Quantum computing midsem:

PART-A

1. For the complex number 𝑐=3+4𝑖, the real part 𝑎=3and the imaginary part 𝑏=4Plugging these
values into the formula:
∣𝑐∣=32+42∣c∣=32+42
∣𝑐∣=9+16∣c∣=9+16
∣𝑐∣=25∣c∣=25
∣𝑐∣=5∣c∣=5
So, the length of the vector represented by the complex number 3+4𝑖 is 5.

1.OR Error correction in quantum computing is essential for maintaining the integrity of quantum
information in the presence of noise and errors. It involves detecting errors without directly
measuring the fragile quantum states and correcting them through specialized techniques. This
ensures the reliability and scalability of quantum computation, ultimately aiming for fault-tolerant
quantum computing capable of performing complex tasks accurately.

2. The Shannon entropy 𝐻 of a discrete information source with probability distribution {𝑝𝑖} is
calculated using the formula:

H(S) = - Σ (pi * log2(pi))

Where 𝑝𝑖 represents the probability of the 𝑖th symbol in the source alphabet.

This formula represents the average uncertainty associated with each symbol emitted by the
information source.

2.OR Quantum cryptography aims to use the principles of quantum mechanics to create
cryptographic systems that are theoretically secure against certain types of attacks. However, some
possible attacks that can occur are:

1. Intercept-resend attacks: In this attack, an eavesdropper intercepts the quantum signal

exchanged between the communicating parties, measures it, and then resends a new signal
to the intended recipient.

2. Photon-number-splitting attacks: it targets quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols that

rely on single-photon sources. In these attacks, an eavesdropper intercepts and stores some
photons sent by the source, then sends the remaining photons to the receiver. By measuring
the stored photons, the attacker gains partial information about the key without introducing
errors that would be detected by legitimate parties, compromising the security of the system

3. Trojan-horse attacks: In this scenario, the attacker manipulates the quantum devices used in
the communication protocol, such as the photon sources or detectors, to leak information
about the secret key without being detected.

4. Side-channel attacks: here an attacker exploits physical characteristics of the

implementation, such as power consumption to gain information about the secret key.
 5. Entanglement-breaking attacks: These attacks exploit vulnerabilities in the physical
properties of the quantum states used in the cryptographic protocol to break the security of
the system.

It's important to note that while quantum cryptographic systems offer unique security advantages
over classical cryptographic techniques, they are not immune to all types of attacks.

3.In quantum computing, entanglement is a phenomenon that describes how quantum particles can
be connected and depend on each other, even when separated by large distances. This is a
fundamental concept of quantum mechanics that distinguishes it from classical mechanics.

3.OR A qubit, or quantum bit, is the fundamental unit of quantum information and can exist in
various quantum states. The two main states of a qubit are:

1. Ground State (|0⟩): This state corresponds to the logical "0" state of the qubit. It represents
the qubit being in its lowest energy state.

2. Excited State (|1⟩): This state corresponds to the logical "1" state of the qubit. It represents
the qubit being in a higher energy state than the ground state.

4.Ciphertext refers to the encrypted form of a message or data that has undergone encryption using
a cryptographic algorithm and a key. It is the unreadable version of the plaintext, which is the
original, understandable message.

4.OR The expression "AND|11⟩" represents the logical AND operation applied to a quantum register
consisting of two qubits in the state ∣11⟩.

5.A probabilistic system is one where outcomes are not determined with certainty but are instead
governed by probabilities. These systems are used to model situations where randomness or
uncertainty plays a role, such as probabilistic algorithms, quantum systems, and statistical models.
Probability theory provides the mathematical framework for analyzing and reasoning about these
systems, allowing us to make predictions, perform inference, and make decisions under uncertainty.

5.ORA qubit, short for "quantum bit," is the basic unit of quantum information. While classical
computing uses bits as the smallest unit of information, which can represent either a 0 or a 1, qubits
can represent both 0 and 1 simultaneously, thanks to a quantum mechanical property called
superposition.

