Which of the following is a common database solution for mobile app

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Some common database solutions for mobile app data management include:
SQLite
A lightweight, serverless, self-contained SQL database engine that's embedded in
the application. It's a good choice for mobile app developers because it's fast and
reliable.

MySQL
A well-known SQL database that's a popular choice for developers working with
structured datasets. It's a good choice for simple applications that won't change
much over time.

PostgreSQL
An open-source, object-based, and highly customizable RDBMS that's an excellent
alternative for iOS and Android apps.

MongoDB
A document-oriented database that uses JSON features. It's a good choice for
custom mobile app development services.

Realm DB
An embedded database that operates directly on the device.

ORMLite
A lightweight ORM library for Java and Android apps that simplifies mapping
database tables to objects with Java.

Core Data
A database for iOS apps that fetches data faster than SQLite and includes built-in
capabilities that lower the code developers write.

Other database solutions for mobile apps include: Amazon DynamoDB and
Cassandra.

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 No. 20(3)/2022-CERT-In
Government of India
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)
Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In)

Electronics Niketan,
6 CGO Complex,
New Delhi-110003

Dated: 28 April, 2022

Subject: Directions under sub-section (6) of section 70B of the Information

Technology Act, 2000 relating to information security practices,
procedure, prevention, response and reporting of cyber incidents
for Safe & Trusted Internet.

Whereas, the Central Government in terms of the provisions of sub-section (1)

of section 70B of Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 (IT Act, 2000) has
appointed “Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In)” vide
notification dated 27th October 2009 published in the official Gazette and as per
provisions of sub-section (4) of section 70B of IT Act, 2000 The Indian Computer
Emergency Response Team shall serve as the national agency for performing the
following functions in the area of cyber security:-

a) collection, analysis and dissemination of information on cyber incidents;

b) forecast and alerts of cyber security incidents;
c) emergency measures for handling cyber security incidents;
d) coordination of cyber incidents response activities;
e) issue guidelines, advisories, vulnerability notes and whitepapers relating to
information security practices, procedures, prevention, response and
reporting of cyber incidents;
f) such other functions relating to cyber security as may be prescribed.

And whereas, “The Information Technology (The Indian Computer Emergency

Response Team and Manner of performing functions and duties) Rules, 2013”
were notified and published vide notification dated 16.01.2014 by the Central
Government in exercise of the powers conferred by clause (zf) of sub-section (2)
of section 87 read with sub-section (5) of section 70B of the IT Act, 2000.

Page 1 of 8
And whereas, as per provisions of sub-section (6) of section 70B of the IT Act,
2000, CERT-In is empowered and competent to call for information and give
directions to the service providers, intermediaries, data centres, body corporate
and any other person for carrying out the activities enshrined in sub-section (4)
of section 70B of the IT Act, 2000.

And whereas, various instances of cyber incidents and cyber security incidents
have been and continue to be reported from time to time and in order to coordinate
response activities as well as emergency measures with respect to cyber security
incidents, the requisite information is either sometime not found available or
readily not available with service providers/data centres/body corporate and the
said primary information is essential to carry out the analysis, investigation and
coordination as per the process of law.

And whereas, it is considered expedient in the interest of the sovereignty or

integrity of India, defence of India, security of the state, friendly relations with
foreign states or public order or for preventing incitement to the commission of
any cognizable offence using computer resource or for handling of any cyber
incident, that following directions are issued to augment and strengthen the cyber
security in the country:

(i) All service providers, intermediaries, data centres, body corporate and
Government organisations shall connect to the Network Time Protocol
(NTP) Server of National Informatics Centre (NIC) or National Physical
Laboratory (NPL) or with NTP servers traceable to these NTP servers, for
synchronisation of all their ICT systems clocks. Entities having ICT
infrastructure spanning multiple geographies may also use accurate and
standard time source other than NPL and NIC, however it is to be ensured
that their time source shall not deviate from NPL and NIC.

(ii) Any service provider, intermediary, data centre, body corporate and
Government organisation shall mandatorily report cyber incidents as
mentioned in Annexure I to CERT-In within 6 hours of noticing such
incidents or being brought to notice about such incidents. The incidents can
be reported to CERT-In via email ([email protected]), Phone (1800-
11-4949) and Fax (1800-11-6969). The details regarding methods and
formats of reporting cyber security incidents is also published on the
website of CERT-In www.cert-in.org.in and will be updated from time to
time.
Page 2 of 8
 Aptitude Engineering Mathematics Discrete Mathematics Operating System DBMS Computer Network

Segmentation in Operating System

Last Updated : 27 Sep, 2024

A process is divided into Segments. The chunks that a program is divided

into which are not necessarily all of the exact sizes are called segments.
Segmentation gives the user’s view of the process which paging does not
provide. Here the user’s view is mapped to physical memory.

