al. data based on Anderson- tion of the coma grain size distribution. We compared data
Darling tests, which could not distinguish between true taken inside and outside of different heliocentric distance
variability and a normal distribution for the six comets with cuts, ranging from 1.5 to 10 au, with the two-sided Kol-
time-resolved observations. mogorov-Smirnov test. After accounting for uncertainties,
Cometary colors are typically measured with broad- all p-values were >5%, indicating none of the tests found
band filters, which can be affected by the presence of gas significant differences, consistent with prior results (Solontoi
emission bands. For example, using spectra of the dusty et al., 2012; Jewitt, 2015). This dataset may not be useful
Comet C/2013 US10 (Catalina), Kwon et al. (2017) esti- for realizing these effects if they are much smaller than the
mated a moderate gas contamination of 8% and 3% in the observed scatter in the population (~0.08 mag). Moreover,
R- and I-bands (9500 × 1900 km aperture). Observations gas contamination may not be apparent given that so few
of gas-rich Comet 252P/LINEAR in the V, r′, BC, and RC data points are taken near 1 au. Investigating these effects
filters by Li et al. (2017) imply a photometric excess of likely requires isolated studies of individual comets with
25% to 50% in the V and r′ filters due to the presence of precise color measurements.
gas (2300-km aperture radius, rh = 1.1 au). Therefore, nar- In contrast with the groundbased data, spacecraft ob-
rowband filter sets designed for cometary comae are better servations of Comets 67P and 103P/Hartley 2 have shown
suited for continuum colors; the most recent iteration is the clear color trends with distance to the nucleus and, for 67P,
HB filter set (Farnham et al., 2000). But even the narrow- with distance to the Sun and phase angle. Filacchione et al.
band filters may be significantly contaminated. For the HB (2020) show that the optical (0.5 to 0.8 µm) spectroscopic
filter set, C3 and OH emission is found within the UC filter color of the inner (1 to 2.5 km) coma of 67P varied with
bandpass (345 ± 40 nm), and C2 in the GC filter (Farnham heliocentric distance, from near 20% to 25%/0.1 µm at
et al., 2000; Rosenbush et al., 2002; Opitom et al., 2015). 1.2 au, to near 0% to 5%/0.1 µm at 2.8 au, consistent with
Gas contamination will be stronger for comets with the presence of icy grains in the coma. This magnitude of
lower dust-to-gas production rates. A’Hearn et al. (1995) a change should be easily observed in groundbased data,
presented the ratio of Afr (the product of albedo, aperture but the analysis of Kwon et al. (2022) suggests that this
filling factor, and aperture radius, an empirical proxy for dust variation is likely limited to the innermost coma of this
production rate) and OH production and found that comets comet. Bockelée-Morvan et al. (2019) show a phase angle
span the range log10(Afr/OH) = –26.5 to –24.9 for units of dependence of Comet 67P’s inner coma at 2 to 2.5 µm.
cm s molecule–1 (note that these values are not corrected The spectral gradient’s slope, measured with respect to the
for dust phase angle effects), thus comets on the low end continuum flux density at 2 to 2.5 µm, was 0.031%/100 nm/°
of the range are said to be gassy and those on the higher from 50° to 120° and thus demonstrated a noticeable red-
end are dusty. Most optical gas emission bands are from dening. They point out that that phase reddening is common
molecules produced by photolysis in the coma, which is a on solar system bodies and has also been observed in the
function of heliocentric distance. The emissions from these zodiacal light, and argue that phase reddening in a cometary
bands have spatial profiles that tend to be shallower than coma is likely caused by porous particles much larger than
dust spatial profiles (Combi et al., 2004), thus the physical the wavelength of light being observed (i.e., >10 µm in
size of the aperture at the distance of the comet also plays size). Phase reddening for dust particles was indicated in the
an important role. laboratory measurements by Escobar-Cerezo et al. (2017)
Altogether, gas contamination is a general problem in and was also attributed to the particle structure (roughness)
photometry of cometary dust, and the cometary astronomer by analogy with the explanation of the phase reddening for
should consider the possibility of gas emission in their data. rough surfaces (Schröder et al., 2014).
This statement is especially true when observing unusual Further examination of the potential effect of water ice
comets or comets in unusual circumstances, e.g., see Bellm on coma optical colors became possible due to the Deep
et al. (2019) and McKay et al. (2019) for CO+ emission Impact observations of Comet 103P/Hartley 2. Near-infrared
in g-band and HB UC filter images of Comet C/2016 R2 observations of this comet showed prominent water ice
(PanSTARRS). Of all the optical broadband filters, the red- absorption bands at distances within a few kilometers from
der filters (l > 600 nm) tend to be the least affected by gas, the nucleus. Protopapa et al. (2014) examined these absorp-
but NH2 and CN bands may still be significant (Fink, 2009). tion features in an ice-rich spectrum taken 400 m from the
Gas contamination can also be estimated or avoided with surface and estimated an ice abundance of 5% by area. La
626   Comets III

Forgia et al. (2017) studied the optical colors of this comet (a) 40
and showed that the ice-enriched regions tend to be bluer

S(UC, GC) (%/0.1 µm)

9P
than the ice-poor regions in the coma. The azimuthally 20
17P
averaged spectral gradient from the green to red (0.53 to 19P
0.75 µm) ranges from 9% per 0.1 µm near the nucleus to 0 21P
13% per 0.1 µm 40 km from the nucleus. Given that the 41P
water ice is asymmetrically distributed in the coma, the color –20 46P
difference would be even larger if it were not azimuthally 73P-B

averaged. The quoted range corresponds to V–R colors –40

of 0.49 to 0.54 mag, which is fully on the red end of the 40
observed coma colors (Fig. 2), emphasizing that ice is dif-

S(UC, BC) (%/0.1 µm)

ficult to identify based on absolute colors alone. However, 20
the 0.05-mag change in color is large enough to be apparent
in the observed V–R colors of cometary comae. The lack 0
of strong bluing with heliocentric distance in Fig. 2 may
suggest that ice is rare in cometary comae, but consider- –20
ations for competing effects are necessary. The sublimation
lifetime of ice compared to the photometric aperture size is –40
of foremost importance. There is some evidence for color –40 –20 0 20 40 –40 –20 0 20 40
gradients in distant comae, reddening by 3% to 8%/0.1 µm S(BC, GC) (%/0.1 µm) S(UC, GC) (%/0.1 µm)
with distance from the nucleus, which is suggestive of the
(b) 40
presence of water ice grains (Fitzsimmons et al., 1996; Li
73P-C
S(BC, RC) (%/0.1 µm)
et al., 2013, 2014).
20 81P
A changing grain size distribution may also affect 96P
coma dust color. As activity increases and overcomes the 103P
0
tensile strengths of the dust agglomerates (Gundlach et C/1995 O1
al., 2015), small grains could populate the coma, produc- C/2007 N3
–20
ing a bluer color. Alternatively, grain fragmentation may C/2009 P1
C/2012 F6
increase the number of Rayleigh scatterers with increasing
–40
nucleus distance. 40
There are several papers reporting narrowband pho-
S(BC, GC) (%/0.1 µm)

tometry of cometary comae. We searched the literature for

20
observations with the HB filter set and assembled data on
19 comets from 18 papers (Bair et al., 2018; Cudnik, 2005;
0
Farnham and Schleicher, 2005; Ivanova et al., 2014; Knight
and Schleicher, 2013; Knight et al., 2021; Li et al., 2017;
–20
Moulane et al., 2018, 2020; Opitom et al., 2015; Zhang
et al., 2021; Schleicher, 2007, 2008, 2009; Schleicher and
–40
Bair, 2011; Schleicher et al., 2003). We chose the HB filter –20 0 20 40 –40 –20 0 20 40
–40
set, given its improvements over previous narrowband filter S(GC, RC) (%/0.1 µm) S(BC, RC) (%/0.1 µm)
sets, especially with respect to gas contamination mitigation.
Figure 3 presents all colors with uncertainties <0.1 mag in Fig. 3. Narrowband colors of comets based on the HB filter
color-color plots as a linear spectral slope (equation (1)). set. Individual measurements with uncertainties better than
It shows that the observations span a moderate range of 10%/0.1 μm are shown as light gray circles. Comet-by-comet
spectral slopes, from neutral to moderately red (0% to averages are also plotted; uncertainties are based on the
30%/0.1 µm). However, Comet 96P is a clear outlier with error on the mean, or the standard deviation of the data,
a UC–BC slope of –18%/0.1 µm in accordance with the whichever is greater.
findings of Opitom et al. (2015), that the OH (0–1) band
may be a significant contributor to UC filter photometry. 2.2. Cometary Polarimetry
A crude correction to the UC reflectance using the relative
strength of the OH (0–1) and (0–0) bands (Schleicher and In planetary astronomy, the degree of linear polarization
A’Hearn, 1988) increased the comet’s mean spectral slope (P, hereafter called polarization) is defined as
from –18 to –4%/0.1 µm. A near-UV spectrum of 96P may
provide some clarity on the UC–BC colors of cometary P = (I  – I )/(I  + I ) (2)
comae, as would further investigations into the magnitude
of OH contamination in the UC filter. where I⊥ and I|| are the intensity components perpendicular
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   627

and parallel to the scattering plane (the plane that contains the main characteristics of the dependence of polarization
the Sun, comet, and observer). Based on this definition, the on wavelength and phase angle with the probable exception
polarization with I⊥ > I|| is called positive, and if I⊥ < I|| it of the data for interstellar Comet 2I/Borisov (Bagnulo et al.,
is called negative. This definition is given here mainly to 2021), which showed the values of polarization exceeding
explain the terms negative and positive polarization and the values typical for solar system comets, although similar
make it clear that polarization is the ratio of intensities and to those observed for Comet C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp.
thus depends only on the properties of the dust particles. Probably the most significant change in our understanding
Currently, with the rise of the Stokes polarimetry (e.g., of the cometary polarization since K_C2 is reconsideration
Keller et al., 2015), polarization is usually defined through of the classification of comets in two polarimetric classes:
the Stokes vector, a mathematical object that is formed by comets with a high polarization maximum (~25%) and those
components (I, Q, U, V), where I is the total intensity of with a low polarization maximum (~10%) (Chernova et
the scattered light, Q is the numerator from equation (2), al., 1993; Levasseur-Regourd et al., 1996). Chernova et al.
and Q/I is identical to the planetary definition of the linear (1993) related these two classes to different dust/gas ratios
polarization; U together with Q defines the angle q that (see definition in section 2.1) in the comets; specifically,
determines the position of the polarization plane (i.e., the high-polarization comets were found to have a large dust/
plane in which oscillates the linearly polarized part of gas ratio, and that for the low-polarization comets was at
the electromagnetic wave) as tan(2q) = Q/U. Note that a least twice lower. This allowed relating the polarization dif-
physically correct way to define the linear polarization is ference in those two classes to a stronger depolarizing effect
through P = (Q2 + U2)1/2/I and angle q; however, in the of the gas emissions in the low-polarization comets. With
planetary observations a typical value of q is close to 0 many more data acquired after 1996, one can see (Fig. 4)
(negative polarization) or 90° (positive polarization), which that there is no clear division of the comets into two classes.
justifies the definition given in the beginning of the section. Although they may be still visible in the blue domain, the
Parameter V defines circular polarization, i.e., the part of the comets observed in the red and NIR domain tend to form
scattered light for which the plane of the electromagnetic a single curve. There is a scattering of the data, especially
wave rotates around the direction of the light propagation. in the blue domain. The main explanation of the scattering
More details on the Stokes vector can be found in Bohren relates to the original division of the comets to dusty and
and Huffman (2008) or in K_C2. The value of the Stokes gassy types. However, when narrowband filters weakly af-
vector representation is that it allows using matrix algebra fected by the gas emissions are used, all comets show similar
to consider light scattering by complex systems. Specifically, polarization, typical for the dusty comets.
the Stokes vector of the radiation source (I0, Q0, U0, V0) One more confirmation of the significant influence of
is related to the measured Stokes vector through the 4 × 4 gas contamination on the polarimetric data was obtained
Mueller matrix (often called scattering matrix) as (I, Q, U, from observations of cometary polarization with increasing
V) = M*(I0, Q0, U0, V0); for the solar radiation the Stokes aperture of the observations (Jockers et al., 2005) or using
vector is (I0, Q0, U0, V0) = (I, 0, 0, 0). imaging polarimetry (Kwon et al., 2017). These observations
A detailed review of the cometary polarimetric studies demonstrated that for both types of comets the near-nucleus
can be found in Kiselev et al. (2015); below we briefly out- polarization is high, reaching the values 20–25%. However,
line the results reported there, adding the results published with increasing aperture or distance from the nucleus, the
after that review. values of polarization in dusty comets change only slightly,
A comprehensive collection of the results of the cometary whereas for the gassy comets, a decrease in polarization is
polarimetric observations has been recently archived by significant, bringing the polarization to the values typical for
the NASA Planetary Data System (PDS) as the Database low-polarization comets or even lower, as shown in Fig. 5.
of Cometary Polarimetry (Kiselev et al., 2017). It includes Jockers et al. (2005) concluded that the low values of po-
published and unpublished data of 3441 observations for the larization of gassy comets resulted from the contamination
period 1881–2016. The database includes data for 95 comets of the data by gas emissions, which depolarize the light.
with the description of the geometry of observations and Recent observations and detailed analysis of the gas
characteristics of the polarimetric instrumentation. The data contamination have been reported by Ivanova et al. (2017),
cover the wavelength from 0.26 to 2.32 µm and the ranges of Kwon et al. (2017, 2018), and Kiselev et al. (2013, 2020).
phase angles, heliocentric distances, and geocentric distances Spectropolarimetric data for Comet Garradd (Kiselev et al.,
0.0–122.1°, 0.0–7.01 au, and 0.01–6.52 au, respectively. The 2013) showed correlation between the intensity of the gas
data from this database and its earlier version (Kiselev et al., emissions and polarization. Similarly, Kwon et al. (2017)
2006) have been already used in several studies where some found a strong correlation between the polarization and the
statistical analysis of the polarimetric data was done; see, intensity of gas emissions in their change with the distance
e.g., Mishchenko et al. (2010), Borisov et al. (2015), Kwon et from the nucleus. Obviously, the effect of gas contamination
al. (2019, 2021), Rosenbush et al. (2021). The most interest- should increase with the distance from the nucleus as the
ing observations acquired since the release of the database amount of the gas from the distributed gas sources adds to
will be discussed in this section. They have not changed the original gas sublimated from the nucleus.
628   Comets III

(a) 40
dust. However, a more detailed analysis and especially
correlation of the positive polarization of comets with the
strength of the silicate infrared feature (see section 2.3.2)
30 allowed the assumption (Kolokolova et al., 2007) that the
difference in polarization may reflect a different distribu-
Polarization (%)

20
tion of the dust particles in the coma; specifically, in the
low-polarization comets, the dust is concentrated near the
nucleus, thus resulting in a low dust/gas ratio for the overall
10 coma. Such a difference in the dust distribution may result
from the different size and porosity of the dust particles, as
0 is shown in section 2.3.2.
An even more detailed picture of the change in polar-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 ization throughout the coma came from charge-coupled
Phase Angle (°) device (CCD) images with high spatial resolution. Early
polarimetric images were reported by Renard et al. (1996),
(b) 40 then a detailed study of Comet Hale-Bopp with the imag-
ing polarimetry was published by Jockers et al. (1997)
30
and Hadamcik et al. (1997). A paper by Hadamcik and
Levasseur-Regourd (2003) presented results of imaging
Polarization (%)

polarimetry for nine comets and showed that an area of

20 lower positive polarization was observed in the near-nucleus
area; it was named a “polarimetric halo.” A polarimetric
10 halo was observed at small phase angles as an area of
more negative polarization in Comet ISON (Hines et al.,
2013) and other comets (Choudhury et al., 2015). Since the
0
polarimetric halo has only been observed in some comets,
its origin is still not clear. The majority of high-resolution
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
polarimetric images of comets show a rather gradual
Phase Angle (°) change in polarization. It appears that for some comets
(c) 40 polarization decreases with the distance from the nucleus,
probably indicating increasing gas contamination; however,
30
for some other comets polarization increases. Increase in
the positive polarization is likely a manifestation of dust
particle fragmentation (e.g., Jones et al., 2008) producing
Polarization (%)

20
an increased abundance of small particles that scatter light
in the Rayleigh regime. Both gas emissions and Rayleigh
10 scatterers produce a bell-shaped phase curve that has posi-
tive polarization at all phase angles (e.g., Kiselev et al.,
0 2015), thus at low phase angles they can cause a decrease
in the magnitude of negative polarization. An increase in
–10 the absolute value of the negative polarization with the dis-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 tance from the nucleus, if observed, has a more complicated
Phase Angle (°) origin. Since negative polarization is most likely a result
Fig. 4. Compilation of the data from Kiselev et al. (2017) of multiple scattering inside a fluffy/porous particle (e.g.,
for the cometary polarimetric phase curve. (a) Data acquired Muinonen et al., 2012), an increase in absolute value of the
in the blue domain (blue squares are for the BC_IHW filter). negative polarization may indicate increasing transparency
(b) Data in the red domain (blue squares are for RC_IHW of the particles due to either evaporation of some dark
filter). (c) Data in the NIR region (JHK filters); the data for material (e.g., semivolatile organics) or increasing poros-
Comet West are excluded as they were strongly affected by ity (Kimura et al., 2006). There are also more complicated
the thermal emission (Oishi et al., 1978). cases. For example, Comets 2P/Encke (Jewitt, 2004) and
67P (Rosenbush et al., 2017) demonstrated a decrease in
polarization that changed to an increase at larger distances
The dependence of the polarization on the aperture of from the nucleus, as shown in Fig. 7. A possible explanation
observations, which can move a comet from the high- of such a behavior is provided in section 2.2.1.
polarimetric class to the low-polarimetric class, makes the For a detailed discussion of the polarization in the com-
division of the comets into two classes questionable, or at etary jets and similar features, the reader can check the
least not reflective of the intrinsic properties of the cometary review by Kiselev et al. (2015). Although most often the
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   629

