Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 77

configurations, i.e., position and orientation of the parts, before the robot starts
welding.
There could be other scenarios like identifying the color code of a particular car
model before painting with that color is done by the robot, etc.

4.1 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

The major capabilities required by a robot are as follows:
Simple Touch The presence or absence of an object.
Taction or Complex Touch The presence of an object plus some information on
its size and shape.
Simple Force Measured force along a single axis.
Complex Force Measured force along two or more axes.
Proximity Noncontact detection of an object.
Simple Vision Detection of edges, holes, corners, and so on.
Complex Vision Recognition of shapes.
Based on the type of signals a sensor or transducer receives and processes, it can
be classified as analog or digital. In analog sensors, with the variation of input there
is a continuous variation of output, whereas in case of digital sensors, the output is
of digital or discrete nature. For example, potentiometers, tacho-generators located
at the joints and strain-gauge-based sensors located at the end-effector of a robot fall
in the category of analog sensors, whereas encoders, located at the robot’s joints,
are digital sensors. In this book, sensors are, however, classified based on what they
sense, i.e., internal or external state of the robots, etc., as shown Fig. 4.1.

4.2 INTERNAL SENSORS

Internal sensors, as the name suggests, are used to measure internal state of a robot,
i.e., its position, velocity, acceleration, etc., at a particular instant. Based on these
information, control command is decided by the controller. Depending on the
quantities it measures, a sensor is termed as the position, velocity, acceleration, or
force sensor.
4.2.1 Position Sensors
Position sensors measure the position of each joint, i.e., joint angle of a robot. From
these joint angles, one can find the end-effector configuration, namely, its position
and orientation, through forward kinematics which will be taken up in Chapter 6.
Different position sensors are explained next.
1. Encoder The encoder is a digital optical device that converts motion into a
sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the
pulses can be converted to relative or absolute measurements. Thus, encoders are of
incremental or absolute type. Further, each type may be again linear and rotary.
 78
Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.1 Classification of sensors

 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 79

Incremental Linear Encoder As shown in Fig. 4.2(a), it has a transparent glass

scale with opaque grating. The thickness of grating lines and the gap between them
is made same, which are in the range of microns. One side of the scale is provided
with a light source and a condenser lens. On the other side there are light-sensitive
cells. The resistance of the cells (photodiodes) decreases whenever a beam of light
falls on them. Thus, a pulse is generated each time a beam of light is intersected by
the opaque line. This pulse is fed to the controller, which updates a counter (a record
of the distance traveled).
Absolute Linear Encoder It is similar in principle as the incremental linear
encoder. The difference is that it gives absolute value of the distance covered at
any time. Thus, the chance of missing the pulses at high speeds is less. The output
is digital in this case. The scale is marked in a sequence of opaque and transparent
strips, as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). In the scale shown, if the opaque block represents
1 (one) and the transparent block as 0 (zero) then the leftmost column will show a
binary number as 00000, i.e., a decimal value of 0, and the rightmost column will
show a binary number 11111, i.e., a decimal value of 61.
Incremental Rotary Encoder It is similar to the linear incremental encoder with a
difference that the gratings are now on a circular disc, as in Fig. 4.2(c). The common
value of the width of transparent spaces is 20 microns. There are two sets of grating
lines on two different circles which detect direction of rotation, and one can also
enhance the accuracy of the sensor. There is another circle, which contains only one
grating mark. It is used for measurement of full circles.
Absolute Rotary Encoder Similar to the absolute linear encoder, the circular disk
is divided into a number of circular strips and each strip has definite arc segments,
as shown in Fig. 4.2(d). This sensor directly gives the digital output (absolute). The
encoder is directly mounted on the motor shaft or with some gearing to enhance the
accuracy of measurement. To avoid noise in this encoder, a gray scale is sometimes
used. A Gray code, unlike binary codes, allows only one of the binary bits in a code
sequence to change between radial lines. It prevents confusing changes in the binary
output of the absolute encoder when the encoder oscillates between points. A sample
Gray code is given in Table 4.1 for some numbers. Note the difference between the
Gray and binary codes. The basic arrangement of the rotary encoder is shown in Fig.
4.2(e).