If "qubyte" were to be interpreted as an extension of "qubit," it might imply a higher-level quantum

unit capable of representing more complex quantum information or encoding multiple classical bits'
worth of information.
PART-C

8.
Quantum gates are fundamental building blocks used in quantum computing to perform operations
on qubits. Quantum gates are represented by unitary matrices that act on the state of qubits,
transforming them in various ways. some common types of quantum gates are:

1. Pauli Gates: These gates are fundamental in quantum computing.

 Pauli-X Gate (NOT Gate): Flips the state of a qubit.

 Pauli-Y Gate: Rotates the qubit state around the Y-axis.

 Pauli-Z Gate: Applies a phase flip to the qubit state.

2. Hadamard Gate: Creates superposition by putting qubits into a state of both 0 and 1
simultaneously.

3. Phase Gate: Introduces a phase shift to the qubit state.

4. Controlled Gates: Perform operations on target qubits based on the state of control qubits.

 Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate: Performs a NOT operation on the target qubit if the
control qubit is in state 1.

 Toffoli Gate: A three-qubit gate that performs a NOT operation on the target qubit if
both control qubits are in state 1.

5. SWAP Gate: Exchanges the states of two qubits.

6. Rotation Gates: Perform rotations around different axes of the Bloch sphere.

 Rotation-X Gate (RX): Rotates qubit state around the X-axis.

 Rotation-Y Gate (RY): Rotates qubit state around the Y-axis.

 Rotation-Z Gate (RZ): Rotates qubit state around the Z-axis.

7. Measurement Gate: Transforms qubit state into classical bits upon measurement.

2 marks suggestion

The basic logic gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates. These gates are the
fundamental building blocks of digital circuits and the basis of modern electronic devices and
computers.

Universal gates are logic gates that can implement any Boolean function without the need
for any other gates. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates
 Superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum computing that allows quantum bits, or
qubits, to exist in multiple states simultaneously. In a superposition state, a qubit can be both
a 0 and a 1 at the same time

Quantum computing can significantly impact the "molecular modeling and simulation" stage
of the drug discovery life cycle. This is where it can use its ability to simulate complex
molecular structures and interactions efficiently. By rapidly exploring various molecular
configurations and properties, quantum computers can accelerate the screening process for
potential drug candidates

Being in the "noisy, intermediate scale quantum computing" (NISQ) stage means that we're
in a phase where quantum computers are functional but still prone to errors due to noise
and limited in scale. These computers have a moderate number of qubits, typically less than
a few hundred, and are primarily used for exploring quantum algorithms and applications.

The purpose of "post-quantum" cryptography is to develop cryptographic algorithms that are

resistant to attacks from quantum computers. These algorithms aim to ensure the security of
sensitive information in a future where quantum computers could potentially break
traditional cryptographic schemes, such as RSA and ECC, using algorithms like Shor's
algorithm.

The expression 𝑋=[6,2,1,5,3,10]𝑇 represents the state of a classical deterministic system.

Let's break down what this notation means:
1. 𝑋: This denotes the variable or vector representing the state of the system.
2. [6,2,1,5,3,10] This is the content of the vector 𝑋X. Each number in the list represents a
component or element of the state vector. In this case, it seems to represent some quantities
or values associated with the system.
3. 𝑇T: This denotes the transpose operation, which rearranges the vector into a column vector.
So, [6,2,1,5,3,10]T transforms the row vector into a column vector, making it easier to work
with in certain mathematical operations.
Interpreting the vector 𝑋 in this context depends on the specific system it represents. Each
element of the vector could correspond to different variables, quantities, or states of the
system.

Quantum computing is a field that uses quantum mechanics to solve complex problems
faster than classical computers. It combines aspects of computer science, physics, and
mathematics, and includes hardware research and application development.