1.0 0.5
North (a)
Relative Polarization Degree (%) 0.4 South

Polarization Gas Intensity

Pd
0.9
0.3

Ratio
0.8 0.2
Tabur 0.1
0.7 2P Encke 16 (b)

Degree (%)
C/1999 J3 14
C/2001 A2
0.6 12
West
10
Hale-Bopp
0.5 8
C/1999 S4
0 10 20 30 40
0.4 Radial Distance (arcsec)
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
log ρ (km)
Fig. 5. Change of polarization with the distance from the nucleus. On the left, examples for low-polarization (white sym-
bols) and high-polarization (black symbols) comets (Kolokolova et al., 2007). On the right, the radial profiles of (a) the
gas intensity ratio, fgRc, and (b) polarization for Comet C/2013 US10 Catalina from Kwon et al. (2017); on the left of the
gray dashed line at 23″ are aperture polarimetry results, and on the right of this line the sky regions were divided to
the north and south wings and were treated separately. The gray asterisks in (b) denote polarization corrected with the
corresponding values of (a).

polarization in the jets is higher than in the ambient coma, sulted in two important conclusions. First, the polarization
suggesting particles of different composition or size in the phase curves in the NIR appeared to be almost identical
jets and in the ambient coma, high-resolution images reveal to those in the visible (see Fig. 4). This indicated that the
that not all jets seen in photometric images are visible in characteristics of the particles, which affect the polarization,
polarization — in this case the particles in the jets and in did not change much as the observations move from the sub-
the ambient coma are similar and the difference between micrometer to micrometer scale, most likely signaling that
the jets and the coma is in the number density of particles. the dominating size parameter of the particles exceeds unity
Examples of both cases were found in Comet C/2011 KP36 not only in the visible but also in the NIR, i.e., cometary
(Spacewatch) (Ivanova et al., 2021). dust particles are several micrometers or larger in size. The
We also want to point a significance of the contribution of only exception is Comet Hale-Bopp, which showed almost
the cometary nucleus to the light in the near-nuclear coma. absent negative polarization in the NIR. This behavior can
The contribution of the nucleus strongly affected the coma be evidence for particles approaching the Rayleigh regime
polarization and color up to a distance of 10,000 km from in the NIR, thus particles <1 µm in size.
the nucleus for Comet C/2011 KP36 (Ivanova et al., 2021) The other special feature of the NIR polarization is that
and up to 3000 km for Comet Encke (Kiselev et al., 2020). the spectral trend in polarization changes from positive to
We cannot leave out the polarization measurements negative, i.e., polarimetric color, defined as P(l1)–P(l2) with
performed by the polarimeters onboard the STEREO l1 > l2, which is usually positive (red) in the visible (see
spacecraft. Thompson (2015, 2020) reported that the K_C2), becomes negative (blue) in the NIR. Explanation of
polarization properties of Comets C/2012 S1 (ISON) and the spectral increase of polarization in the visible is quite
C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy) have a high positive polarization, straightforward: With increasing wavelength the dust par-
reaching 60%, and a broad negative branch reaching out ticles or grains (monomers) in agglomerates are approaching
to an inversion point between 40° and 50°. Also, dramatic the Rayleigh regime of scattering, and that manifests itself
changes in polarization were observed as Comet ISON in increasing positive polarization. A spectral decrease in
approached the Sun to distances closer than 10 solar radii, polarization requires a different explanation. Kolokolova and
demonstrating that the dust in the Sun-grazing comets Kimura (2010a) noted that light scattering on a collection of
undergo significant changes in the vicinity of the Sun. closely located particles (e.g., monomers in agglomerates)
To explain the STEREO data, Thompson (2020) suggests can cause depolarization due to electromagnetic interaction
fragmentation and sublimation of olivine at those dis- between the monomers (cf. multiple scattering), which is
tances. This is in accordance with Kimura et al. (2002b) stronger if the number of particles covered by a single
who showed that silicates, such as olivine and pyroxene, wavelength is larger. Approaching the NIR, the wavelength
sublimate at heliocentric distances below 10 solar radii. is getting longer and thus it can cover more monomers,
The other mechanism can be the dust fragmentation as it decreasing the polarization. This phenomenon was con-
is disrupted by the radiative torque (see section 4.3.3). sidered in detail in Kolokolova et al. (2011), where it was
2.2.1. Polarization of cometary dust in the near- shown that it strongly depends on the porosity: The larger the
infrared. Adding the polarimetric data in the NIR has re- porosity of the particle, the longer the wavelength at which
630   Comets III

the electromagnetic interaction becomes significant enough among them such an exotic mechanism as homochirality
to cause depolarization of light. In a compact agglomerate of the molecules in cometary organics. However, T-matrix
the longer the wavelength the more monomers it covers, modeling of light scattering by homochiral molecules (see
so the interaction between the monomers becomes stronger section 3.1) showed the values of circular polarization sev-
and the light becomes more depolarized. This results in a eral orders lower than the observed values even in the case
decrease of polarization with wavelength (blue polarimetric of the particles consisting entirely of homochiral organics
color). For a porous agglomerate, the number of monomers (Nagdimunov et al., 2013; Sparks et al., 2015). More recent
covered by a single wavelength does not change much as studies attribute cometary circular polarization to the align-
the wavelength increases, i.e., the change in the interaction ment of the dust particles under solar magnetic field and
between the monomers cannot overpower the change in the radiative torque (see section 4.3).
monomer size parameter, and the polarimetric color stays 2.2.3. Correlation between color and polarization. An
red. However, as the wavelength reaches some critical value, efficient approach in studying properties of cometary dust is
the number of covered monomers in the porous agglomerate combining polarimetric data with observations of the dust
changes significantly and interaction becomes the main fac- color. Color and polarization depend solely on the intrinsic
tor that defines the polarimetric color, which then becomes properties of dust particles, specifically their size and com-
blue. Thus, the wavelength at which the decrease in the position. Polarization is a more complex characteristic as it
polarimetric color starts may be determined by the poros- also depends on shape and structure of particles; however,
ity of the agglomerate, and it is smaller for more compact if observations show a correlation between color and po-
particles. This provides a straightforward explanation of larization, this can provide information on the composition
the blue polarimetric color observed in the visible for some or size of the dust particles.
comets (Kiselev et al., 2008): Most likely, the dust in those For example, an increase in polarization together with a
comets is dominated by more compact particles. decrease (bluing) of the color (anticorrelation) was observed
2.2.2. Circular polarization. As mentioned above, for Comet Encke starting with the distances ~3 arcsec
polarization can also have a circular component. Circular (Jewitt, 2004) and Comet 67P (Rosenbush et al., 2017) (see
polarization was observed in more than 10 comets and was Fig. 7). These variations can be explained by a decreasing
found at the tenths of percent level (Fig. 6). In the major- size of the dust particles (Kolokolova et al., 2002). How-
ity of cases, the absolute value of circular polarization ever, closer to the nucleus, both Encke and 67P showed a
(lefthanded polarization is usually considered as negative, decrease in polarization accompanied by a decrease in color
and righthanded as positive) increases with the distance (correlation). The currently suggested explanation is that
from the nucleus (see details in Kiselev et al., 2015). The large particles (hundreds of micrometers) dominate close to
causes of circular polarization should be within processes the nucleus, then they fragment to smaller ones (~10 µm)
or properties of particles that produce a mirror asymmetry that are still far from the Rayleigh particles; their color
of the medium (van de Hulst, 1957). Several mechanisms and polarization correlate. Then fragmentation continues,
were suggested to explain the origin of circular polarization, and as particles approach the Rayleigh regime, color and
polarization anticorrelate. This scenario is confirmed by
the laboratory simulations of light scattering by cometary
analog particles (Hadamcik and Levasseur-Regourd, 2009).
Currently this is only a hypothesis, and more observations
1.5 are necessary to understand this effect; it is described here
mainly to show the remote sensing power of the correlation
between color and polarization.
1.0 Simultaneous observations of color and polarization
and their combined analysis not only allow one to indicate
Circular Polarization (%)

and qualitatively explain changes in the particle properties,

0.5
but also allow narrowing down the range of the particle
parameters at computer modeling, making their results
less ambiguous. An example of a comprehensive analysis
0.0
that involves a simultaneous consideration of the color
and polarization variations in the coma together with the
–0.5
changes in the brightness radial profile and Afρ in several
filters is presented by Ivanova et al. (2019). The unusually
deep negative polarization branch (down to –8%) for Com-
–1.5 et C/2014 A4 (SONEAR) required a low-absorbing material;
this, combined with the red color observed, brought tholin
20 40 60 80 100 120
into consideration, which perfectly fit these requirements and
Phase Angle (°) was a realistic material for large heliocentric distances. The
Fig. 6. Circular polarization data from Kiselev et al. (2017). observed decrease in Afρ with the distance from the nucleus
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   631

10 1.0

67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko
9
0.9
8

Linear Polarization (%)

Polarization 0.8

Color (G-R) (mag)

6

5 0.7

4
0.6
3
Color (G-R)

2
0.5

0 0.4
0 10000 20000 30000 40000

Distance from Photocenter (km)

Fig. 7. Change of g-rsdss color and rsdss polarization of Comet 67P with the distance from the nucleus (Rosenbush et al., 2017).

could be caused by decreasing either the albedo or size of et al., 1998). Water ice detections in the NIR became more
particles, but simultaneous decrease in color and negative frequent in the new millennium, with several detections
polarization ruled out particle fading and supported the idea from the ground (Kawakita et al., 2004; Yang, 2013; Yang
of the dust fragmentation. Thus, the combination of color and Sarid, 2010; Yang et al., 2009, 2014; Protopapa et al.,
and polarization provided information about the composition 2018; Kareta et al., 2021). Even though water appears to
of the dust in Comet C/2014 A4, and the combination of be the most abundant volatile in cometary nuclei, there are
their variations with variations of other observables allowed only a few direct detections of water ice in comae.
revealing the evolution of the dust particles in the coma. The relative shapes and strengths of the water ice absorp-
tion bands can be used to retrieve the properties of the ice
2.3. Near-Infrared Scattering and grains, specifically, their size and chemical phase. Although
Mid-Infrared Emission the techniques to retrieve grain properties are not uniform,
most investigations are consistent with micrometer-sized
In contrast with optical brightness and color, NIR and pure water ice grains (Protopapa et al., 2018). The lack
MIR (~1–5 µm and ~5–40 µm respectively) wavelengths of a 1.5-μm feature in the ejecta of the mega-outburst of
contain features that are diagnostic of ice and dust composi- Comet 17P/Holmes and the subtle presence of the band
tion, although size and porosity also have their effects. Since at Comet C/2011 L4 (PanSTARRS) has been interpreted
the publication of K_C2 and Hanner and Bradley (2004), as indicative of submicrometer grains (Yang et al., 2014).
NIR spectroscopy has become more common, and the Mastrapa et al. (2008, 2009) showed that the NIR spectra
Spitzer Space Telescope has afforded detailed MIR spectra have the potential to discriminate between ice in crystalline
of several comets. or amorphous forms. Particular emphasis has been given to
2.3.1. Near-infrared. The NIR absorption bands due a narrow feature at 1.65 µm that has only been observed
to water ice are located at 1.5, 2.2, and 3.1 µm. The 3-μm following a large outburst of Comet P/2010 H2 (Vales) at
band is the strongest feature, but at wavelengths that are 3.1 au from the Sun (Yang and Sarid, 2010). This feature
difficult to observe from groundbased observatories, due is strongest in crystalline ice, but only for grain tempera-
to strong telluric emission and absorption. After suggestive tures colder than ~200 K (Grundy and Schmitt, 1998). As
evidence of water ice in the 1980s, the first clear evidence a consequence of the similarity between warm crystalline
(multiple features at high signal-to-noise ratios) was seen ice and amorphous ice at 1.65 µm, but also due to the low
at Comet Hale-Bopp with spectra of the 1.5- and 2.0-μm crystallization temperature of amorphous ice (~160 K),
absorption bands when the comet was at 7 au from the Sun amorphous water ice has not been definitively observed in
(Davies et al., 1997). Hale-Bopp’s 3-μm band was subse- a comet (Kawakita et al., 2006, Protopapa et al., 2014). For
quently observed at 2.9 au with the Infrared Space Obser- more on amorphous ice, see the chapter in this volume by
vatory (ISO), followed by far-infrared emission features at Prialnik and Jewitt.
44 and 65 µm observed at 2.8 au from the Sun (Lellouch The variation of water ice features with time can also
632   Comets III

be used to infer coma ice grain properties. Protopapa et al. These features are most-consistent with Mg-rich crystalline
(2018) observed Comet C/2013 US10 (Catalina) from 1.3 to species. A spectrum of Comet 17P/Holmes in Fig. 8 shows
5.8 au. Spectra of the comet at rh ≥ 3.9 au displayed the 1.5- prominent peaks near 10.0, 11.2, 16.3, 19.3, 23.5, 28.0, and
and 2.0-μm bands, but spectra at ≤2.3 au were featureless 33.5 µm arising from Mg-rich olivine. In contrast, crystalline
in this respect. The variation with heliocentric distance is pyroxene features tend to be weaker and not always well
consistent with the limited lifetimes of water ice in contact separated from Mg-rich olivine features, but evidence for
with low-albedo material. Protopapa et al. (2018) used ef- Mg-rich crystalline pyroxene is found at 9.3 µm (Wooden
fective medium approximation (see section 3.1) and an ice et al., 1997, 1999), ~14.4, ~15.4, and 29.4 µm.
sublimation model to conclude that ice grains in the coma Outside the silicate emission bands, there is a strong pseu-
of C/2013 US10 likely contain a small amount of dust, up do-continuum arising from carbon-bearing materials (see
to ~1% by volume. the chapter in this volume by Engrand et al.). The spectral
2.3.2. Mid-infrared (thermal) spectra. At longer wave- temperature of this pseudo-continuum is up to ~30% warmer
lengths, thermal emission dominates the spectra of comets. than a blackbody sphere at the same heliocentric distance
The thermal spectral energy distribution, defined by the (Gehrz and Ney, 1992; Sitko et al., 2004). The continuum
temperature of the dust, was considered in detail in K_C2; temperature is generally measured with a Planck function
here we focus on the studies where the main progress has fit to data near 7.5 to 8.5 and 12 to 13 µm and the best-fit
been achieved: studies of the MIR spectral features. temperature normalized by the temperature of a large black-
The MIR silicate features arise from stretching and bend- body sphere (278 Rh–1/2 K, for Rh in astronomical units).
ing modes in Si–O bonds. The two main silicate types in The mean flux density of the spectrum in the middle of the
comets are olivine and pyroxene and the spectral features silicate band (~10 µm) is normalized by the best-fit Planck
in cometary comae are consistent with both classes in crys- function to derive the silicate band strength. Gehrz and Ney
talline and amorphous phases. The “amorphous” materials (1992) and Sitko et al. (2004) have shown that strong silicate
may not be minerals in the strict sense, but appear to have features apparently correlate with continuum temperature. If
stoichiometric compositions similar to olivine [Mg,Fe]2SiO4 the increase in silicate band strength was solely due to an
and pyroxene [Mg,Fe]SiO3 (see the chapter in this volume increase in the relative abundance of silicate dust, then an
by Engrand et al.). The amorphous materials produce broad anti-correlation between silicate feature strength and contin-
(≥1 µm) emission features at ~10 and ~20 µm. The shapes uum temperature might be expected, as the long-wavelength
of the features vary with Fe-to-Mg ratio, and spectra of continuum points (~12.5 µm) have silicate emission, whereas
Comet Hale-Bopp were in best agreement with model the short-wavelength points (~7.8 µm) have little to no
spectra based on amorphous pyroxene and olivine with Fe/ emission, thus cooling the spectral temperature. Therefore,
Mg = 1.0 (Harker, 1999). The crystalline minerals produce some other coma grain properties (e.g., size distribution or
a variety of narrow (~0.1–0.5 µm) features throughout the porosity) must be involved (see section 2.3.3).
MIR (Dorschner et al., 1995; Koike et al., 2000, 2003). At shorter wavelengths (3 to 5 µm), Bockelée-Morvan