Table 4.1 Sample Gray codes

Decimal Binary code Gray code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
 80 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.2 Encoders

Example 4.1 Angular Position of an Encoder

If maximum count possible is p pulses and the range of a rotary encoder is ±qm then
the angular position corresponding to a count of n pulses is given as follows:
n
q= q (4.1)
p m

2. Potentiometer A potentiometer, also referred as simply pot, is a variable-

resistance device that expresses linear or angular displacements in terms of voltage,
as shown in Figs. 4.3(a-b), respectively. It consists of a wiper that makes contact with
a resistive element, and as this point of contact moves, the resistance between the
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 81

wiper and end leads of the device changes in proportion to the displacement, x and q
for linear and angular potentiometers, respectively.

Fig. 4.3 Potentiometers

3. LVDT The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is one of the most
used displacement transducers, particularly when high accuracy is needed. It generates
an ac signal whose magnitude is related to the displacement of a moving core, as
indicated in Fig. 4.4. The basic concept is that of a ferrous core moving in a magnetic
field, the field being produced in a manner similar to that of a standard transformer.
There is a central core surrounded by two identical secondary coils and a primary
coil, as shown in Fig. 4.4. As the core changes position with respect to the coils, it
changes the magnetic field, and hence the voltage amplitude in the secondary coil
changes as a linear function of the core displacement over a considerable segment. A
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) operates under the same principle
as the LVDT is also available with a range of approximately ±40°.

Fig. 4.4 Principle of LVDT

 82 Introduction to Robotics

4. Synchros and Resolver While encoders give digital output, synchros and
resolvers provide analog signal as their
What are arc-minute
output. They consist of a rotating shaft
and arc-second?
(rotor) and a stationary housing (stator).
Their signals must be converted into the They are the measures of small angles.
one degree = 60 arc-minutes and
digital form through an analog-to-digital
one arc-minute = 60 arc-seconds.
converter before the signal is fed to the
computer.
As illustrated in Fig. 4.5, synchros and resolvers employ single-winding rotors
that revolve inside fixed stators. In a simple synchro, the stator has three windings
oriented 120° apart and electrically connected in a Y-connection. Resolvers differ
from synchros in that their stators have only two windings oriented at 90°. Because
synchros have three stator coils in a 120° orientation, they are more difficult than
resolvers to manufacture and are, therefore, more costly.
Modern resolvers, in contrast, are available in a brushless form that employ a
transformer to couple the rotor signals from the stator to the rotor. The primary
winding of this transformer resides on the stator, and the secondary on the rotor.
Other resolvers use more traditional brushes or slip rings to couple the signal into the
rotor winding. Brushless resolvers are more rugged than synchros because there are
no brushes to break or dislodge, and the life of a brushless resolver is limited only by
its bearings. Most resolvers are specified to work over 2 V to 40 V rms (root mean
square) and at frequencies from 400 Hz to 10 kHz. Angular accuracies range from 5
arc-minutes to 0.5 arc-minutes.

Fig. 4.5 Synchros and resolvers

In operation, synchros and resolvers resemble rotating transformers. The rotor

winding is excited by an ac reference voltage, at frequencies up to a few kHz. The
magnitude of the voltage induced in any stator winding is proportional to the sine
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 83