Types of Segmentation in Operating Systems

Virtual Memory Segmentation: Each process is divided into a number
of segments, but the segmentation is not done all at once. This
segmentation may or may not take place at the run time of the program.
Simple Segmentation: Each process is divided into a number of
segments, all of which are loaded into memory at run time, though not
necessarily contiguously.

There is no simple relationship between logical addresses and physical

addresses in segmentation. A table stores the information about all such
segments and is called Segment Table.

What is Segment Table?

It maps a two-dimensional Logical address into a one-dimensional
Physical address. It’s each table entry has:

Base Address: It contains the starting physical address where the

segments reside in memory.
Segment Limit: Also known as segment offset. It specifies the length of
the segment.

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 Segmentation

Segmentation is crucial in efficient memory management within an

operating system. For an in-depth understanding of memory management
and other critical OS topics, explore the
GATE CS Self-Paced Course, designed to help you succeed in the GATE
exam.
Translation of Two-dimensional Logical Address to Dimensional Physical
Address.

Translation
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 Segment number (s): Number of bits required to represent the
segment.
Segment offset (d): Number of bits required to represent the position
of data within a segment.

Advantages of Segmentation in Operating System

Reduced Internal Fragmentation : Segmentation can reduce internal
fragmentation compared to fixed-size paging, as segments can be sized
according to the actual needs of a process. However, internal
fragmentation can still occur if a segment is allocated more space than
it is actually used.
Segment Table consumes less space in comparison to Page table in
paging.
As a complete module is loaded all at once, segmentation improves
CPU utilization.
The user’s perception of physical memory is quite similar to
segmentation. Users can divide user programs into modules via
segmentation. These modules are nothing more than separate
processes’ codes.
The user specifies the segment size, whereas, in paging, the hardware
determines the page size.
Segmentation is a method that can be used to segregate data from
security operations.
Flexibility: Segmentation provides a higher degree of flexibility than
paging. Segments can be of variable size, and processes can be
designed to have multiple segments, allowing for more fine-grained
memory allocation.
Sharing: Segmentation allows for sharing of memory segments
between processes. This can be useful for inter-process communication
or for sharing code libraries.
Protection: Segmentation provides a level of protection between
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 process’s memory segment. This can help increase the security and
stability of the system.

Disadvantages of Segmentation in Operating System

External Fragmentation : As processes are loaded and removed from
memory, the free memory space is broken into little pieces, causing
external fragmentation. This is a notable difference from paging, where
external fragmentation is significantly lesser.
Overhead is associated with keeping a segment table for each activity.
Due to the need for two memory accesses, one for the segment table
and the other for main memory, access time to retrieve the instruction
increases.
Fragmentation: As mentioned, segmentation can lead to external
fragmentation as memory becomes divided into smaller segments. This
can lead to wasted memory and decreased performance.
Overhead: Using a segment table can increase overhead and reduce
performance. Each segment table entry requires additional memory,
and accessing the table to retrieve memory locations can increase the
time needed for memory operations.
Complexity: Segmentation can be more complex to implement and
manage than paging. In particular, managing multiple segments per
process can be challenging, and the potential for segmentation faults
can increase as a result.

FAQs on Segmentation

1. What is Segmentation?

Answer:

Segmentation in Operating systems can be determined as a division

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 2. Why is Segmentation used in OS?

Answer:

Segmentation is a memory management technique that is used to

improve the performance of an Operating System.

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score in it but to get the best score our GATE CS/IT 2025 - Self-Paced
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 Video | Segmentation in Memory Management Visit Course

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 Article Tags : GATE CS Operating Systems memory-management

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Transaction Isolation Levels in DBMS

Last Updated : 17 Sep, 2024

The levels of transaction isolation in DBMS determine how the

concurrently running transactions behave and, therefore, ensure data
consistency with performance being even. There are four basic levels-
Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read, and Serializable
that provide different degrees of data protection from providing fast access
with possible incoherence and strict accuracy at the cost of performance. It
depends upon choosing the right one based on whether the need is speed
or data integrity.

What is the Transaction Isolation Level?

In a database management system, transaction isolation levels define the
degree to which the operations in one transaction are isolated from the
operations of other concurrent transactions. In other words, it defines how
and when the changes made by one transaction are visible to others to
assure data consistency and integrity.

As we know, to maintain consistency in a database, it follows ACID

properties. Among these four properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
and Durability) Isolation determines how transaction integrity is visible to
other users and systems. It means that a transaction should take place in a
system in such a way that it is the only transaction that is accessing the
resources in a database system.

Isolation levels define the degree to which a transaction must be isolated

from the data modifications made by any other transaction in the database
system. A transaction isolation level is defined by the following
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 Dirty Read – A Dirty read is a situation when a transaction reads data
that has not yet been committed. For example, Let’s say transaction 1
updates a row and leaves it uncommitted, meanwhile, Transaction 2
reads the updated row. If transaction 1 rolls back the change,
transaction 2 will have read data that is considered never to have
existed.
Non Repeatable read – Non-realatable read occurs when a transaction
reads the same row twice and gets a different value each time. For
example, suppose transaction T1 reads data. Due to concurrency,
another transaction T2 updates the same data and commit, Now if
transaction T1 rereads the same data, it will retrieve a different value.
Phantom Read – Phantom Read occurs when two same queries are
executed, but the rows retrieved by the two, are different. For example,
suppose transaction T1 retrieves a set of rows that satisfy some search
criteria. Now, Transaction T2 generates some new rows that match the
search criteria for Transaction T1. If transaction T1 re-executes the
statement that reads the rows, it gets a different set of rows this time.