2.0
Ortho-enstatite

1.8
Mg-rich olivine

1.6

1.4
Fv /Bv

1.2

1.0

0.8
Instrumental artifacts
0.6

0.4

10 20 30

λ (µm)
Fig. 8. Spectrum of Comet 17P/Holmes (Reach et al., 2010; Kelley et al., 2021) normalized by a Planck curve fit to the
full wavelength range. The expected locations of strong features of Mg-rich olivine and orthoenstatite (Mg-rich pyroxene)
from Koike et al. (2000, 2003) are marked. Also marked are selected weaker features of orthoenstatite at 14.4, 15.4, and
29.4 that may be present.
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   633

et al. (2019) found a correlation between continuum tem- weak silicate feature is dominated by rather large compact
perature (~0.3 K/° at 1.2 to 1.4 au) and phase angle in the particles, while in the comets with a strong silicate feature,
inner coma of Comet 67P and identified thermal gradients the particles can be also large but more porous. At the same
supported by large grains (perhaps 100 µm or larger) as the time, compact particles tend to be more gravitationally
likely cause. This effect has not been identified in ground- bounded to the nucleus and less accelerated by the gas flow
based observations but suggests that variations at the 10% than lighter porous particles of the same size that made them
level in coma spectral temperature may also be expected in concentrated close to the nucleus. This leads to a decrease in
the 10-μm region, depending on observing geometry and the dust/gas ratio and increase in gas contamination at large
grain size distribution. apertures. As a result, comets whose dust is dominated by
The presence of several other minerals has been consid- more compact particles (and show a weak silicate feature)
ered based on cometary MIR spectra, and the broad spectral should exhibit a decrease in polarization with an increase
coverage afforded by spacebased or airborne observatories in aperture and overall lower polarization than comets with
enabled these works. However, results claiming detections the dust dominated by more porous particles. Thus, the
are lacking spectrally identifiable features. The challenge to size of particles in all comets may be similar, dominated
confirming new minerals is identifying individual spectral by large particles, but low-polarization and weak-silicate-
features, rather than solely relying on the reduced c-square feature comets are characterized by rather compact particles,
fitting. The effects of grain shape are also important to whereas for the high-polarization and strong-silicate-feature
consider, especially with anisotropic minerals like Mg-rich comets, more porous particles are typical. The conclusion
olivine (Lindsay et al., 2013). Lisse et al. (2007) suggested appeared to be consistent with the dynamical characteristics
evidence for carbonates in an ISO spectrum of Hale-Bopp. of the comets, specifically, the comets with supposedly more
However, the feature at 7.0 μm is marginal (Crovisier et compact particles have smaller perihelia, and thus may be
al., 1997). Carbonates are not seen in other comets, and more affected by the solar radiation. The main conclusion
neither has the 12.7-μm feature been identified (Woodward of the paper by Kolokolova et al. (2007) was that two po-
et al., 2007; Bockelée-Morvan et al., 2009). To date, only larimetric classes of comets may result from a difference in
the four silicate types (amorphous and crystalline pyroxene the porosity of the dust particles.
and olivine) remain as spectrally identifiable dust materials These ideas have been supported by a more careful
in MIR observations of comets. analysis by Kwon et al. (2021), who showed that the
2.3.3. Correlation between polarization and strength compositional differences in comets assumed based on the
of the silicate feature in the thermal infrared. The cor- thermal infrared observations cannot explain the difference
relation between the values of maximum polarization and in cometary polarization, which is most likely associated
the strength of the 10-µm silicate feature was first consid- with their different porosity.
ered by Hanner (2003). Lisse et al. (2002) and Sitko et al.
(2004) attributed strong silicate features to small particles, 3. INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES
whereas weak or absent silicate features were suggested as a
signature of large particles. This sounds consistent with the
polarimetric data, as small particles can be responsible for 3.1. Most Popular Light-Scattering Techniques to
higher polarization due to higher contribution of the Ray- Model Cometary Dust
leigh scattering, whereas the light scattered by large porous
particles can experience a strong depolarization. However, For the cometocentric distances resolved by Earth-based
this approach cannot explain the change in polarization with observations, the number density of the cometary dust
the distance from the nucleus (Fig. 5), as this would lead to is low, which allows considering interaction of the dust
an unrealistic conclusion that in the gassy comets, the dust is particles with the solar radiation in the single scattering
dominated by small particles near the nucleus and by large regime; i.e., one can ignore multiple scattering and other
particles farther from the nucleus. interactions between the particles and use computer models
A more detailed analysis of this correlation was accom- that consider light scattering by individual particles. Of
plished by Kolokolova et al. (2007). They showed that the course, one particle cannot represent cometary dust, which
correlation more likely results from different porosity of the is characterized by particles with some size distribution
dust particles. Their discrete dipole approximation (DDA) of a variety of shapes and compositions. But combining
modeling (see section 3.1) of the silicate feature showed simulations for different single particles, or even only for
that for very fluffy particles, e.g., those presented by the those which produce the dominating contribution to the
ballistic-cluster-cluster aggregates (BCCA), the silicate fea- scattered light, allows receiving a rather realistic model of
ture remains strong no matter what size the particle (defined the cometary dust.
by the number of submicrometer monomers) is, whereas for Very active comets can have optically thick coma close
less-porous ballistic-particle-cluster aggregates (BPCA), the to the nucleus (e.g., Rosenbush et al., 1997). To simulate
silicate feature becomes weaker with increasing number of these observations, multiple scattering should be accounted
monomers (see more on BPCA and BCCA in section 3.2.1). for, and radiative transfer should be applied to the modeling
Thus, one can expect that the dust in the comets with a of the internal coma of such comets. The ejecta produced by
634   Comets III

Deep Impact were also optically thick, and radiative transfer (2016) also explored the limitations of the EMA, demonstrat-
was used to model the observed characteristics of the ejecta ing that EMA works better for the smaller size parameter
(Nagdimunov et al., 2014). of the heterogeneities (inclusions) and for the number of
The simplest particle used in cometary dust models is inclusions per unit volume kept within some boundaries. The
a homogeneous sphere. Its light-scattering characteristics threshold value of the inclusion size parameter depends on
(brightness, polarization, and their change with phase angle the refractive-index contrast between the host and inclusion
and wavelength) can be calculated using Mie theory (Mie, materials that often does not exceed several tenths, especially
1908), which represents an analytical solution of the Max- in calculations of the scattering matrix and the absorption
well equations for the interaction of electromagnetic waves cross section. Nevertheless, they showed that even for the
with a spherical particle. Numerous Mie codes are available materials with strongly contrasting refractive indexes such
online (see https://scattport.org/index.php/light-scattering- as hematite and air, there are quite realistic ranges of the
software/mie-type-codes) and are included in some com- sizes of the inclusions and host particle, and volume frac-
puter libraries [e.g., interactive data language (IDL) routine tion of inclusions when EMA can be used safely. It is worth
Bohren and Huffman Mie (BHMIE) code]. Although it is noting that one should be careful modeling layered particles
known that cometary particles are not such spheres, this using EMA; Liu et al. (2014) showed that EMA are reliable
approach is still regularly used in cometary science, e.g., only for well-mixed cases down to an inhomogeneity scale,
for interpretation of Rosetta data (e.g., Fulle et al., 2010; whereas the applicability of the EMA to cases of stratified or
Fink and Rinaldi, 2015; Bockelée-Morvan et al., 2017), as weak mixing materials is very limited. Thus, one should be
it provides reasonable results when such properties as scat- careful using EMA to model porous particles in the visible;
tering and extinction cross-section are of interest (e.g., at however, it is probably safe to use it for mixtures of silicates
computations of spectra) or when fundamental regularities and organics (see section 3.2.2) or modeling cometary dust
in light scattering by particles are the subject of the study. in thermal, or even NIR, wavelengths.
Notorious resonance structures of Mie results (oscillations We would like to mention one more method that provides
in the dependences of the light-scattering characteristics on reasonable results, as it is an evident simplification of the
phase angle or wavelength) can be smoothed out by using realistic particles: distribution of hollow spheres (DHS)
a broad size distribution of particles. (Min et al., 2005a). The DHS presents a rigorous solution
A more sophisticated but still a rather simple approach of the Maxwell equations for coated spheres and considers
uses non-spherical regular particles, e.g., spheroids, cylin- the particles as a distribution of spherical shells character-
ders, or other axisymmetric particles. For modeling such ized by the fraction, f, occupied by the central vacuum
particles, there are direct theoretical solutions of Maxwell inclusion that changes from zero to some maximum value.
equations, reviewed in section 3.3.1 of K_C2, as well as Despite the departure of DHS from realistic dust particles,
solutions that use the T-matrix approach, described in it models realistically looking spectra and even phase curves
K_C2, their section 3.3.2. Considering cometary dust as an of polarization of laboratory samples (Min et al., 2005a),
ensemble of polydisperse and polyshaped (e.g., spheroids allowing derivation of the particle size distribution. DHS
of different axes ratio) particles provides a rather realistic was applied to comets only once (Min et al., 2005b), and
approach to the cometary dust (Kolokolova et al., 2004b), there are doubts that DHS can reproduce the properties of
especially if a model counts on the roughness of the par- cometary agglomerates (Levasseur-Regourd et al., 2020;
ticles [see the result for rough spheroids in Kolokolova Tazaki and Tanaka, 2018). However, this simple technique
et al. (2015)]. is extensively used to study other types of cosmic dust,
It is well known that cometary particles are not homoge- specifically to model the 10-µm silicate feature in debris
neous, and a typical cometary particle represents an agglom- disks (e.g., Arriaga et al., 2020).
erate of smaller grains (see the chapter in this volume by En- A more comprehensive study of the light scattering by
grand et al.). Although a realistic modeling of such particles realistic cometary particles can be achieved by solving the
requires the very sophisticated modeling tools reviewed in Maxwell equations after some adjustments that allow ac-
section 3.2, quite often such particles can be modeled using counting for the shape and structure of complex scatterers.
effective medium approximations (EMA), also called mixing Numerous techniques that make the Maxwell equations
rules. In EMA, an effective refractive index of a mixture of solvable for complex particles were reviewed in K_C2.
different materials (including voids) is considered based on Among them, there are two techniques most often used for
the refractive index and volume fraction of each component modeling cometary dust: the T-matrix approach and coupled
in the mixture. The most popular mixing rules are those dipole approximation (more often called discrete dipole ap-
of Maxwell Garnett and Bruggeman [see a review of the proximation, or DDA). The popularity of those techniques
various EMA in Kolokolova and Gustafson (2001); mixing is partly related to the fact that T-matrix and DDA codes
rules were also considered in detail in section 3.2 of K_C2]. have been available online for many years; they are regularly
Mishchenko et al. (2014) showed that EMA can be derived updated and are accompanied by a detailed documentation.
directly from the Maxwell equations, thus representing a The main ideas behind those techniques were considered
rigorous solution for interaction of electromagnetic wave with in K_C2, so here we focus only on the new developments
a media formed by a mixture of materials. Mishchenko et al. of these techniques and their application to cometary dust.
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   635

For a more detailed review of those techniques, as well as T-matrix method, which allows computing the light-scatter-
other light-scattering approaches to the light scattering by ing characteristics of clusters of spheres (i.e., agglomerated
particles, see Kimura et al. (2020). particles), calculating the T-matrix for each monomer in the
The main idea of the DDA is that a particle is divided cluster and then calculating the T-matrix for the whole cluster
into small cells, each of which is considered as a dipole. summarizing the scattered external field from other spheres
The DDA technique yields a system of linear equations in the cluster. To some extent, it uses the idea of the DDA;
that describes the fields that excite each dipole: the exter- however, instead of dipoles, it considers the T-matrixes of
nal field and the fields scattered by all other dipoles. The individual monomers. The superposition approach allows
numerical solution of these equations allows accounting applying the main T-matrix advantage, namely, analytical
for the contribution of all dipoles in the total scattered averaging over orientations. However, it has been recently
field produced by the particle. The main advantage of showed that in some cases it is more efficient to average
the DDA approach is its flexibility; it can be applied to over orientations numerically after computations over a set
particles of arbitrary shape, structure, and composition. of orientations is done. The main advantage of this type of
See the most popular discrete dipole scattering (DDSCAT) computation is that it requires less RAM and thus allows
code and its detailed description at http://ddscat.wikidot. considering larger clusters. The most recent version of the
com and the latest DDSCAT user guide at https://arxiv. superposition T-matrix code, called the multiple sphere T-
org/abs/1305.6497. There are two versions of the DDA matrix (MSTM), is available at https://github.com/dmckwski/
codes in the DDSCAT package. The newer one utilizes MSTM. It allows considering the clusters formed by spheres
fast Fourier transformation (FFT), which accelerates the of different sizes and compositions, which can be arranged
computations but significantly increases the required inside or outside of other spheres, thus modeling layered
RAM; the code without FFT is slower but requires less spheres or spheres with spherical inclusions, and/or adjacent
computing resources. We also recommend a powerful to multiple plane boundaries, and/or in two-dimensional
DDA package, called ADDA (Yurkin and Hoekstra, 2011), periodic lattices. It also allows modeling clusters made of
located at https://github.com/adda-team/adda. linearly and circularly birefringent and dichroic materials
To achieve an accurate solution, the number of dipoles and thus can be applied to crystals and homochiral (e.g.,
should exceed 60|m–1|3(D/0.1)–3 (Draine, 1988), where m is biological) particles (see Nagdimunov et al., 2013).
the particle material refractive index and D is the fractional A significant progress in modeling large particles has
error (the ratio of the error to the quantity being computed). been recently achieved with a new development in the T-ma-
This puts significant requirements on computer resources. trix approach called the fast superposition T-matrix method
Besides, each DDA solution considers only one orientation (FaSTMM), introduced by Markkanen and Yuffa (2017).
of the particle, and to calculate a realistic randomly-oriented The FaSTMM uses the fast multipole method (FMM) to
particle, the computations need to be done for numerous speed up the STMM solution (which is similar to the MSTM
orientations whose number increases with increasing the size considered above). The FMM forms monomer groups hierar-
of particle and complexity of its structure. Note that some chically and computes electromagnetic interactions between
orientationally averaged DDA solutions can be obtained the separate groups in each level of hierarchy. This decreases
analytically — this and other ways to increase the DDA ef- the costs of computing all the pairwise monomer interactions
ficiency are considered in Kimura et al. (2016). The DDA in a system of N monomers from O(N2) to O(N *log N).
technique has been especially successful in modeling thermal Note that like the DDA, specifically the DDSCAT code, the
infrared spectra; see a review of those modeling efforts in FaSTMM does not allow analytical orientational averaging.
the chapter in this volume by Engrand et al. The FaSTMM code is available at https://wiki.helsinki.fi/
Unlike DDA, which provides the solution considering xwiki/bin/view/PSR/Planetary%20System%20Research%20
the internal fields of the scatterer, the T-matrix method is group/. FaSTMM was successfully used to model Rosetta
based on a solution to the boundary conditions on the particle dust particles (Markkanen and Agarwal, 2019); for more
surfaces and was originally called “extended boundary con- information, see section 3.2.1.
dition method” (Waterman, 1965). The method expands the One more important development in the light-scattering
incident and scattered fields into vector spherical functions simulations is the approach to model light scattering by
with the scattered field expanded outside a sphere circum- particulate surfaces using the so-called radiative transfer-
scribing a non-spherical particle. A significant development coherent backscattering (RT-CB) code. Although the ap-
of the method was an analytical orientation-averaging proach contains some approximations, it provides quite
procedure (Mishchenko, 1991) that made calculations for realistic results on light scattering by particulate surfaces,
randomly oriented particles as efficient as for a fixed ori- including such coherent backscattering effects as the op-
entation of the same particle. It has been applied to light position spike and negative polarization spike observed at
scattering by spheroids, cylinders, and Chebyshev particles very small phase angles (e.g., Mishchenko et al., 2009). This
(Mishchenko et al., 2002); the codes can be downloaded technique considers a particulate surface as a sparse layer
from https://www.giss.nasa.gov/staff/mmishchenko/tmatrix/. of spheres and is based on the Monte Carlo vector radiative
In the case of modeling cometary dust, the most popular transfer code wherein coherent backscattering is computed
development of the T-matrix technique is the superposition by incorporating the reciprocity relation in electromagnetic
636   Comets III

scattering and keeping the relative phase information of the the laboratory measurements performed by the Bern and
wave components (Muinonen et al., 2012, 2015). Strong co- Grenoble groups is presented in the chapter in this volume
herent backscattering effects were not observed for cometary by Poch et al. The Granada-Amsterdam group has produced a
surfaces (Masoumzadeh et al., 2019), so the RT-CB code was popular database of light-scattering properties of mineral and
not used in modeling cometary nuclei. However, a version meteoritic particles (see https://old-scattering.iaa.csic.es/).
called radiative transfer with reciprocal transactions (R2T2) This database provides a lot of photometric and polarimetric
was successfully combined with FaSTMM (Muinonen et phase curves to compare with the astronomical observations
al., 2018; Markkanen et al., 2018a). Unlike RT-CB, R2T2 described in section 1; they also measured a complete Muel-
is used for densely packed layers and incorporates the full ler matrix of the samples that is intensively used to test theo-
incoherent extinction, scattering, and absorption properties retical tools (see review in Muñoz and Hovenier, 2015). The
of a volume element larger than the wavelength. The RT-CB Paris group has collected a large number of the phase curves
code requires particles to be spherical because it uses the and wavelength dependences of polarization for particles
Mueller matrix to compute the scattering interactions. The analogous to the ones expected in comets and other cosmic
Mueller matrix does not contain electromagnetic phase in- bodies. This allowed them to find out the main regularities
formation (required by the coherent backscattering CB part) between the polarimetric characteristics of particles and their
except for spherical particles. R2T2 code is basically RT-CB size and structure (e.g., Levasseur-Regourd et al., 2015),
code but the scattering interactions are computed using the T- especially in the case of complex particles, which is hard to
matrix instead of the Mueller matrix. The FaSTMM solution model theoretically. It is also worth mentioning studies by
combined with the R2T2 approach was successfully applied groups that provide optical constants (complex refractive
to model Rosetta dust particles by Markkanen et al. (2018b). index) of the materials of astronomical interest. The data for
For more details and comparison of the different techniques various silicates, oxides, sulfides, and carbonaceous materials
described above, see Penttilä et al. (2021). produced by the Jena group are presented in https://www.
The other important source of information about light- astro.uni-jena.de/Laboratory/Database/jpdoc/f-dbase.html.
scattering characteristics of cometary particles is laboratory A compilation of several databases of optical constants can
measurements of cometary dust analogs. Systematic labora- be found at the Jena-St. Petersburg Database of Optical Con-
tory simulations of light-scattering characteristics of dust stants (HJPDOC) (https://www2.mpia-hd.mpg.de/HJPDOC/
particles are performed by four main groups: the Granada- database.php), which still contains the largest collection
Amsterdam group, specialized in measuring light-scattering of optical constants of materials of astronomical interest
characteristics of cosmic analogs; the Paris group, especially even though it has not been updated since 2008. The MIR
known by their low-gravity experiments; and the Bern and refractive indexes for astronomical ices are produced by the
Grenoble groups, which perform light-scattering experiments Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (UNIVAP), Laboratório de
with ice and its mixtures with other materials. A review of Astroquímica e Astrobiologia (LASA), and can be found at