of the angle q between the rotor-coil axis and the stator-coil axis. In the case of a
synchro, the voltage induced across any pair of stator terminals will be the vector
sum of the voltages across the two connected coils. For example, if the rotor of a
synchro is excited with a reference voltage, V sin (w t), across its terminal R1 and R2,
the stator’s terminal will see voltages denoted as V0 in the form:
V0(S1 − S3) = V sin (w t) sin q (4.2a)
V0(S3 − S2) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 120°) (4.2b)
V0(S2 − S1) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 240°) (4.2c)
where S1, S2, etc., denotes the stator terminals. Moreover, V and w are the input
amplitude and frequency, respectively, whereas q is the shaft angle. In the case of a
resolver, with a rotor ac reference voltage of V sin (w t), the stator’s terminal voltages
will be
V0(S1 − S3) = V sin (w t) sin q (4.3a)
V0(S4 − S2) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 90°) = V sin (w t) cos q (4.3b)
As said earlier, the output of these synchros and resolvers must be first digitized.
To do this, analog-to-digital converters are used. These are typically 8-bit or 16-
bit. An 8-bit means that the whole range of analog signals will be converted into a
maximum of 28 = 256 values.
4.2.2 Velocity Sensors
Velocity or speed sensors measure by taking consecutive position measurements at
known time intervals and computing the time rate of change of the position values or
directly finding it based on different principles.
1. All Position Sensors Basically, all position sensors when used with certain
time bounds can give velocity, e.g., the number of pulses given by an incremental
position encoder divided by the time consumed in doing so. But this scheme puts
some computational load on the controller which may be busy in some other
computations.
2. Tachometer Such sensors can directly find the velocity at any instant of time,
and without much of computational load. This measures the speed of rotation of
an element. There are various types of tachometers in use but a simpler design is
based on the Fleming’s rule, which states ‘the voltage produced is proportional to the
rate of flux linkage.’ Here, a conductor (basically a coil) is attached to the rotating
element which rotates in a magnetic field (stator). As the speed of the shaft increases,
the voltage produced at the coil terminals also increases. In other ways, as shown in
Fig. 4.6, one can put a magnet on the rotating shaft and a coil on the stator. The
voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation of the shaft. This information
is digitized using an analog-to-digital converter and passed on to the computer.
3. Hall-effect Sensor Another velocity-measuring device is the Hall-effect
sensor, whose principle is described next. If a flat piece of conductor material, called
Hall chip, is attached to a potential difference on its two opposite faces, as indicated
in Fig. 4.7 then the voltage across the perpendicular faces is zero. But if a magnetic
field is imposed at right angles to the conductor, the voltage is generated on the two
 84 Introduction to Robotics

other perpendicular faces. Higher the field value, higher the voltage level. If one
provides a ring magnet, the voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation
of the magnet.

Fig. 4.6 Schematic diagram of a tachometer

Fig. 4.7 Principle of Hall-effect sensor

4.2.3 Acceleration Sensors

Similar to measurements of velocity Why acceleration from force
from the information of position sensors, but not from velocity?
one can find the accelerations as the time
rate of change of velocities obtained Finding acceleration from force involves
integration which suppresses any noise in
from velocity sensors or calculated the force signal. However, if the velocity
from the position information. But signal is used to determine acceleration,
this is not an efficient way to calculate differentiation has to be performed which
the acceleration because this will put amplifies the noise in the velocity signal.
a heavy computational load on the Hence, the latter is never advisable.
computer and that can hamper the speed
of operation of the system. Another way to compute the acceleration is to measure
the force which is the result of mass times acceleration. Forces are measured, for
example, using strain gauges for which the formula is
DRAE
F= (4.4)
RG
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 85

where F is force, DR is the change in resistance of the strain gauge, A is the cross-
sectional area of the member on which the force being applied, E is the elastic
modulus of the strain-gauge material, R is the original resistance of the gauge, and
G is gauge factor of the strain gauge. Then, the acceleration a is the force divided by
mass of the accelerating object m, i.e.,
F DRAE
a= = (4.5)
m RCm
It is pointed out here that the velocities
What is Gauge Factor?
and accelerations that are measured using
It is a measure of sensitivity for the strain
position sensors require differentiations.
gauges, and defined by
It is generally not desirable, as the 1 DR
noise in the measured data, if any, will G=
e R
be amplified. Alternatively, the use of
where G is the gauge factor, and e is
integrators to obtain the velocity from strain.
the acceleration, and consequently the
position, are recommended. Integrators tend to suppress the noise.
Example 4.2 Change in Resistance
If the gauge factor G = 2, resistance of the unreformed wire R = 100 W, and strain
e = 10–6, then change in resistance is given by
DR = GeR = 2 × 10–6 × 100 = 0.0002 W (4.6)