Based on these phenomena, The SQL standard defines four isolation

levels:

1. Read Uncommitted – Read Uncommitted is the lowest isolation level.

In this level, one transaction may read not yet committed changes made
by other transactions, thereby allowing dirty reads. At this level,
transactions are not isolated from each other.
2. Read Committed – This isolation level guarantees that any data read is
committed at the moment it is read. Thus it does not allow dirty read.
The transaction holds a read or write lock on the current row, and thus
prevents other transactions from reading, updating, or deleting it.
3. Repeatable Read – This is the most restrictive isolation level. The
transaction holds read locks on all rows it references and writes locks
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 transactions cannot read, update or delete these rows, consequently it
avoids non-repeatable read.
4. Serializable – This is the highest isolation level. A serializable
execution is guaranteed to be serializable. Serializable execution is
defined to be an execution of operations in which concurrently
executing transactions appears to be serially executing.

The Table given below clearly depicts the relationship between

isolation levels, read phenomena, and locks:

Anomaly Serializable is not the same as Serializable. That is, it is

necessary, but not sufficient that a Serializable schedule should be free of
all three phenomena types. Transaction isolation levels are used in
database management systems (DBMS) to control the level of interaction
between concurrent transactions.
The four standard isolation levels are:
1. Read Uncommitted: This is the lowest level of isolation where a
transaction can see uncommitted changes made by other transactions.
This can result in dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom reads.
2. Read Committed: In this isolation level, a transaction can only see
changes made by other committed transactions. This eliminates dirty
reads but can still result in non-repeatable reads and phantom reads.
3. Repeatable Read: This isolation level guarantees that a transaction will
see the same data throughout its duration, even if other transactions
commit changes to the data. However, phantom reads are still possible.
4. Serializable: This is the highest isolation level where a transaction is
executed
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are no dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, or phantom reads.
 Trending Now DSA Web Tech Foundational Courses Data Science Practice Problem Python Mach

Sniffing of Login Credential or Password Capturing in

Wireshark
Last Updated : 28 Mar, 2023

Wireshark is a free and open-source packet analysis tool that lets you
capture and analyze network traffic in real-time. It is available for
Windows, macOS, and Linux operating systems.

Wireshark captures network packets and displays the captured data in a

human-readable format for easy analysis and troubleshooting of network
issues. It can scan a variety of network protocols including TCP, UDP,
HTTP, DNS, etc.

So, in this article, we will understand how we can perform the sniffing of
login credentials or how to capture the password using Wireshark. and
also see the overview of the Wireshark tool in terms of network security.

Password Capturing

Wireshark can capture not only passwords but any type of information
transmitted over the network: usernames, email addresses, personal
information, etc. As long as we can capture network traffic, Wireshark can
sniff passing passwords.

In sniffing can include passwords for various protocols such as HTTP, FTP,
Telnet, etc. the captured data can be used to troubleshoot network
problems, but can also be used maliciously to gain unauthorized access to
sensitive information.

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using
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analyzer. and see the outputs of the following
 steps.

Step 1: First of all, open your Wireshark tool in your window or in Linux
virtual machine. and start capturing the network. suppose I am capturing
my wireless fidelity.

Step 2: After starting the packet capturing we will go to the website and
login the credential on that website as you can see in the image.

Step 3: Now after completing the login credential we will go and capture
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to find the login credential through the packet capturing.
Privacy Policy
 Step 4: Wireshark has captured some packets but we specifically looking
for HTTP packets. so in the display filter bar we use some command to
find all the captured HTTP packets. as you can see in the below image the
green bar where we apply the filter.

http

Step 5: So there are some HTTP packets are captured but we specifically
looking for form data that the user submitted to the website. for that, we
have a separate filter

As we know that there are main two methods used for submitting form
data from web pages like login forms to the server. the methods are-

GET
POST

Step 6: So firstly for knowing the credential we use the first method and
apply the filter for the GET methods as you can see below.

http.request.method == "GET"

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 GET method

As you can see in the image there are two packets where the login page
was requested with a GET request as well, but there is no form data
submitted with a GET request.

Step 7: Now after checking the GET method if we didn’t find the form data,
then we will try the POST method for that we will apply the filter on
Wireshark as you can see.

http.request.method == "POST"

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 HTML form URL Encoded where the login credential is found. login
credential as it is the same that we filed on the website in step 2.

Form item: "uname" = "Tonystark_44"

Form item: "pass" = "tony@1234"

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