(d)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9. Comparison between cometary particles used in numerical simulations and a real one. (a) “Agglomerated debris”
modeled with DDA (Zubko, 2013). (b) Agglomerates of layered spheroidal monomers modeled with DDA (Lasue et al.,
2009). (c) Hierarchically structured cluster of 64 × 16 spheres modeled with MSTM (Kolokolova et al., 2018). (d) Real
cometary dust particle, imaged by Rosetta atomic force microscope MIDAS (Mannel et al., 2019).
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   637

https://sites.google.com/view/astrow-en/research/databases. of computer resources, the model was limited to aggregates

Some collections of optical constants can be found in the of 256 monomers, and modeling larger particles required a
NASA PDS, e.g., for water ice by Mastrapa (2020). smaller number of larger monomers.
The particle in Fig. 9c is built of spherical monomers,
3.2. Applications of Light-Scattering Techniques to which is the only opportunity in MSTM modeling. Although
Cometary Dust these particles are formed by monodisperse monomers, they
may better represent a structure of the cometary agglomer-
3.2.1. Size and structure of particles. As was men- ates as they are hierarchical BPCAs. To create a hierarchical
tioned in the previous section, for interpretation of the BPCA, regular BPCA are built and then these clusters are
remote sensing data on cometary dust, two main techniques, ballistically organized in the clusters of the second order, and
DDA and T-matrix, were used. After a success of modeling then the clusters of each next order are built ballistically from
the cometary dust as porous aggregates to explain cometary the clusters of the previous order (Kolokolova et al., 2018).
photometric and polarimetric phase curves in Kimura et al. Hierarchical structure is confirmed for the dust agglomer-
(2003a, 2006), the majority of the interpretation attempts ates in Comet 67P (Mannel et al., 2019). This model is also
focused on porous and aggregated particles. Figure 9 consistent with the dust formation modeling in protoplanetary
presents examples of the particles used to model cometary nebulae (Dominik, 2009).
dust with DDA (Figs. 9a,b) and T-matrix (Fig. 9c); Fig. 9d Kolokolova and Kimura (2010b) presented cometary dust
shows an image of a real cometary particle. as a mixture of aggregated and solid non-spherical particles.
The “agglomerated debris” shown in Fig. 9a have been Lasue et al. (2007) used a similar model for modeling in-
extensively used in the papers by Zubko et al. since the terplanetary dust. Lasue et al. used DDA in their modeling,
publication of Zubko et al. (2005). They are produced by and Kolokolova and Kimura used the MSTM code for ag-
removing cells from a spherical particle, thus creating par- gregates and the T-matrix code for spheroids for compact
ticles and monomers of irregular shapes, which is the main particles. In both studies the mixture of agglomerated and
advantage of the model. However, to achieve a larger size compact particles allowed the reproduction of brightness and
of particles, the model increases the size of the monomers, polarization phase curves. The model by Kolokolova and
keeping the larger particles structurally identical to smaller Kimura (2010b) also reproduced red color and polarimetric
particles; i.e., they have the same number, shape, and posi- color of the dust and its low albedo. The ratio of compact
tion of the monomers, which are scaled to the new size. In to fluffy particles appeared to be close to the one found
reality, larger cometary agglomerates are characterized by in situ for Comet Halley, and the mass ratio of silicate to
a larger number of the monomers of the same size. Thus, carbonaceous materials equal to unity in accordance with
Zubko’s model does not provide information regarding the the elemental abundances found by the Giotto mission in
size of the monomers and cannot correctly reproduce the Comet Halley (e.g., Jessberger et al., 1988).
electromagnetic interaction between the monomers in real- Probably the most comprehensive model of the cometary
istic particles, which contain hundreds of monomers. As a dust has been presented by Halder and Ganesh (2021),
result, the model attributes the observed differences in light- in which a mixture of porous, fluffy, and solid (according
scattering characteristics for different comets primarily to a to the definitions from Güttler et al., 2019) particles was
difference in the composition of their dust. This makes the considered. They created high-porosity hierarchical (HA)
model not only too rigid, but also leads to doubtful results. particles and moderate porosity structures with solids in the
A more realistic structure for cometary particles is offered core, surrounded by fluffy aggregates called fluffy solids (FS).
by ballistic aggregates, and the following ballistic aggregates They also added solids as low-porosity (<10%) particles in
are most often used: the form of agglomerated debris. They studied the mixing
• BPCA that have a porosity of about 85% and in the case combinations: HA and Ssolids; HA and FS; and HA, FS,
of large particles approach a fractal dimension of 3; and solids. Complexity of the model and the efforts of the
• BCCA that have porosity larger than 95% and in the case authors to bring the model close to the properties of cometary
of large particles approach a fractal dimension of 2; dust, as they are known from the Rosetta studies, are very
• Ballistic Agglomeration with One Migration (BAM1) and impressive. However, this work also shows a limitation of
Ballistic Agglomeration with Two Migrations (BAM2) such complex multi-parameter models: The fit to polariza-
particles are characterized by porosities about 75% and tion phase curve for a specific comet (the paper considered
65% respectively; see Shen et al. (2008, 2009) for details. Halley, 67P, Hyakutake, Hale-Bopp) could be achieved with
A detailed description of the particle models and the different compositions of the particles, depending on their
techniques used for their generation are discussed in Kimura size distribution and the ratio of fluffy to solid particles in
et al. (2020). the mixture. The authors tried to narrow down the range of
Closer to the realistic cometary particles is the particle the best-fit particle characteristics, adding to the analysis the
in Fig. 9b where the spheroidal core-mantle monomers are spectral polarimetric data. They presented a set of the unique
organized in a ballistic aggregate (Lasue et al., 2009). This particle characteristics that provided the best fit to both an-
model considers a size distribution of monomers as well as gular and spectral polarimetric data. However, a reliability
a size distribution of particles. However, due to a limitation of these unique characteristics is not evident. For example,
638   Comets III

neither the composition of the Comet 67P dust (50% silicates Markkanen et al. (2018b) also modeled the nucleus
and 50% carbon) nor the ratio of porous to solid particles phase function, presenting the nucleus surface as an en-
(75% solids) are consistent with the Rosetta data (Bardyn semble of 1-km-sized Gaussian particles filled with smaller
et al., 2017; Güttler et al., 2019), and the size distribution particles. This allowed them to introduce a surface rough-
(power –2.4) is not consistent either with the Grain Impact ness that followed Gaussian statistics, resulting in the cor-
Analyser and Dust Accumulator (GIADA) data (Fulle et responding geometric shadowing effect. The results showed
al., 2016) or with Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging that the nucleus could be simulated with the same particles
Spectrometer (VIRTIS) data (Rinaldi et al., 2017), as they as in the coma but packed densely on a rough surface. Al-
derived the power >3 in absolute value for the dates close though the main goal of this paper was to model Rosetta’s
to the observations of 67P by Rosenbush et al. (2017) used Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared Remote Imaging
for fitting by Halder and Ganesh. One more reason why the System (OSIRIS) phase curve of the coma and nucleus,
obtained best-fit parameters may not reproduce the realistic photometric, and polarimetric phase curves observed from
properties of the dust particles is that the considered particle the Earth are also among the results and are presented by
was <15 µm in size, whereas an abundance of much larger the particles of size <20 µm. This provides strong hope
particles was detected by the Rosetta mission and in the that fitting groundbased observations does not require par-
tail of Comet 67P (Fulle et al., 2016; Moreno et al., 2017). ticles larger than some tens of micrometers. Probably the
The main problem with modeling realistic cometary par- only questionable feature of this model is that the particle
ticles is that their size may reach hundreds of micrometers is presented as a volume filled with constituents that are
and even millimeters (Güttler et al., 2019). Unfortunately, not in direct contact with each other. As was shown in the
the current computer resources limit capabilities of DDA laboratory measurements with icy particles (see the chap-
or T-matrix computations, which require enormous RAM ter in this volume by Poch et al.) and in Kolokolova and
and many hours of computation time even for the case of Mackowski (2012), the light-scattering characteristics of the
parallelized version of the codes. So far, the largest particles particles assembled in some structures is different from the
computed with DDA were ~10 µm in size (e.g., Zubko et freely distributed, not connected, particles, probably due to
al., 2020); note that they were agglomerated debris formed stronger near-field effects.
just by a dozen of micrometer-sized monomers. The larg- Thus, all currently used models have some significant
est particles modeled with the MSTM code are also about limitations that may affect the trustworthiness of the ap-
10 µm, consisting of ~2000 submicrometer monomers plications to specific comets. However, the developed
(Kolokolova and Mackowski, 2012). Recent versions of models can be successfully used to understand the physics
the MSTM code whose efficiency is dramatically increased of the interaction of the dust particles with radiation and to
with the FFT procedure (Mackowski and Kolokolova, 2022) uncover how the physical properties of the particles affect
allowed computing particles up to 16,000 submicrometer the observed characteristics. Specifically, one can study
monomers, i.e., reaching particle sizes about 20 µm. How- dependences of brightness and polarization on the size and
ever, this is still smaller than the particles studied by the composition of monomers and their arrangement in a particle
COmetary Secondary Ion Mass Analyzer (COSIMA) and using highly controlled models such as ballistic aggregates.
GIADA instruments on the Rosetta spacecraft. Examples of this type of study can be found in Kimura et
The largest particles, up to 100 µm, were modeled al. (2006), Shen et al. (2009), Kolokolova and Mackowski
by Markkanen et al. (2018b). Their model considered a (2012), and Kolokolova et al. (2018). Recently Mackowski
volume shaped as a Gaussian (see Muinonen et al., 1996) and Kolokolova (2022) have extended such modeling to
particle, filled with a mixture of submicrometer organic large BPCAs reaching more than 16,000 monomers. The
and submicrometer-sized silicate spherical monomers. The computations were made using the MSTM code upgraded
monomers were polydisperse, covering the range of radii with FFT capabilities and performed at the NASA High-
from 50 to 1000 nm. Markkanen et al. (2018b) considered a End Computing Capability (HECC) facility. The results are
power-law size distribution of those particles with the power shown in Fig. 10.
–3 and varied the number of organic and silicate monomers The plots in Fig. 10 allow us to draw some important
in the mixture as well as the volume fraction of the voids conclusions. The monomer size (size parameter) strongly
in the particle. The light scattering by such a particle was affects the polarization and brightness phase curves even if
modeled using the FaSTMM and R2T2 techniques described a very narrow range of values is considered. By increasing
in section 3.1. The best fit to the Rosetta photometric phase the number of monomers in the agglomerate, the polariza-
curve was found for the dominant particle size between 5 tion tends to reach some limit and does not change after
and 100 µm. The total volume of the organic grains was es- the limit is reached. The number of monomers that defines
timated as 0.3 and that of silicate grains estimated as 0.0375, the limit is larger for transparent materials. Thus, it may be
which, being converted to the mass fraction, is reasonably plausible to avoid modeling agglomerates of more than 1000
consistent with COSIMA (Bardyn et al., 2017) estimations. monomers in the case of absorbing materials.
As the authors noted, the presence of silicate monomers The most interesting aspect is the dependence on the
with organic mantles can easily increase the abundance of composition. One can see that the polarization maximum is
the silicates in the dust. very high for ice, then decreases for silicates, then increases
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   639

100
100 100
Ice Halley dust Ice
0.75

Normalized Intensity

Normalized Intensity
Normalized Intensity
10 –1
1
10–1 Forsterite 10 –1
1638 1638
Organics
1.25 10–2 4914 9828
10–2 Carbon 10–2
1.5 Iron 8192 16384
10–3 16384
10–3 10–3
10 –4

10–4 10–4
10–5
10–5 0 50 100 150 10–5
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Phase Angle (°) Phase Angle (°) Phase Angle (°)
1.0 1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

Polarization
Polarization

Polarization
0.4 0.4
0.4
0.2 0.2
0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0
–0.2
0 50 100 150 –0.2 –0.2
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Phase Angle (°) Phase Angle (°)
Phase Angle (°)
Fig. 10. Modeled phase curves of normalized brightness (top panel) and polarization (bottom panel) for large clusters
of particles from Mackowski and Kolokolova (2022). Left column: Effects of the monomer size parameter for Halley dust
(see section 3.2.2). Middle column: Results for different materials. Right column: Effects of the number of monomers for
Halley dust and ice. Thicker font in the legend indicates thicker line. If not specified, the monomers of radius 0.1 µm and
agglomerates of 1638 monomers were used. In all cases the porosity of the agglomerates was ~85% and the wavelength
was 0.65 µm.

for more absorptive materials like Halley dust (see sec- imaginary part, but the trend is opposite for n = 1.7–2.0.
tion 3.2.2) and carbon, but then strongly decreases for even We also see in the top panel of Fig. 10 a strong depen-
more absorptive materials such as Fe. Thus, the dependence dence on the monomer size. The reason for this can again
on the absorption (imaginary part of the refractive index) is be in the polarizability, but now in the polarizability of a
not straightforward and can result in an increase or decrease sphere in the cluster, which is defined by the total number
of polarization. of dipoles (molecules) in the sphere and thus increases for
The observed regularities can be explained from the larger monomers consisting of more dipoles. Monomers with
point of view of the polarizability of the particle units. The larger polarizability interact more strongly, and the effects of
basic polarizability, α, is polarizability of the molecules in electromagnetic interaction produced by them more greatly
the particle material related to the material refractive index depolarize the light.
through the Lorentz-Lorenz equation a~(m2–1)/(m2 + 2). 3.2.2. Composition of the cometary dust. Besides the
Thus, in the case of a low imaginary part of the refractive size and structure of the cometary dust particles, an impor-
index, polarizability is larger for a larger real part. However, tant parameter of the modeling is the particle composition.
the situation is more complex for agglomerates as stronger The chapter in this volume by Engrand et al. considers the
polarizability results in stronger interactions between the composition of cometary dust in detail; this chapter focuses
monomers, causing stronger depolarization of the light. on how the composition of the dust is reflected in the refrac-
As a result, icy clusters with a low refractive index have tive index that is used in light-scattering modeling.
weakly interacting monomers, which explains why positive It is now accepted that the main components of cometary
polarization produced by an icy agglomerate is larger than dust are carbonaceous materials and silicates. For a long
that for silicates. For a larger imaginary part of the refractive time, it was considered that the most abundant silicates in
index, the polarizability is defined by a complex interplay cometary dust are amorphous silicates, called glass with
between the real and imaginary parts of the refractive index embedded metal and sulfides (GEMS), and to a lesser ex-
and polarization may increase or may decrease (see Fig. 10). tent, anhydrous Mg-rich minerals like forsterite and enstatite
More examples can be found in Kimura et al. (2006). There, (Hanner and Bradley, 2004), although Stenzel et al. (2017)
in Fig. 1, for the same imaginary part of the refractive index, showed that in the case of Comet 67P the Mg to Fe ratio
polarization of aggregates decreases with an increase in the was close to that of meteorites. The composition of the or-
real part. In Fig. 2 of the same paper, for n = 1.4–1.6, the ganics is more obscure. Previously, it was considered that
maximum polarization decreases with an increase in the the optical properties of cometary organics can be presented
640   Comets III

as a mixture of amorphous carbon and so-called cosmic dust in 67P and can be recommended for use in light-
organics (Li and Greenberg, 1997). Rosetta findings indicate scattering models.
a material more similar to insoluble organic matter (IOM)
although less processed than the IOM found in carbonaceous 4. PHYSICAL PROCESSES CAUSED BY
meteorites (Paquette et al., 2021). INTERACTION OF THE DUST WITH
It is still a question how these materials are distributed in ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
the particle. Based on Giotto’s dust impact mass spectrom-
eter, PUMA, the IDPs, and Rosetta COSIMA studies, it is
very unlikely that cometary particles are pure silicate and 4.1. Radiation Pressure: Physics and Dependence on
pure carbonaceous particles forming two separate popula- the Properties of Particles
tions of the dust particles. Most likely, the silicate grains are
embedded in the organic matrix or represent small silicate The interaction of electromagnetic waves with dust par-
particles with organic mantles glued together. This allows ticles exerts a force on the particles approximately in the
considering mixtures of small silicate and organic monomers direction of wave propagation, known as radiation pressure
in a single particle (Markkanen et al., 2018b) or a particle (Burns et al., 1979). When dust particles are exposed to
composed of an intimate mixture of silicate and metals en- solar radiation, the solar radiation pressure pushes the par-
cased in carbonaceous materials (Mann et al., 2004) as more ticles outward in the radial direction, i.e., the anti-direction
realistic models. The latter allows applying the EMA (see to solar gravity. Because both the solar radiation pressure
section 3.1) to calculate the refractive index of the mixture. and the solar gravity are proportional to the inverse square
Mann et al. (2004) suggested a so called “Halley-like of the distance from the Sun, the ratio β of solar radiation
composition” (aka Halley dust) that is an intimate mixture pressure to solar gravity is a non-dimensional quantity use-
of the materials consistent with the elemental composition ful for studying the relative importance of radiation force
of comet dust measured by the mass spectrometer on the to the dynamics of dust particles.
Giotto mission (Jessberger et al., 1988). The refractive index Dust particles in the vicinity of their parent body are also
based on this composition was successfully used to model driven away from the surface of the body by radiation pres-
cometary light-scattering characteristics in numerous papers. sure due to the reflection of solar radiation and the thermal
However, it may need to be updated using the in situ data emission from the body (Burns et al., 1979; de Moraes,
for Comet 67P and the elemental composition of the dust 1994; Bach and Ishiguro, 2021). For the particles moving
consistent with the reported in Stenzel et al. (2017), Bardyn with respect to the Sun, a relativistic drag force, known as
et al. (2017), and Paquette et al. (2021). the Poynting-Robertson (P-R) effect, appears in the equation
To derive the refractive index for the cometary dust mate- of motion in the direction against particle motion to terms
rial, in both cases of the Halley-like and 67P-like composi- on the order of v/c where v and c denote the velocity of
tions, the silicates are presented by so-called astronomical the particle and the speed of light, respectively (Robertson,
silicate, an analog material of interstellar silicate with optical 1937). Owing to the proportionality of the P-R drag to the
properties consistent with those for MgFeSiO4 (e.g., Laor b ratio, the larger the b ratio of a particle is, the shorter
and Draine, 1993), which was successfully used to model the P-R lifetime of the particle is. As a result, only large
light scattering by different types of cosmic dust. The organic particles with small β values can remain near the orbits of
material was selected based on the results of Kimura et al. their parent bodies, which have been observed as dust trails
(2020), who showed that cometary organic matter should and meteor showers.
be carbonized after the formation of comets, thus acquir- The solar radiation pressure acting on a moving particle
ing the elastic properties similar to those of hydrogenated differs from that on a particle at rest in the reference frame
amorphous carbon; then a collisional velocity of a few of the Sun due to the Doppler effect on the radiation pres-
meters per second could result in the easy fragmentation of sure cross section, although the effect is typically negligible
the dust aggregates, seen in COSIMA’s optical microscope (Kimura et al., 2002a).
(COSISCOPE) images. A lack of the optical constants for The direction of solar radiation pressure is not exactly
carbonized organics forced us to assume that the refractive radial for non-spherical particles, because scattering and
indexes of the hydrogenated amorphous carbon likely mimic absorption of solar radiation is in general asymmetric around
those of carbonized organic matter, because carbonization is the radial vector (van de Hulst, 1957). The radial and non-
characterized by the loss of H, N, and O (Jenniskens et al., radial components of radiation pressure on non-spherical
1993). Table 1 presents the optical constants of the materials particles have been computed by the method of separation
used to derive the refractive indexes for cometary dust. The of variables for spheroids (Il’in and Voshchinnikov, 1998)
ratio of different components in the mixture was chosen to be and the a1-term method for fluffy aggregates (Kimura et al.,
consistent with the elemental abundances discussed above. 2002a). The computations have shown that the non-radial
One can see that despite some differences in the compo- radiation pressure on non-spherical particles is on average a
sition of those comets, the refractive index and its spectral tenth or hundredth of the radial component, although there
change are similar, and thus the light-scattering modeling is a specific orientation of the particles where the non-radial
obtained with Halley-like composition is relevant to the components are comparable to the radial component.
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   641

TABLE 1. Refractive indexes of the materials and the effective refractive index for the dust in Comets Halley and 67P.