4.2.4 Force Sensors

A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, namely, the weight,
is applied to the scale pan that causes displacement, i.e., the spring stretches. The
displacement is then a measure of the force. There exist other types of force sensors,
e.g., strain-gauge based, Hall-effect sensor, etc.
1. Strain-gauge Based The principle of this type of sensors is that the elongation
of a conductor increases its resistance. Typical resistances for strain gauges are 50–
100 ohms. The increase in resistance is due to
∑ Increase in the length of the conductor; and
∑ Decrease in the cross-section area of the conductor.
Strain gauges are made of electrical conductors, usually wire or foil, etched on a
base material, as shown in Fig. 4.8. They are glued on the surfaces where strains are
to be measured, e.g., R1 and R2 of Fig. 4.9(a). The strains cause changes in the
resistances of the strain gauges, which are measured by attaching them to the
Wheatstone bridge circuit as one of the four resistances, R1 . . . R4 of Fig. 4.9(b). The
principle of a Wheatstone bridge is explained in Section
4.5.5. It is a cheap and accurate method of measuring
strain. But care should be taken for the temperature
changes. In order to enhance the output voltage and cancel
away the resistance changes due to the change in
temperature, two strain gauges are used, as shown in Fig.
4.9(a), to measure the force at the end of the cantilever
beam. Fig. 4.8 Strain gauges
 86 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.9 Strain measurement

2. Piezoelectric Based A piezoelectric material exhibits a phenomenon known

as the piezoelectric effect. This effect states that when asymmetrical, elastic crystals
are deformed by a force, an electrical potential will be developed within the distorted
crystal lattice, as illustrated in Fig. 4.10. This effect is reversible. That is, if a potential
is applied between the surfaces of the
crystal, it will change its physical
dimensions. The magnitude and polarity of
the induced charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied
force. The piezoelectric materials are
quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salt, and
others. The range of forces that can be
measured using piezoelectric sensors are
from 1 to 20 kN and at a ratio of 2 × 105.
These sensors can be used to measure an Fig. 4.10 Piezoelectric sensor
instantaneous change in force (dynamic
forces).
3. Current Based Since the torque provided by an electric motor is a function
of the current drawn, its measurement, along with the known motor characteristics,
gives the torque sensing.
Example 4.3 Force and Acceleration using Strain Gauges
If the strain gauge of Example 4.2 is used to measure applied force, F on a member
of cross-sectional area, A = 10 mm2, and Young’s modulus, E = 6.9×10-10 N/m2 (for
aluminium), then using Eq. (4.4)
AE DR (10 ¥ 10 -6 )(6.9 ¥ 1010 )(0.0002)
F= = = 0.69 N (4.7)
GR 2(100)
If the mass of the member m = 3 kg then using equations (4.5) and (4.7)
0.69
a= = 0.21 m/s2 (4.8)
3
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 87

4.3 EXTERNAL SENSORS

External sensors are primarily used to learn more about a robot’s environment,
especially the objects being manipulated. External sensors can be divided into the
following categories:
∑ Contact type, and
∑ Noncontact type.
4.3.1 Contact Type
In this section, a contact-type force sensor is explained.
Limit Switch A limit switch is constructed
much as the ordinary light switch used at homes
and offices. It has the same on-off characteristics.
The limit switch usually has a pressure-sensitive
mechanical arm, as shown in Fig. 4.11(a). When
an object applies pressure on the mechanical arm,
the switch is energized. An object might have an
attached magnet that causes a contact to rise and
close when the object passes over the arm. As
shown in Fig. 4.11(b), the pull-up register keeps
the signal at +V until the switch closes, sending Fig. 4.11 Limit switch
the signal to ground. Limit switches can be either
Normally Open (NO) or Normally Closed (NC), and may have multiple-poles. A
normally open switch has continuity when pressure is applied. A single-pole switch
allows one circuit to be opened or closed upon contact, whereas a multi-pole switch
allows multiple switch circuits to be open or closed. Limit switches are mechanical
devices which have problems like
∑ they are subjected to mechanical failure,
∑ their mean time between failures is low compared to noncontact sensors, and
∑ the speed of operation is relatively slow compared to the speed of switching of
photoelectric micro-sensors which is up to 3000 times faster.
Limit switches are used in robots to detect the extreme positions of the motions,
where the link reaching an extreme position switches off the corresponding actuator,
thus, safeguarding any possible damage to the mechanical structure of the robot arm.
4.3.2 Noncontact Type
Here, noncontact-type force sensors and their principles are presented.
1. Proximity Sensor Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence
or absence of an object with an electronic noncontact-type sensor. Proximity sensors
are of two types, inductive and capacitive. Inductive proximity sensors are used in
place of limit switches for noncontact sensing of metallic objects, whereas capacitive
proximity sensors are used on the same basis as inductive proximity sensors.
However, these can also detect nonmetallic objects.
Inductive Proximity Sensor All inductive proximity sensors consist of four basic
elements, namely, the following:
 88 Introduction to Robotics