Wavelength Volume fraction

Material name Reference
450 nm 650 nm 67P Halley
Amorphous carbon* 1.95 + 0.786i 2.14 + 0.805i 0.5042 0.4379 Rouleau and Martin (1991)
Organic refractory** 1.69 + 0.150i 1.71 + 0.149i 0.2521 0.2189 Li and Greenberg (1997)
Astronomical silicate 1.69 + 0.0299i 1.68 + 0.0302i 0.2208 0.3176 Laor and Draine (1993)
Iron 2.59 + 2.77i 2.90 + 3.02i 0.0228 0.0256 Johnson and Christy (1974)
Comet Halley 1.88 + 0.47i 1.98 + 0.48i Kimura et al. (2003a)
Comet 67P 1.901 + 0.526i 2.015 + 0.532i
* Represents carbonized organics.
** Represents primordial organics.

The radial component of solar radiation pressure on fluffy Martin, 1991), while β for organic-poor and silicate-rich
aggregate particles has been computed using the various (ROCK) particles exceed those for Mg-rich silicate with
EMAs, the DDA, the generalized multisphere Mie solu- Fe inclusions. Thus, the values of β for ROCK particles
tion (GMM), and the MSTM [see section 3.1 and review and CHON particles are expected to be located somewhere
in Kimura et al. (2016)]. Figure 11 depicts the β ratios for between the values for amorphous carbon AC1 and those for
spheres, BPCAs, and BCCAs consisting of 0.1-µm-radius Mg-rich silicate with Fe inclusions, although β for ROCK
monomers of amorphous carbon AC1, astronomical silicate, particles should be slightly lower than β for CHON particles.
Mg-rich olivine, Mg-rich pyroxene, Mg-rich silicate with Fe In the results, the spatial variations in the abundance of
inclusions, and silicate-core + organic-mantle, which are a CHON and ROCK particles may not necessarily be notice-
compilation of Kimura et al. (2002b, 2003b), Köhler et al. able in observations of cometary comae since β values of
(2007), and Kimura (2017). The β ratio has a maximum in CHON particles do not seem to deviate from those of ROCK
the submicrometer size range, while the maximum ratio is particles by a factor of 2.
smaller for fluffy agglomerates than for compact particles. In contrast, observational data may reveal the effect of
In contrast, values of β for large fluffy agglomerates in porosity on the motion of dust particles in the comae, be-
the geometrical optics regime are higher than those for cause β for highly porous and non-porous particles could
compact particles of equal mass, because the geometrical differ by an order of magnitude or more if their size exceeds
cross section of particles increases with fluffiness. While the several micrometers. Therefore, if a variation in the optical
maximum β for fluffy agglomerates depends on the size of properties of dust particles within a coma or among differ-
monomers, the ratios for any pure silicate particles do not ent comets is observed, the variation might be attributed to
exceed unity, irrespective of the particle morphology (Mukai the difference in the porosities rather than the compositions.
et al., 1992; Kimura et al., 2002b). However, if metallic Fe Although β alone cannot constrain the physical properties
inclusions are embedded in a Mg-rich silicate matrix, then of the dust particles, it can be used to check the validity of the
the maximum values of β could exceed unity (Altobelli et al., characteristics of the cometary dust particles derived using
2016; Kimura, 2017). The values of β for Mg-rich silicate other means. For example, an analysis of the temporal evolu-
particles with metallic Fe inclusions are barely distinguish- tion in the ejecta of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 created by NASA’s
able from those of silicate-core + organic-mantle particles. Deep Impact mission resulted in β ≈ 0.4, which suggests
While solar radiation pressure on particles composed of dust agglomerates of tens of micrometers in size consisting
Fe-rich, Mg-poor silicates is higher than that on particles of of silicate-core + organic-mantle monomers of 0.1-µm radius
Fe-poor, Mg-rich silicates owing to the effect of Fe atoms (Kobayashi et al., 2013). It turned out that this interpretation
on the absorption efficiency in the visible wavelength range, is consistent with observational data on the color temperature,
solar gravity on the former is also higher than the latter due silicate feature strength, and degree of linear polarization
to the effect of Fe atoms on the density. Accordingly, one (Yamamoto et al., 2008). The values of β for dust particles
should not expect that the ratios of solar radiation pressure to in the tails of sungrazing comets derived from Solar and
solar gravity for Fe-rich, Mg-poor silicates are significantly Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) observations turned out
different from those for Fe-poor, Mg-rich silicates. to be 0.6 at maximum (Sekanina, 2000). This was found to
As the particles move away from the sunlit surface, they be consistent with a predominance of Mg-rich pyroxene and
are gradually decelerated by the solar radiation pressure. olivine grains or small agglomerates of these grains in the
Based on Fig. 11, it is reasonable to assume the β ratios of tails of sungrazers remaining after sublimation of organic
organic-rich and silicate-poor (CHON) particles are lower matter (Kimura et al., 2002b). Ishiguro et al. (2016) derived
than those for amorphous carbon (AC1 from Rouleau and the maximum value of β = 1.6 ± 0.2 from the optical observa-
642   Comets III

tions of Comet 15P/Finlay and concluded that dust particles accounted for by a three-step model (Smith, 1971): (1) excita-
in the ejecta of multiple outbursts are fluffy agglomerates tion of electrons by absorption of photons at a certain depth
consisting of silicate-core and organic-mantle grains based below the surface, (2) transportation of the excited electrons
on the numerical results of Kimura et al. (2003b). to the surface against inelastic collisions, and (3) ejection of
the electrons, if their kinetic energies normal to the surface
4.2. Photoelectric Emission: Charging of Particles exceed the work function of the surface. A rigorous theory
by Radiation for estimating the photoelectric quantum yield requires the
electric field inside the particle to be known. The photo-
The surface of dust particles is inevitably charged, owing electric quantum yield has been so far computed only for
to the interactions of the particles with the UV and plasma. spheres in the framework of Mie theory or geometrical op-
If free electrons are present on the surface of dust particles, tics (Watson, 1973; Dwek and Smith, 1996; Kimura, 2016).
then the boundary conditions of particle surface would be If dust particles are of submicrometer size or smaller, then
modified, which is the case for metallic particles. However, the photoelectric quantum yield is in general enhanced due
the surface of cometary dust is typically composed of di- to the surface curvature of the particles and the contribution
electric materials such as ice, organic matter, and silicates. of the entire volume to absorption of light. On the contrary,
Because the electric conductivity of dielectric materials is the photoelectric quantum yield of very tiny nanometer-sized
extremely small compared to metals, the effect of surface particles is reduced near the threshold energy of photons,
charge on the scattering and absorption of light by com- owing to the enhancement of the work function for small
etary dust can be neglected. However, the surface charge particles (e.g., Wong et al., 2003). The application of the
might induce an observable effect on the plasma environ- DDA to the computation of the photoelectric quantum yield
ments around comets through absorption and emission of from agglomerates is straightforward, but no one has so far
electrons by the particles, which behave like super-heavy found worth a computation, which is most likely limited to
ions in a plasma. the small particle sizes.
When electromagnetic waves or photons are absorbed
by a dust particle, photoelectrons might be emitted from the 4.3. Radiative Torques: Grain Alignment and
surface of the particle (Feuerbacher et al., 1972). Photoelec- Rotational Disruption
tron emission elevates the surface potential of the particle,
predominating over other charging processes such as sticking The radiation-dust interaction can induce radiative
of solar wind plasma and secondary electron emission (e.g., torques (RATs) on a dust grain of non-spherical shape. It
Wyatt, 1969; Whipple, 1981). The electric current due to is found that RATs can cause the alignment of dust grains
photoelectron emission is a function of the absorption cross and their spinup. Scattering of light by aligned grains in-
section and the photoelectric quantum yield, which is the duces the circular polarization of scattered light, which may
number of photoelectrons per absorbed photon (e.g., Mukai, explain circular polarization in comets (see section 2.2.2).
1981; Kimura and Mann, 1998). Simple empirical formulae For a comprehensive reviews of those effects, see Lazar-
have been proposed to estimate the photoelectric quantum ian et al. (2015) and Andersson et al. (2015). In cometary
yield based on experimental data (e.g., Draine, 1978). comae, RAT can spin up the dust particles to extremely fast
However, the laboratory experiments tend to underestimate rotation so they are disrupted by centrifugal stress, affecting
the true value of photoelectric quantum yields due to the the evolution of dust and ice in cometary coma (see Hoang,
geometrical limitations on the collection of photoelectrons 2020, for a review).
in the laboratory (Senshu et al., 2015). The RAT induced by the radiation of wavelength l acting
Laboratory experiments on photoelectron emission are to on a grain of radius a is defined as
a large extent limited to materials specific to the surfaces
of satellites and spacecraft, but some measurements with

astronomically relevant materials are available. Baron et   = a 2 u  ( ) Q  (,a,)
al. (1978) conducted the experiments with a thin film of 2
water ice at 13 and 80 K near the work function. As noted
in the pioneering paper on the photoemission by Einstein
(1905), the work function is a threshold, namely, the mini- where g is the anisotropy degree of the radiation field, uλ
mum energy required to move an electron to infinity (Kittel, is the specific energy density, and Qr(Q,a,l) is the RAT
1995). Feuerbacher et al. (1972) measured the photoelectric efficiency vector that depends on the angle Q between the
quantum yield of glassy carbon, graphite, and lunar fines as radiation direction and the grain axis of maximum inertia mo-
a function of wavelength and determined the work function. ment (Draine and Weingartner, 1996; Lazarian and Hoang,
The photoelectric quantum yields of submicrometer particles 2007). The RAT efficiency vector has three components,
for silica, olivine, carbonaceous materials, and lunar samples Qe1, Qe2, Qe3, with e1 chosen along the radiation direction k.
were provided by Abbas et al. (2006, 2007), but the data 4.3.1. Grain alignment and spinup by radiative torques.
might have suffered from calibration errors (Kimura, 2016). The detailed study of grain alignment by RATs is presented
The physical process of photoelectron emission is well in Lazarian and Hoang (2007). The authors found that RATs
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   643

10
zation vector aligned with the ambient magnetic field only.
8 The D-G mechanism implies that small grains are more effi-
Ratio of Solar Radiation Pressure to Solar Gravity 6
ciently aligned than large grains and that alignment becomes
4
negligible when the grain rotational velocity is comparable to
2 its thermal angular velocity (so-called thermal rotation). Fur-
thermore, numerical simulations of D-G alignment for grains
1 with different magnetic susceptibilities in Hoang and Lazar-
8
6 ian (2016) demonstrate that, for superparamagnetic grains
4
with embedded Fe inclusions, a maximum alignment degree
of the grain axis with the magnetic field can be ~10–20%,
2 although grains have superparamagnetic relaxation because
the grain rotation velocity is smaller than the thermal value.
0.1
8 This study establishes that efficient grain alignment is only
6 achieved when the grain angular velocity exceeds its thermal
4 angular velocity (i.e., suprathermal rotation), as previously
suggested (e.g., Purcell, 1979). Such a requirement is satis-
2
fied by the spinup effect of RATs. Moreover, grains with
10
enhanced magnetic susceptibility due to Fe inclusions can
10–18 10–17 10–16 10–15 10–14 10–13 10–12 increase the paramagnetic relaxation rate that acts together
Mass (kg) with the RAT as well as increases the Larmor precession
rate, which leads to B-RAT alignment (Fig. 12b).
Fig. 11. The values of the parameter β for different dust par- 4.3.2. Effects of grain alignment on circular polariza-
ticles: BPCAs (closed symbols) and BCCAs (open symbols) tion in cometary comae. As was shown in section 2.2.2,
consisting of 0.1-µm-radius grains (see description of BPCA
there are numerous observations of circular polarization of
and BCCA in section 3.2.1). Different symbols represent
the scattered light in comets, and the most feasible mecha-
amorphous carbon AC1 (diamonds), astronomical silicate
(squares), Mg-rich olivine (triangles), Mg-rich pyroxene nism to describe it is alignment of the dust particles by
(inverse triangles), amorphous silicate with iron inclusions radiative torque in the presence of the solar magnetic field.
(circles), and silicate-core + organic-mantle (crosses). Lines This mechanism is considered in this section.
show the results for solid spherical particles; the materials The intensity of circularly polarized radiation resulting
can be identified by the overlap of the line with the leftmost from scattering on a dust particle is given by the fourth
symbol. Stokes parameter V (see section 2.2) and is equal to V =
I0S41/k2R2 where S41 is the 4–1 element of the Mueller
matrix, I0 is the intensity of the incident light, k is the wave
can induce the alignment along the radiation direction (k- number, and R is the distance to the source of light (e.g.,
RAT) because the averaging over the fast rotation of the heliocentric distance). Using DDA and considering the
grain around the axis of major inertia a1 cancels out the align grains with x < 1 (Rayleigh particles), Hoang and Lazarian
torque component Qe2, leaving only the component Qe1 that (2014) showed that
spins up the grain. When the grain initially makes an angle
Q with the radiation direction, the aligned component Qe2 is I0 k 4
V= i( * – *   )([einc × esca ].e)(einc .e)
not zero and can act to bring the grain back to the stationary 2R 2
point Q = 0, establishing the k-RAT alignment (Fig. 12a). where einc and esca are the unit vectors of incident (k) and
If a magnetic field is present, then the axis of grain scattering direction, a|| and a⊥ are the complex polariz-
alignment depends on the precession of the grain angular abilities along the grain alignment axis e and in the per-
momentum with the magnetic field and the radiation direc- pendicular direction, respectively. From the above equation
tion. If an external electric field is also present, under the one can see that circular polarization can be produced only
effect of RATs, grain alignment can occur along one of these when the grain has an absorbing material, i.e., its polariz-
three axes, including the radiation direction, magnetic field, ability (or refractive index) contains a non-zero imaginary
and electric field (Fig. 12b). part. Moreover, circular polarization is not equal to zero
The magnetic properties control the efficiency of grain only when the grain alignment axis e is not parallel to the
alignment in the magnetic field. Paramagnetic relaxation incident direction einc. If e || einc, the cross-vector [einc × esca]
that was first suggested by Davis and Greenstein (1951) to becomes perpendicular to e, and since V ∝ [einc × esca] ·
align grains with the magnetic field is known as the Davis- e, in this case V = 0.
Greenstein (D-G) mechanism. The paramagnetic relaxation Thus, the k-RAT alignment itself produces zero circular
is based on the dissipation of the rotational energy due to the polarization as it aligns the dust particles in the direction
rotating induced magnetization component perpendicular to where the alignment axis e is along the incoming radiation einc.
the spinning axis, which ultimately leads to both minimum However, the presence of a magnetic field induces a
rotational energy with angular momentum and its magneti- magnetic torque on the grain magnetic dipole moment,
644   Comets III

(a) qu
e alignment with the magnetic field (B-RAT) is more likely
tor
J n-up than the k-RAT alignment. Hoang and Lazarian (2016) have
spi
a1 demonstrated that even a small fraction of metal present in
align torque
the form of metallic nanoparticles, for example, GEMS pres-
Θ
k ent in cometary dust (e.g., Keller and Messenger, 2011), can
radiation beam
provide the perfect alignment of dust grains that are subject
radiative precession
around k to RATs. The considered mechanism was used to explain
circular polarization in comets by Kolokolova et al. (2016),
precession who showed that the penetration of the solar magnetic field
around E E
into cometary coma can provide the alignment of dust par-
(b)
J Larmor precession ticles that causes circular polarization of the light scattered
around B by cometary dust.
B
ξ 4.3.3. Rotational disruption by radiative torques. RATs
Θ are very efficient in spinning up a non-spherical grain to
k suprathermal rotation, i.e., rotation with rates above the
radiation beam
radiative precession
thermal rotation rate (Draine and Weingartner, 1996; Hoang
around k and Lazarian, 2009). Hoang et al. (2019) realized that
centrifugal stress resulting from such suprathermal rotation
Fig. 12. Illustration of grain alignment and spin-up by can exceed the maximum tensile strength of grain material
radiative torques assuming that the grain shortest axis a1
(Smax), resulting in the disruption of the grain into fragments.
is aligned along the angular momentum J. (a) The grain
angular momentum J experiences fast radiative precession
This new physical mechanism was termed radiative torque
along the radiation beam k. The spinup torque component disruption (RATD). Since rotational disruption acts to break
along the angular momentum acts to spin the grain up, while the loose bonds between the monomers, unlike breaking the
the align torque component acts to bring J in alignment strong chemical bonds between atoms in the case of thermal
with k, resulting in the so-called k-RAT alignment. (b) In the sublimation, RATD can work for the solar radiation field
presence of the magnetic field (B) and electric field (E), the beyond the sublimation zone of refractory dust (Hoang,
grain experiences the precession around B (Larmor preces- 2020). For the cometary coma, Hoang (2021) showed that
sion), around the electric field, and the radiation direction, the disruption size, i.e., the minimum radius starting from
if the grain has a component of the magnetic moment and which the particles can be disrupted, is adisr ∼ 0.6 µm for the
electric dipole moment parallel to J. gas density of nH = 1010cm−3 and decreases with increasing
cometocentric radius or decreasing gas density. There ex-
ists a maximum radius of grains that can still be disrupted
which causes Larmor precession of the grain angular by centrifugal stress (Hoang and Tram, 2020) of adisr,max ~
momentum around the magnetic field (Fig. 12b). If the 2.2 µm for the gas density of nH = 1010 cm−3, assuming
Larmor precession is faster than the radiative precession, Smax = 107 erg cm–3.
the magnetic field becomes the axis of grain alignment (B- Hoang and Tung (2020) showed that RATD is efficient
RAT), and the grain short axis e deviates from the radiation in disrupting large composite grains into smaller ones.
direction e0, producing non-zero circular polarization. To Therefore, the RATD mechanism implies the evolution of
have the precession caused by the magnetic field efficient dust properties, causing a decrease in the abundance of
in providing a deviation from the radiative direction, it large grains and increase in the abundance of small ones
should be faster than the precession caused by RAT. For with the cometocentric and heliocentric distances. The
solar radiation at the heliocentric distance ~1 au, Hoang efficiency of RATD also increases with decreasing the
and Lazarian (2014) showed that the RAT alignment time gas production rate Qgas because the latter determines the
is tRAT = 3 × 104 (a/0.1 µm)1/2 s, i.e., for particles of radius rotational damping of grains spun up by RATs. Herranen
a = 0.1 µm, tRAT = 3 × 104 s and for particles of radius a = (2020) studied the rotational disruption of agglomerates
10 µm, tRAT = 3 × 105 s. Thus, although small paramagnetic of radius ~2 µm in sungrazing comets and found that
particles can be efficiently aligned by RAT combined with the mechanism could be efficient for those grains. Thus,
the magnetic field, alignment of larger particles requires the size and structure change in the cometary dust under
larger values of the magnetic susceptibility. This can be RATD may explain the polarization properties reported in
provided by the presence of superparamagnetic, ferromag- Thompson (2020) for Comet ISON.
netic, and ferrimagnetic inclusions, which increase grain One more effect of RATs on cometary dust is the rota-
Larmor precession rate and make this mechanism more tional desorption of icy mantles on the particles. The cur-
efficient (Hoang and Lazarian, 2016). For a dust particle rent model of ice removal from the dust grains is based on
containing clusters of metallic atoms with Ncl < 105 atoms thermal sublimation from icy grains (Cowan and A’Hearn,
per cluster, the magnetic susceptibility increases by a factor 1979). However, Hoang and Tung (2020) found that wa-
of Ncl, decreasing the timescales of magnetic relaxation and ter ice mantles could be desorbed from the grain core by
Larmor precession by the same factor. As a result, grain radiative torques. The rotational desorption can occur at
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   645

heliocentric distances of Rdes ∼ 20 au, much larger than the of information can be also a comprehensive review of the in
water sublimation radius, Rsub(H2O) ∼ 3 au, thus making the situ and laboratory data by Levasseur-Regourd et al. (2018).
RATD mechanism more efficient than sublimation at large We expect further progress in the computer modeling
heliocentric distances. of the interaction of cometary particles with radiation.
The computational tools, specifically such codes as DDA,
5. FINAL REMARKS AND FUTURE WORK MSTM, FaSTMM, R2T2, etc., are sufficiently powerful to
model cometary dust. However, they need more computa-
Our understanding of the properties of cometary dust tional resources to be capable of modeling realistically large
has changed dramatically since 2004 when Comets II was (hundreds of micrometers) and complex (e.g., hierarchical)
published. The chapter in that volume by Kolokolova et al. particles, which will come as more powerful computers and
(2004a) ended with the conclusion of a high likelihood of computer clusters become available.
the aggregated structure of the cometary dust particles. Now A better understanding of the interaction of cometary dust
this is a well-established fact, mainly proven by Stardust and and surfaces with radiation will be produced by laboratory
Rosetta mission studies of cometary dust but also supported modeling, specifically models at low temperatures (see the
by computer and laboratory simulations, which have shown chapter in this volume by Poch et al.), and by the new theo-
that cometary observations, especially polarimetric ones, retical and laboratory developments regarding comet dust
can be most successfully reproduced if the dust is modeled formation and evolution (see the chapters in this volume by
as a mixture of agglomerated particles of different poros- Aikawa et al. and Simon et al.).
ity, from very fluffy to rather compact, which is consistent Remote sensing of cometary dust and surfaces remains
with the mission-result characteristics of the cometary dust one of the major resources of information provided by space
summarized in Güttler et al. (2019). missions using cameras working in different spectral ranges.
Modeling of agglomerates is in high demand in various For example, the future mission Comet Interceptor (see the
studies of cometary dust and nuclei, e.g., in computing chapter in this volume by Snodgrass et al.) has planned
radiation pressure, radiative torque, tensile strength, and several instruments for remote sensing of the cometary en-
thermal properties of cometary material. This requires pay- vironment, among them the Optical Periscopic Imager for
ing due attention to the computer modeling of the realistic Comets (OPIC) and Entire Visible Sky Camera (EnVisS), the
cometary dust particles. latter of which has polarimetric capabilities, along with the
One of the main characteristics of a model should be its Modular Infrared Molecules and Ices Sensor (MIRMIS) for
capability to simulate a comprehensive set of observational the wavelength range 0.9–25 µm, which, together with the
data. Polarization phase curve, brightness phase function, other cameras, may provide significant constraints on dust
and color data in isolation are all ambiguous, and a model models. Also, observational information on more comets is
that reproduces only one of them has a high probability expected, allowing statistical analysis of the dust properties
of being wrong. Thus, modelers always need to check the and comet classification based on the properties of its dust
consistency of their models with all available observational that may come from the observations with new telescopes
data, angular and spectral, including those in the NIR and such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) as well
thermal infrared as well as with the dynamical properties as groundbased and spacebased surveys (see the chapter in
of the dust particles derived from the morphology of the this volume by Bauer et al.). Studies that span a wide range
coma. Also, models should be consistent with ideas about the of wavelengths and simultaneously use different techniques
formation of dust particles in the protosolar nebula and with (e.g., thermal emission and scattered light) will help to
the cosmic abundances of the elements. Finally, if the images understand the observed comet-to-comet distribution of
of the coma, including polarimetric maps, are available, the cometary dust properties.
model should be checked for the capability of reproducing Finally, important steps forward in remote sensing of
the observed trends using physically plausible assumptions comets will be development in two main areas: (1) broad-
on particle fragmentation and sublimation of its material. ening the wavelength range of observations, which should
We also would like to point out that by using a very include more UV observations (sensitive to nanoparticles
complex model with numerous parameters, one can fit if present) and microwave radiation capable of providing
almost any observational data. If a model varies the size, information about large, millimeter-sized, dust particles; and
structure, and composition of the particles and considers (2) expanding the observations to other objects related to
several populations of particles in the dust, a good fit to the solar system comets such as debris disks and interstellar
the observations can be found, but it may not present the and exosolar comets.
realistic characteristics of the cometary dust. To avoid this
trap, it is highly recommended to limit the number of model
parameters using, where possible, information achieved Acknowledgments. L.K. acknowledges helpful discussions
by cometary missions. The Stardust and Rosetta missions with J. Markkanen, N. Kiselev, and O. Shubina. This work was
significantly extended our knowledge of cometary dust partially supported by NASA Grants No. 80NSSC21K0164 and
particles, and the chapter in this volume by Engrand et al. 80NSSC17K0731 and Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KA-
presents a detailed review of those findings. A helpful source KENHI #21H00050) of JSPS.
646   Comets III

REFERENCES Chernova G. P., Kiselev N. N., and Jockers K. (1993) Polarimetric

characteristics of dust particles as observed in 13 comets:
Comparisons with asteroids. Icarus, 103, 144–158.
Abbas M. M., Tankosic D., Craven P. D., et al. (2006) Photoelectric Choudhury S. R., Hadamcik E., and Sen A. K. (2015) Study of
emission measurements on the analogs of individual cosmic dust some comets through imaging polarimetry. Planet. Space Sci.,
grains. Astrophys. J., 645, 324. 118, 193–198.
Abbas M. M., Tankosic D., Craven P. D., et al. (2007) Lunar dust Combi M. R., Harris W. M., and Smyth W. H. (2004) Gas dynamics
charging by photoelectric emissions. Planet. Space Sci., 55, and kinetics in the cometary coma: Theory and observations.
953–965. In Comets II (M. C. Festou et al., eds.), pp. 523–552. Univ. of
A’Hearn M. F., Dwek E., and Tokunaga A. T. (1984) Infrared Arizona, Tucson.
photometry of Comet Bowell and other comets. Astrophys. J., Cowan J. J. and A’Hearn M. F. (1979) Vaporization of comet nuclei:
282, 803–806. Light curves and life times. Earth Moon Planets, 21, 155–171.
A’Hearn M. F., Millis R. L., Schleicher D. G., et al. (1995) The Crovisier J., Leech K., Bockelée-Morvan D., et al. (1997) The
ensemble properties of comets: Results from narrowband spectrum of Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1) observed with the
photometry of 85 comets, 1976–1992. Icarus, 118, 223–270. Infrared Space Observatory at 2.9 AU from the Sun. Science,
Altobelli N., Postberg F., Fiege K., et al. (2016) Flux and 275, 1904–1907.
composition of interstellar dust at Saturn from Cassini’s Cosmic Cudnik B. M. (2005) Observations of the inner coma of C/1995 O1
Dust Analyzer. Science, 352, 312–318. (Hale Bopp), gas and dust production. Planet. Space. Sci., 53,
Andersson B. G., Lazarian A., and Vaillancourt J. E. (2015) 653–658.
Interstellar dust grain alignment. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., Davies J. K., Roush T. L., Cruikshank D. P., et al. (1997) The
53, 501–539. detection of water ice in comet Hale-Bopp. Icarus, 127, 238–
Arriaga P., Fitzgerald M. P., Duchêne G., et al. (2020) Multiband 245.
polarimetric imaging of HR 4796a with the Gemini planet Davis L. Jr. and Greenstein J. L. (1951) The polarization of starlight
imager. Astron. J., 160, 79. by aligned dust grains. Astrophys. J., 114, 206–240.
Bach Y. P. and Ishiguro M. (2021) Thermal radiation pressure as de Moraes R. V. (1994) Non-gravitational disturbing forces. Adv.
a possible mechanism for losing small particles on asteroids. Space Res., 14, 45–68.
ArXiV e-prints, arXiv:2108.03898. Dominik C. (2009) Physical processes: Dust coagulation and
Bagnulo S., Cellino A., Kolokolova L., et al. (2021) Unusual fragmentation. In Cosmic Dust — Near and Far (T. Henning
polarimetric properties for interstellar comet 2I/Borisov. Nature et al., eds.), pp. 494–508. ASP Conf. Ser. 414, Astronomical
Commun., 12, 1–11. Society of the Pacific, San Francisco.
Bair A. N., Schleicher D. G., and Knight M. M. (2018) Coma Dorschner J., Begemann B., Henning T., et al. (1995) Steps toward
morphology, numerical modeling, and production rates for interstellar silicate mineralogy. II. Study of Mg-Fe-silicate
comet C/Lulin (2007 N3). Astron. J., 156, 159. glasses of variable composition. Astron. Astrophys., 300, 503–
Bardyn A., Baklouti D., Cottin H., et al. (2017) Carbon-rich dust in 520.
comet 67P measured by COSIMA/Rosetta. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Draine B. T. (1978) Photoelectric heating of interstellar gas.
Soc., 469, S712–S722. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 36, 595–619.
Baron B., Hoover D., and Williams F. (1978) Vacuum ultraviolet Draine B. T. (1988) The discrete-dipole approximation and its
photoelectric emission from amorphous ice. J. Chem. Phys., 68, application to interstellar graphite grains. Astrophys. J., 333,
1997–1999. 848–872.
Bellm E. C., Kulkarni S. R., Graham M. J., et al. (2019) The Draine B. T. and Weingartner J. C. (1996) Radiative torques on
Zwicky Transient Facility: System overview, performance, and interstellar grains: I. Superthermal spinup. ArXiV e-prints,
first results. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac., 131, 18002. arXiv:astro-ph/9605046.
Bertini I., La Forgia F., Tubiana C., et al. (2017) The scattering Dwek E. and Smith R. K. (1996) Energy deposition and
phase function of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko coma as photoelectric emission from the interaction of 10 eV to 1 MeV
seen from the Rosetta/OSIRIS instrument. Mon. Not. R. Astron. photons with interstellar dust particles. Astrophys. J., 459,
Soc., 469, S404–S415. 686–700.
Betzler A. S., Almeida R. S., Cerqueira W. J., et al. (2017) An Einstein A. (1905) Über einem die erzeugung und verwandlung des
analysis of the BVRI colors of 22 active comets. Adv. Space lichtes betreffenden heuristischen gesichtspunkt. Ann. Phys., 322,
Res., 60, 612–625. 132–148.
Bockelée-Morvan D., Woodward C. E., Kelley M. S., and Wooden Escobar-Cerezo J., Palmer C., Muñoz O., et al. (2017) Scattering
D. H. (2009) Water in comets 71P/Clark and C/2004 B1 properties of large irregular cosmic dust particles at visible
(LINEAR) with Spitzer. Astrophys. J., 696, 1075–1083. wavelengths. Astrophys. J., 838, 74–91.
Bockelée-Morvan D., Rinaldi G., Erard S., et al. (2017) Comet Farnham T. L. and Schleicher D. G. (2005) Physical and
67P outbursts and quiescent coma at 1.3 au from the Sun: Dust compositional studies of Comet 81P/Wild 2 at multiple
properties from Rosetta/VIRTIS-H observations. Mon. Not. R. apparitions. Icarus, 173, 533–558.
Astron. Soc., 469, S443–S458. Farnham T. L., Schleicher D. G., and A’Hearn M. F. (2000) The HB
Bockelée-Morvan D., Leyrat C., Erard S., et al. (2019) VIRTIS-H narrowband comet filters: Standard stars and calibrations. Icarus,
observations of the dust coma of comet 67P: Spectral properties 147, 180–204.
and color temperature variability with phase and elevation. Feuerbacher B., Anderegg M., Fitton B., et al. (1972) Photoemission
Astron. Astrophys., 630, A22. from lunar surface fines and the lunar photoelectron sheath.
Bohren C. F. and Huffman D. R. (2008) Absorption and Scattering Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 3rd, pp. 2665–2663.
of Light by Small Particles. Wiley, Hoboken. 544 pp. Filacchione G., Capaccioni F., Ciarniello M., et al. (2020) An orbital
Borisov G., Bagnulo S., Nikolov P., and Bonev T. (2015) Imaging water-ice cycle on comet 67P from colour changes. Nature, 578,
polarimetry and spectropolarimetry of comet C/2013 R1 49–52.
(Lovejoy). Planet. Space Sci., 118, 187–192. Fink U. (2009) A taxonomic survey of comet composition 1985–
Burns J., Lamy P. L., and Soter S. (1979) Radiation forces on small 2004 using CCD spectroscopy. Icarus, 201, 311–334.
particles in the solar system. Icarus, 40, 1–48. Fink U. and Rinaldi G. (2015) Coma dust scattering concepts
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   647

applied to the Rosetta mission. Icarus, 257, 9–22. dust grains by radiative torques in strong radiation fields. Nature
Fitzsimmons A. and Cartwright I. M. (1996) Optical spectroscopy Astron., 3, 766–775.
of comet C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 278, Hughes A. M., Duchêne G., and Matthews B. C. (2018) Debris
L37–L40. disks: Structure, composition, and variability. Annu. Rev. Astron.
Fulle M., Colangeli L., Agarwal J., et al. (2010) Comet 67P: The Astrophys., 56, 541–591.
GIADA dust environment model of the Rosetta mission target. Il’in V. and Voshchinnikov N. (1998) Radiation pressure on non-
Astron. Astrophys., 522, A63. spherical dust grains in envelopes of late-type giants. Astron.
Fulle M., Marzari F., Della Corte V., et al. (2016) Evolution of the Astrophys. Suppl., 128, 187–196.
dust size distribution of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko Ishiguro M., Kuroda D., Hanayama H., et al. (2016) 2014–2015
from 2.2 AU to perihelion. Astrophys. J., 821, 19. multiple outbursts of 15P/Finlay. Astron. J., 152, 169.
Gehrz R. D. and Ney E. P. (1992) 0.7- to 23-micron photometric Ivanova A. V., Borisenko S. A., and Andreev M. V. (2014)
observations of P/Halley 2986 III and six recent bright comets. Photometric studies of comet C/2009 P1 (Garradd) before the
Icarus, 100, 162–186. perihelion. Solar System Res., 48, 375–381.
Grundy W. M. and Schmitt B. (1998) The temperature-dependent Ivanova O., Rosenbush V., Afanasiev V., and Kiselev N. (2017)
near-infrared absorption spectrum of hexagonal H2O ice. J. Polarimetry, photometry, and spectroscopy of comet C/2009 P1
Geophys. Res.–Planets, 103, 25809–25822. (Garradd). Icarus, 284, 167–182.
Gundlach B., Blum J., Keller H. U., and Skorov Y. V. (2015) What Ivanova O., Luk’yanyk I., Kolokolova L., et al. (2019) Photometry,
drives the dust activity of comet 67P? Astron. Astrophys., 583, spectroscopy, and polarimetry of distant comet C/2014 A4
A12. (SONEAR). Astron. Astrophys., 626, A26.
Güttler C., Mannel T., Rotundi A., et al. (2019) Synthesis of the Ivanova O., Rosenbush V., Luk’yanyk I., et al. (2021) Observations
morphological description of cometary dust at comet 67P. of distant comet C/2011 KP36 (Spacewatch): Photometry,
Astron. Astrophys., 630, A24. spectroscopy, and polarimetry. Astron. Astrophys., 651, A29.
Hadamcik E. and Levasseur-Regourd A.-C. (2003) Imaging Jenniskens P., Baratta G. A., Kouchi A., et al. (1993) Carbon
polarimetry of cometary dust: Different comets and phase angles. dust formation on interstellar grains. Astron. Astrophys., 273,
J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 79, 661–678. 583–600.
Hadamcik E. and Levasseur-Regourd A.-C. (2009) Optical Jessberger E. K., Christoforidis A., and Kissel J. (1988) Aspects of
properties of dust from Jupiter family comets. Planet. Space Sci., the major element composition of Halley’s dust. Nature, 332,
57, 1118–1132. 691–695.
Hadamcik E., Levassuer-Regourd A. C., and Renard J. B. (1997) Jewitt D. (2004) Looking through the HIPPO: Nucleus and dust in
CCD polarimetric imaging of Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1). comet 2P/Encke. Astron. J., 128, 3061–3069.
Earth Moon Planets, 78, 365–371. Jewitt D. (2015) Color systematics of comets and related bodies.
Halder P. and Ganesh S. (2021) Modelling heterogeneous dust Astron. J., 150, 201.
particles: An application to cometary polarization. Mon. Not. R. Jewitt D. and Meech K. J. (1986) Cometary grain scattering versus
Astron. Soc., 501, 1766–1781. wavelength, or “What color is comet dust?” Astrophys. J., 310,
Hanner M. S. (1981) On the detectability of icy grains in the comae 937–952.
of comets. Icarus, 47, 342–350. Jockers K., Rosenbush V. K., Bonev T., and Credner T. (1997)
Hanner M. S. (2003) The scattering properties of cometary dust. J. Images of polarization and colour in the inner coma of
Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 79, 695–705. comet Hale-Bopp. Earth Moon Planets, 78, 373–379.
Hanner M. S. and Bradley J. P. (2004) Composition and mineralogy Jockers K., Kiselev N., Bonev T., et al. (2005) CCD imaging
of cometary dust. In Comets II (M. C. Festou et al., eds.), and aperture polarimetry of comet 2P/Encke: Are there two
pp. 555–564. Univ. of Arizona, Tucson. polarimetric classes of comets? Astron. Astrophys., 441, 773–
Harker D. E. (1999) Silicate mineralogy of C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) 782.
and its implications to the study of pre-main sequence stars Johnson P. B. and Christy R. W. (1974) Optical constants of
and the origins of solar systems. Ph.D. thesis, University of transition metals: Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Pd. Phys.
Wyoming, Laramie. 290 pp. Rev. B, 9, 5056–5070.
Herranen J. (2020) Rotational disruption of nonspherical cometary Jones T. J., Stark D., Woodward C. E., et al. (2008) Evidence
dust particles by radiative torques. Astrophys. J., 893, 109. of fragmenting dust particles from near-simultaneous optical
Hines D. C., Videen G., Zubko E., et al. (2013) Hubble Space and near-infrared photometry and polarimetry of comet 73P/
Telescope pre-perihelion ACS/WFC imaging polarimetry of Schwassmann-Wachmann 3. Astron. J., 135, 1318–1327.
comet ISON (c/2012 s1) at 3.81 AU. Astrophys. J. Lett., 780, Kareta T., Harris W. M., and Reddy V. (2021) Probable detection
L32. of water ice in the coma of the inbound long-period
Hoang T. (2021) Variation of dust properties with cosmic time comet C/2017 K2 (PanSTARRS). Res. Notes Am. Astron. Soc.,
implied by radiative torque disruption. Astrophys. J., 907, 37. 5, 153.
Hoang T. and Lazarian A. (2009) Radiative torques alignment in the Kawakita H., Watanabe J.-I., Ootsubo T., et al. (2004) Evidence
presence of pinwheel torques. Astrophys. J., 695, 1457–1476. of icy grains in comet C/2002 T7 (LINEAR) at 3.52 AU.
Hoang T. and Lazarian A. (2014) Grain alignment by radiative Astrophys. J. Lett., 601, L191–L194.
torques in special conditions and implications. Mon. Not. R. Kawakita H., Ootsubo T., Furusho R., and Watanabe J.-I. (2006)
Astron. Soc., 438, 680–703. Crystallinity and temperature of icy grains in comet C/2002 T7
Hoang T. and Lazarian A. (2016) A unified model of grain (LINEAR). Adv. Space Res., 38, 1968–1971.
alignment: Radiative alignment of interstellar grains with Keller C. U., Snik F., Harrington D. M., and Packham C. (2015)
magnetic inclusions. Astrophys. J., 831, 159. Instrumentation. In Polarimetry of Stars and Planetary Systems
Hoang T. and Tram L. N. (2020) Rotational desorption of ice (L. Kolokolova et al., eds.), pp. 35–61. Cambridge Univ.,
mantles from suprathermally rotating grains around young stellar Cambridge.
objects. Astrophys. J., 891, 38. Keller L. P. and Messenger S. (2011) On the origins of GEMS
Hoang T. and Tung N.-D. (2020) Evolution of dust and water ice in grains. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 75, 5336–5365.
cometary comae by radiative torques. Astrophys. J., 901, 59. Kelley M. S. P, Harker D. E., Woodward C. E., and Wooden D.
Hoang T., Lee H., Ahn S.-H., et al. (2019) Rotational disruption of H. (2021) Spitzer Space Telescope Spectroscopy of Comets.
648   Comets III

NASA Planetary Data System, urn:nasa:pds:spitzer:spitzer-spec- properties. Astron. Astrophys., 550, A72.
comet 1.0. Köhler M., Minato T., Kimura H., and Mann I. (2007) Radiation
Kimura H. (2016) On the photoelectric quantum yield of small dust pressure force acting on cometary aggregates. Adv. Space Res.,
particles. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 459, 2751–2761. 40, 266–271.
Kimura H. (2017) High radiation pressure on interstellar dust Koike C., Tsuchiyama A., Shibai H., et al. (2000) Absorption
computed by light-scattering simulation on fluffy agglomerates spectra of Mg-rich Mg-Fe and Ca pyroxenes in the mid- and far-
of magnesium-silicate grains with metallic-iron inclusions. infrared regions. Astron. Astrophy., 363, 1115–1122.
Astrophys. J. Lett., 839, L23. Koike C., Chihara H., Tsuchiyama A., et al. (2003) Compositional
Kimura H. and Mann I. (1998) The electric charging of interstellar dependence of infrared absorption spectra of crystalline silicate.
dust in the solar system and consequences for its dynamics. II. Natural and synthetic olivines. Astron. Astrophys., 399,
Astrophys. J., 499, 454–462. 1101–1107.
Kimura H., Okamoto H., and Mukai T. (2002a) Radiation pressure Kolokolova L. and Gustafson B. Å. S. (2001) Scattering by
and the Poynting-Robertson effect for fluffy dust particles. inhomogeneous particles: Microwave analog experiments and
Icarus, 157, 349–361. comparison to effective medium theories. J. Quant. Spectrosc.
Kimura H., Mann I., Biesecker D. A., and Jessberger E. K. (2002b) Radiat. Transfer, 70, 611–625.
Dust grains in the comae and tails of sungrazing comets: Kolokolova L. and Kimura H. (2010a) Effects of electromagnetic
Modeling of their mineralogical and morphological properties. interaction in the polarization of light scattered by cometary and
Icarus, 159, 529–541. other types of cosmic dust. Astron. Astrophys., 513, A40.
Kimura H., Mann I., and Jessberger E. K. (2003a) Composition, Kolokolova L. and Kimura H. (2010b) Comet dust as a mixture of
structure, and size distribution of dust in the local interstellar aggregates and solid particles: Model consistent with ground-
cloud. Astrophys. J., 583, 314–321. based and space-mission results. Earth Planets Space, 62, 17–21.
Kimura H., Kolokolova L., and Mann I. (2003b) Optical properties Kolokolova L. and Mackowski D. (2012) Polarization of light
of cometary dust: Constraints from numerical studies on light scattered by large aggregates. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat.
scattering by aggregate particles. Astron. Astrophys., 407, L5–L8. Transfer, 113, 2567–2572.
Kimura H., Kolokolova L., and Mann I. (2006) Light scattering by Kolokolova L., Gustafson B. S., Jockers K., and Lichtenberg G.
cometary dust numerically simulated with aggregate particles (2002) Evolution of cometary grains from studies of comet
consisting of identical spheres. Astron. Astrophys., 449, 1243– images. In Dust in the Solar System and Other Planetary
1254. Systems (S. F. Green et al., eds.), pp. 269–273. Pergamon,
Kimura H., Kolokolova L., Li A., and Lebreton J. (2016) Light Oxford.
scattering and thermal emission by primitive dust particles Kolokolova L., Hanner M. S., Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., and
in planetary systems. In Light Scattering Reviews, Vol. 11 Gustafson B. Å. S. (2004a) Physical properties of cometary dust
(A. Kokhanovsky, ed.), pp. 363–418. Springer, Berlin. from light scattering and thermal emission. In Comets II (M. C.
Kimura H., Hilchenbach M., Merouane S., et al. (2020) The Festou et al., eds.), pp. 577–604. Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.
morphological, elastic, and electric properties of dust aggregates Kolokolova L., Kimura H., and Mann I. (2004b) Characterization of
in comets: A close look at COSIMA/Rosetta’s data on dust in dust particles using photopolarimetric data: Example of cometary
comet 67P. Planet. Space Sci., 181, 104825. dust. In Photopolarimetry in Remote Sensing (G. Videen et al.,
Kiselev N., Velichko S., and Jockers K. (2006) Database of Comet eds.), pp. 431–454. Springer, Dordrecht.
Polarimetry. NASA Planetary Data System, EAR-C-COMPIL-5- Kolokolova L., Kimura H., Kiselev N., and Rosenbush V.
DB-COMET-POLARIMETRY-V1.0. (2007) Two different evolutionary types of comets proved
Kiselev N., Rosenbush V., Kolokolova L., and Antonyuk K. (2008) by polarimetric and infrared properties of their dust. Astron.
The anomalous spectral dependence of polarization in comets. J. Astrophys., 463, 1189–1196.
Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 109, 1384–1391. Kolokolova L., Petrova E., and Kimura H. (2011) Effects of
Kiselev N. N., Rosenbush V. K., Afanasiev V. L., et al. (2013) interaction of electromagnetic waves in complex particles.
Linear and circular polarization of comet C/2009 P1 (Garradd). In Electromagnetic Waves (V. Zhurbenko, ed.), pp. 173–202.
Earth Planets Space, 65, 1151–1157. IntechOpen, London.
Kiselev N., Rosenbush V., Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., and Kolokolova L., Das H. S., Dubovik O., et al. (2015) Polarization of
Kolokolova L. (2015) Comets. In Polarimetry of Stars and cosmic dust simulated with the rough spheroid model. Planet.
Planetary Systems (L. Kolokolova et al., eds.), pp. 379–404. Space Sci., 116, 30–38.
Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. Kolokolova L., Koenders C., Goetz C., et al. (2016) Clues to
Kiselev N., Shubina E., Velichko S., et al. (2017) Compilation of cometary circular polarization from studying the magnetic
Comet Polarimetry from Published and Unpublished Sources. field in the vicinity of the nucleus of comet 67P/Churyumov-
NASA Planetary Data System, urn:nasa:pds:compil-comet- Gerasimenko. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 462, S422–S431.
polarimetry 1.0. Kolokolova L., Nagdimunov L., and Mackowski D. (2018) Light
Kiselev N., Rosenbush V., Ivanova O., et al. (2020) Comet 2P/ scattering by hierarchical aggregates. J. Quant. Spectrosc.
Encke in apparition of 2017: II. Polarization and color. Icarus, Radiat. Transfer, 204, 138–143.
348, 113768. Kwon Y. G., Ishiguro M., Kuroda D., et al. (2017) Optical and
Kittel C. (1995) Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th edition. near-infrared polarimetry of non-periodic comet C/2013 US10
Wiley, Singapore. 688 pp. (Catalina). Astron. J., 154, 173.
Knight M. M. and Schleicher D. G. (2013) The highly unusual Kwon Y. G., Ishiguro M., Shinnaka Y., et al. (2018) High
outgassing of comet 103P/Hartley 2 from narrowband polarization degree of the continuum of comet 2P/Encke based
photometry and imaging of the coma. Icarus, 222, 691–706. on spectropolarimetric signals during its 2017 apparition. Astron.
Knight M. M., Schleicher D. G., and Farnham T. L. (2021) Astrophys., 620, A161.
Narrowband observations of comet 46P/Wirtanen during Kwon Y. G., Ishiguro M., Kwon J., et al. (2019) Near-infrared
its exceptional apparition of 2018/19. II. Photometry, jet polarimetric study of near-Earth object 252P/LINEAR: An
morphology, and modeling results. Planet. Sci. J., 2, 104. implication of scattered light from the evolved dust particles.
Kobayashi H., Kimura H., and Yamamoto S. (2013) Dust mantle Astron. Astrophys., 629, A121.
of comet 9P/Tempel 1: Dynamical constraints on physical Kwon Y. G., Kolokolova L., Agarwal J., and Markkanen J. (2021)
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   649

An update of the correlation between polarimetric and thermal and the applicability of effective medium approximations in
properties of cometary dust. Astron. Astrophys., 650, L7. calculating light scattering by inhomogeneous particles. J.
Kwon Y. G., Bagnulo S., Markkanen J., et al. (2022) VLT Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 146, 331–348.
spectropolarimetry of comet 67P: Dust environment around the Mackowski D. and Kolokolova L. (2022) Application of the
end of its intense southern summer. Astron. Astrophys., 657, multiple sphere superposition solution to large-scale systems
A40. of spheres via an accelerated algorithm. J. Quant. Spectrosc.
La Forgia F., Bodewits D., A’Hearn M. F., et al. (2017) Near-UV Radiat. Transfer, 287, 108221.
OH prompt emission in the innermost coma of 103P/Hartley 2. Mann I., Kimura H., and Kolokolova L. (2004) A comprehensive
Astron. J., 154, 185. model to describe light scattering properties of cometary dust. J.
Laor A. and Draine B. T. (1993) Spectroscopic constraints on the Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 89, 291–301.
properties of dust in active galactic nuclei. Astrophys. J., 402, Mannel T., Bentley M. S., Boakes P. D., et al. (2019) Dust of
441–468. comet 67P collected by Rosetta/MIDAS: Classification and
Lasue J., Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., Fray N., and Cottin H. (2007) extension to the nanometer scale. Astron. Astrophys., 630, A26.
Inferring the interplanetary dust properties-from remote Marcus J. N. (2007) Forward-scattering enhancement of comet
observations and simulations. Astron. Astrophys., 473, 641–649. brightness. I. Background and model. Intl. Comet Q., 29, 39–66.
Lasue J., Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., Hadamcik E., and Alcouffe G. Markkanen J. and Agarwal J. (2019) Scattering, absorption, and
(2009) Cometary dust properties retrieved from polarization thermal emission by large cometary dust particles: Synoptic
observations: Application to C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp and 1P/ numerical solution. Astron. Astrophys., 631, A164.
Halley. Icarus, 199, 129–144. Markkanen J. and Yuffa A. J. (2017) Fast superposition T-matrix
Lazarian A. and Hoang T. (2007) Radiative torques: Analytical solution for clusters with arbitrarily-shaped constituent particles.
model and basic properties. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 378, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 189, 181–188.
910–946. Markkanen J., Väisänen T., Penttilä A., and Muinonen K. (2018a)
Lazarian A., Andersson B.-G., and Hoang T. (2015) Grain Scattering and absorption in dense discrete random media of
alignment: Role of radiative torques and paramagnetic relaxation. irregular particles. Optics Lett., 43, 2925–2928.
In Polarimetry of Stars and Planetary Systems (L. Kolokolova et Markkanen J., Agarwal J., Väisänen T., et al. (2018b) Interpretation
al., eds.), pp. 81–113. Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. of the phase functions measured by the OSIRIS instrument for
Lellouch E., Crovisier J., Lim T., et al. (1998) Evidence for water comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Astrophys. J. Lett., 868,
ice and estimate of dust production rate in comet Hale-Bopp at L16.
2.9 AU from the Sun. Astron. Astrophys., 339, L9–L12. Masoumzadeh N., Kolokolova L., Tubiana C., et al. (2019) Phase-
Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., Hadamcik E., and Renard J. B. (1996) curve analysis of comet 67P at small phase angles. Astron.
Evidence for two classes of comets from their polarimetric Astrophys., 630, A11.
properties at large phase angles. Astron. Astrophys., 313, 327– Mastrapa R. M. E. (2020) Optical Constants and Lab Spectra of
333. Water Ice V1.0. NASA Planetary Data System, urn:nasa:pds:gbo.
Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., Renard J.-B., Shkuratov Y., and ices.mastrapa.lab-spectra 1.0.
Hadamcik E. (2015) Laboratory studies. In Polarimetry of Stars Mastrapa R. M., Bernstein M. P., Sandford S. A., et al. (2008)
and Planetary Systems (L. Kolokolova et al., eds.), pp. 62–80. Optical constants of amorphous and crystalline H2O-ice in the
Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. near infrared from 1.1 to 2.6 μm. Icarus, 197, 307–320.
Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., Agarwal J., Cottin H., et al. (2018) Mastrapa R. M., Sandford S. A., Roush T. L., et al. (2009) Optical
Cometary dust. Space Sci. Rev., 214, 1–56. constants of amorphous and crystalline H2O-ice: 2.5–22 μm
Levasseur-Regourd A.-C., Baruteau C., Lasue J., et al. (2020) (4000–455 cm–1) optical constants of H2O-ice. Astrophys. J.,
Linking studies of tiny meteoroids, zodiacal dust, cometary dust 701, 1347–1356.
and circumstellar disks. Planet. Space Sci., 186, 104896. McKay A. J., DiSanti M. A., Kelley M. S., et al. (2019) The
Li A. and Greenberg J. M. (1997) A unified model of interstellar peculiar volatile composition of CO-dominated comet C/2016 R2
dust. Astron. Astrophys., 323, 566–584. (PanSTARRS). Astron. J., 158, 128.
Li J.-Y., Kelley M. S. P., Knight M. M., et al. (2013) Characterizing Mie G. (1908) Beiträge zur optik trüber medien, speziell kolloidaler
the dust coma of comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) at 4.15 AU from the metallösungen. Ann. Phys., 25, 377–445.
Sun. Astrophys. J. Lett., 779, L3. Min M., Hovenier J. W., de Koter A. (2005a) Modeling optical
Li J.-Y., Samarasinha N. H., Kelley M. S. P., et al. (2014) properties of cosmic dust grains using a distribution of hollow
Constraining the dust coma properties of comet C/Siding Spring spheres. Astron. Astrophys., 432, 909–920.
(2013 a1) at large heliocentric distances. Astrophys. J. Lett., 797, Min M., Hovenier J. W., de Koter A., et al. (2005b) The
L8. composition and size distribution of the dust in the coma of
Li J.-Y., Kelley M. S. P., Samarasinha N. H., et al. (2017) The Comet Hale-Bopp. Icarus, 179, 158–173.
unusual apparition of comet 252P/2000 G1 (LINEAR) and Mishchenko M. I. (1991) Light scattering by randomly oriented
comparison with comet P/2016 BA14 (PanSTARRS). Astron. J., axially symmetric particles. J. Optical Soc. Am., 8, 871–882.
154, 136. Mishchenko M. I. and Travis L. D. (1994) Light scattering by
Lindsay S. S., Wooden D. H., Harker D. E., et al. (2013) Absorption polydispersions of randomly oriented spheroids with sizes
efficiencies of forsterite. I. Discrete dipole approximation comparable to wavelengths of observation. Appl. Opt., 33,
explorations in grain shape and size. Astrophys. J., 766, 54. 7206–7225.
Lisse C. M., A’Hearn M. F., Fernández Y. R., and Peschke S. B. Mishchenko M. I., Travis L. D., and Lacis A. A. (2002) Scattering,
(2002) A search for trends in cometary dust emissions. In Dust Absorption, and Emission of Light by Small Particles.
in the Solar System and Other Planetary Systems (S. F. Green et Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. 462 pp.
al., eds.), pp. 259–268. Pergamon, Oxford. Mishchenko M. I., Dlugach J. M., Liu L., et al. (2009) Direct
Lisse C. M., Kraemer K. E., Nuth J. A., et al. (2007) Comparison of solutions of the Maxwell equations explain opposition
the composition of the Tempel 1 ejecta to the dust in comet C/ phenomena observed for high-albedo solar system objects.
Hale Bopp 1995 O1 and YSO HD 100546. Icarus, 191, 223– Astrophys. J. Lett., 705, L118–L122.
240. Mishchenko M., Rosenbush V., Kiselev N., et al. (2010)
Liu C., Panetta R. L., and Yang P. (2014) Inhomogeneity structure Polarimetric remote sensing of solar system objects. ArXiV
650   Comets III

e-prints, arXiv:1010.1171. 262, 107524–107531.

Mishchenko M. I., Dlugach Z. M., and Zakharova N. T. (2014) Protopapa S., Sunshine J. M., Feaga L. M., et al. (2014) Water ice
Direct demonstration of the concept of unrestricted effective- and dust in the innermost coma of comet 103P/Hartley 2. Icarus,
medium approximation. Optics Lett., 39, 3935–3938. 238, 191–204.
Mishchenko M. I., Dlugach J. M., and Liu L. (2016) Applicability Protopapa S., Kelley M., Yang B., et al. (2018) Icy grains from the
of the effective-medium approximation to heterogeneous aerosol nucleus of comet C/2013 US10 (Catalina). Astrophys. J. Lett.,
particles. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 178, 284–294. 862, L16.
Moreno F., Muñoz O., Gutiérrez P. J., et al. (2017) The dust Purcell E. M. (1979) Suprathermal rotation of interstellar grains.
environment of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko: Results Astrophys. J., 231, 404–416.
from Monte Carlo dust tail modelling applied to a large ground- Reach W. T., Vaubaillon J., Lisse C. M., et al. (2010) Explosion of
based observation data set. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 469, comet 17P/Holmes as revealed by the Spitzer Space Telescope.
S186–S194. Icarus, 208, 276–292.
Moreno F., Guirado D., Muñoz O., et al. (2018) Models of Rosetta/ Ren B., Choquet É., Perrin M. D., et al. (2019) An exo-Kuiper belt
OSIRIS 67P dust coma phase function. Astron. J., 156, 237. with an extended halo around HD 191089 in scattered light.
Moulane Y., Jehin E., Opitom C., et al. (2018) Monitoring of the Astrophys. J., 882, 64.
activity and composition of comets 41P/Tuttle-Giacobini-Kresak Renard J.-B., Hadamcik E., and Levasseur-Regourd A.-C. (1996)
and 45P/Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova. Astron. Astrophys., 619, Polarimetric CCD imaging of comet 47P/Ashbrook-Jackson and
A156. variability of polarization in the inner coma of comets. Astron.
Moulane Y., Jehin E., Rousselot P., et al. (2020) Photometry and Astrophys., 316, 263–269.
high-resolution spectroscopy of comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner Rinaldi G., Della Corte V., Fulle M., et al. (2017) Cometary coma
during its 2018 apparition. Astron. Astrophys., 640, A54. dust size distribution from in situ IR spectra. Mon. Not. R.
Muinonen K., Nousiainen T., Fast P., et al. (1996) Light scattering Astron. Soc., 469, S598–S605.
by Gaussian random particles: Ray optics approximation. J. Robertson H. P. (1937) Dynamical effects of radiation in the solar
Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 55, 577–601. system. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 97, 423–437.
Muinonen K., Mishchenko M., Dlugach J., et al. (2012) Coherent Rosenbush V. K., Shakhovskoj N. M., and Rosenbush A. E.
backscattering verified numerically for a finite volume of (1997) Polarimetry of comet Hale-Bopp: Linear and circular
spherical particles. Astrophys. J., 760, 118. polarization, stellar occultation. Earth Moon Planets, 78, 381–
Muinonen, K., Penttilä, A., and Videen, G. (2015) Multiple 386.
scattering of light in particulate planetary media. In Polarimetry Rosenbush V., Kiselev N., and Velichko S. (2002) Polarimetric and
of Stars and Planetary Systems (L. Kolokolova et al., eds.), photometric observations of split comet C/2001 A2 (LINEAR).
pp. 114–129. Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. Earth Moon Planets, 90, 423–433.
Muinonen K., Markkanen J., Väisänen T., et al. (2018) Multiple Rosenbush V. K., Ivanova O. V., Kiselev N. N., et al. (2017) Spatial
scattering of light in discrete random media using incoherent variations of brightness, colour and polarization of dust in
interactions. Optics Lett., 43, 683–686. comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc.,
Mukai T. (1981) On the charge distribution of interplanetary grains. 469, S475–S491.
Astron. Astrophys., 99, 1–6. Rosenbush V., Kiselev N., Husárik M., et al. (2021) Photometry and
Mukai T., Ishimoto H., Kozasa T., et al. (1992) Radiation pressure polarimetry of comet 46P/Wirtanen in the 2018 apparition. Mon.
forces of fluffy porous grains. Astron. Astrophys., 262, 315–320. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 503, 4297–4308.
Muñoz O. and Hovenier J. W. (2015) Experimental scattering Rouleau F. and Martin P. G. (1991) Shape and clustering effects on
matrices of clouds of randomly oriented particles. In Polarimetry the optical properties of amorphous carbon. Astrophys. J., 377,
of Stars and Planetary Systems (L. Kolokolova et al., eds.), 526–540.
pp. 130–144. Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. Schleicher D. G. (2007) Deep Impact’s target comet 9P/Tempel 1 at
Muñoz O., Moreno F., Gómez-Martín J. C., et al. (2020) multiple apparitions: Seasonal and secular variations in gas and
Experimental phase function and degree of linear polarization dust production. Icarus, 190, 406–422.
curves of millimeter-sized cosmic dust analogs. Astrophys. J. Schleicher D. G. (2008) The extremely anomalous molecular
Suppl. Ser., 247, 19. abundances of comet 96p/Machholz 1 from narrowband
Nagdimunov L., Kolokolova L., and Mackowski D. (2013) photometry. Astron. J., 136, 2204–2213.
Characterization and remote sensing of biological particles using Schleicher D. G. (2009) The long-term decay in production rates
circular polarization. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 131, following the extreme outburst of comet 17P/Holmes. Astron. J.,
59–65. 138, 1062–1071.
Nagdimunov L., Kolokolova L., Wolff M., et al. (2014) Properties Schleicher D. G. (2010) Composite Dust Phase Function for
of comet 9P/Tempel 1 dust immediately following excavation by Comets. Available online at https://asteroid.lowell.edu/comet/
deep impact. Planet. Space Sci., 100, 73–78. dustphase/, accessed September 9, 2024.
Oishi M., Kawara K., Kobayashi Y., et al. (1978) Infrared Schleicher D. G. and A’Hearn M. (1988) The fluorescence of
observations of comet West (1975n). I. Observational results. cometary OH. Astrophys. J., 331, 1058–1077.
Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan, 30, 149–160. Schleicher D. G. and Bair A. N. (2011) The composition of the
Olofsson J., Samland M., Avenhaus H., et al. (2016) Azimuthal interior of comet 73P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 3: Results from
asymmetries in the debris disk around HD 61005: A massive narrowband photometry of multiple components. Astron. J., 141,
collision of planetesimals? Astron. Astrophys., 591, A108. 177.
Opitom C., Jehin E., Manfroid J., et al. (2015) TRAPPIST Schleicher D. G., Millis R. L., and Birch P. V. (1998) Narrowband
monitoring of comet C/2012 F6 (Lemmon). Astron. Astrophys., photometry of Comet P/Halley: Variation with heliocentric
574, A38. distance, season, and solar phase angle. Icarus, 132, 397–417.
Paquette J. A., Fray N., Bardyn A., et al. (2021) D/H in the Schleicher D. G., Woodney L. M., and Millis R. L. (2003) Comet
refractory organics of comet 67P measured by Rosetta/COSIMA. 19P/Borrelly at multiple apparitions: Seasonal variations in gas
Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 504, 4940–4951. production and dust morphology. Icarus, 162, 415–442.
Penttilä A., Markkanen J., Väisänen T., et al. (2021) How much is Schröder S. E., Grynko Y., Pommerol A., et al. (2014) Laboratory
enough? The convergence of finite sample scattering properties observations and simulations of phase reddening. Icarus, 239,
to those of infinite media. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 201–216.
 Kolokolova et al.: Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Cometary Dust   651

Sekanina Z. (2000) Solar and Heliospheric Observatory sungrazing Wong K., Vongehr S., and Kresin V. V. (2003) Work functions,
comets with prominent tails: Evidence on dust-production ionization potentials, and in between: Scaling relations based on
peculiarities. Astrophys. J. Lett., 545, L69–L72. the image-charge model. Phys. Rev. B, 67, 35406.
Senshu H., Kimura H., Yamamoto T., et al. (2015) Photoelectric Wooden D. H., Harker D. E., Woodward C. E., et al. (1997)
dust levitation around airless bodies revised using realistic Discovery of Mg-rich pyroxenes in comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-
photoelectron velocity distributions. Planet. Space Sci., 116, Bopp): Pristine grains revealed at perihelion. Earth Moon
18–29. Planets, 78, 285–291.
Shen Y., Draine B. T., and Johnson E. (2008) Modeling porous Wooden D. H., Harker D. E., Woodward C. E., et al. (1999) Silicate
dust grains with ballistic aggregates. I. Geometry and optical mineralogy of the dust in the inner coma of comet C/1995 01
properties. Astrophys. J., 689, 260–275. (Hale-Bopp) pre- and post-perihelion. Astrophys. J., 517, 1034–
Shen Y., Draine B. T., and Johnson E. T. (2009) Modeling porous 1058.
dust grains with ballistic aggregates. II. Light scattering Woodward C., Kelley M., Bockelée-Morvan D., and Gehrz R.
properties. Astrophys. J., 696, 2126–2137. (2007) Water in comet C/2003 K4 (LINEAR) with Spitzer.
Sitko M. L., Lynch D. K., Russell R. W., and Hanner M. S. (2004) Astrophys. J., 671, 1065–1074.
3–14 micron spectroscopy of comets C/2002 O4 (Hönig), Wyatt S. P. (1969) The electrostatic charge of interplanetary grains.
C/2002 V1 (NEAT), C/2002 X5 (Kudo-Fujikawa), C/2002 Y1 Planet. Space Sci., 17, 155–171.
(Juels-Holvorcem), and 69P/Taylor and the relationships among Yamamoto S., Kimura H., Zubko E., et al. (2008) Comet 9P/
grain temperature, silicate band strength, and structure among Tempel 1: Interpretation with the Deep Impact results. Astrophys.
comet families. Astrophys. J., 612, 576–587. J. Lett., 673, L199–L202.
Smith N. V. (1971) Photoemission properties of metals. Crit. Rev. Yang B. (2013) Comets C/2012 S1 (ISON), C/2012 K1
Solid State Mater. Sci., 2, 45–83. (PanSTARRS) and C/2010 S1 (LINEAR). Central Bureau
Solontoi M., Ivezić Ž., Jurić M., et al. (2012) Ensemble properties Electronic Telegram (CBET), 3622, 1.
of comets in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Icarus, 218, 571– Yang B. and Sarid G. (2010) Crystalline water ice in outburst
584. comet P/2010 H2. AAS/Division for Planetary Sciences Meeting
Sparks W., Hough J., and Kolokolova L. (2015) Astrobiology. In Abstracts, 42, 951.
Polarimetry of Stars and Planetary Systems (L. Kolokolova et Yang B., Jewitt D., and Bus S. J. (2009) Comet 17P/Holmes in
al., eds.), pp. 462–478. Cambridge Univ., Cambridge. outburst: The near infrared spectrum. Astron. J., 137, 4538–
Stenzel O. J., Hilchenbach M., Merouane S., et al. (2017) 4546.
Similarities in element content between comet 67P/Churyumov- Yang B., Keane J., Meech K., et al. (2014) Multi-wavelength
Gerasimenko coma dust and selected meteorite samples. Mon. observations of comet C/2011 L4 (PanSTARRS). Astrophys. J.
Not. R. Astron. Soc., 469, S492–S505. Lett., 784, L23.
Tazaki R. and Tanaka H. (2018) Light scattering by fractal dust Yurkin M. A. and Hoekstra A. G. (2011) The discrete-dipole-
aggregates. II. Opacity and asymmetry parameter. Astrophys. J., approximation code ADDA: Capabilities and known limitations.
860, 79. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 112, 2234–2247.
Thompson W. T. (2015) Linear polarization measurements of Zhang Q., Ye Q., Vissapragada S., et al. (2021) Preview of
Comet C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy) from STEREO. Icarus, 261, comet C/2021 A1 (Leonard) and its encounter with Venus.
122–132. Astron. J., 162, 194.
Thompson W. T. (2020) Changing linear polarization properties in Zubko E. (2013) Light scattering by cometary dust: Large-particle
the dust tail of comet C/2012 S1 (ISON). Icarus, 338, 113533. contribution. Earth Planets Space, 65, 139–148.
van de Hulst H. C. (1957) Light Scattering by Small Particles. Zubko E., Petrov D., Shkuratov Y., and Videen G. (2005) Discrete
Wiley, New York. 470 pp. dipole approximation simulations of scattering by particles with
Waterman P. C. (1965) Matrix formulation of electromagnetic hierarchical structure. Appl. Opt., 44, 6479–6485.
scattering. Proc. IEEE, 53, 805–812. Zubko E., Videen G., Arnold J. A., et al. (2020) On the small
Watson W. D. (1973) Photoelectron emission from small spherical contribution of supermicron dust particles to light scattering by
particles. J. Optical Soc. Am., 63, 164–165. comets. Astrophys. J., 895, 110.
Whipple E. C. (1981) Potentials of surfaces in space. Rept. Prog.
Phys., 44, 1197–1250.