∑ Sensor coil and ferrite core

∑ Oscillator circuit
∑ Detector circuit
∑ Solid-state output circuit
As shown in Fig. 4.12, the oscillator circuit
generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic field.
The field is centred around the axis of the ferrite
core, which shapes the field and directs it at the
sensor face. When a metal target approaches the
face and enters the field, eddy currents are induced
into the surface of the target. This results in a
loading or damping effect that causes a reduction
in amplitude of the oscillator signal. The detector
circuit detects the change in the oscillator
amplitude. The detector circuit will ‘switch on’ at
specific operating amplitude. This signal ‘turns
on’ the solid-state output circuit. This is often
referred to as damped condition. As the target
leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds
with an increase in amplitude. As the amplitude
increases above a specific value, it is detected by
the detector circuit, which is ‘switched off’ causing
the output signal to return to the normal or ‘off’
state. The sensing range of an inductive proximity
sensor refers to the distance between the sensor
face and the target. It also indicates the shape of
the sensing field generated through the coil and the
core. There are several mechanical and
environmental factors that affect the sensing range.
The usual range is up to 10–15 mm but some Fig. 4.12 Inductive proximity
sensors have ranges as high as 100 mm. sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor A capacitive proximity sensor operates much like

an inductive proximity sensor. However, the means of sensing is considerably
different. Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric capacitance. Capacitance is the
property of insulators to store the charge. A capacitor consists of two plates separated
by an insulator, usually called a dielectric.
When the switch is closed, a charge is stored on
the two plates. The distance between the plates
determines the ability of the capacitor to store
the charge and can be calibrated as a function of
stored charge to determine discrete ON and
OFF switching status. Figure 4.13 illustrates
the principle of a capacitive sensor. One
capacitive plate is part of the switch, the sensor
face is the insulator, and the target is the other Fig. 4.13 Principle of capacitive
plate. Ground is the common path. The sensors
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 89

capacitive switch has the same four elements as the inductive sensor, i.e., sensor (the
dielectric media), oscillator circuit, detector circuit, and solid-state output circuit.
The oscillator circuit in a capacitive switch operates like one in an inductive
switch. The oscillator circuit includes capacitance from the external target plate
and the internal plate. In a capacitive sensor, the oscillator starts oscillating when
sufficient feedback capacitance is detected. Major characteristics of the capacitive
proximity sensors are as follows:
∑ They can detect non-metallic targets.
∑ They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by
mechanical limit switches.
∑ They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting
applications.
∑ They can detect limit targets through nonmetallic barriers (glass, plastics, etc.).
∑ They have long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of operating
cycles.
∑ The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal.
Capacitive proximity sensors have two major limitations.
∑ The sensors are affected by moisture and humidity, and
∑ They must have extended range for effective sensing.
Capacitive proximity sensors have a greater sensing range than inductive
proximity sensors. Sensing distance for capacitive switches is a matter of plate
area, as coil size is for inductive proximity sensors. Capacitive sensors basically
measure a dielectric gap. Accordingly, it is desirable to be able to compensate for
the target and application conditions with a sensitivity adjustment for the sensing
range. Most capacitive proximity sensors are equipped with a sensitivity adjustment
potentiometer.
2. Semiconductor Displacement Sensor As shown in Fig. 4.14, a
semiconductor displacement sensor uses a semiconductor Light Emitting Diode
(LED) or laser as a light source, and a Position-Sensitive Detector (PSD). The laser
[Courtesy: http://www.sensorcentral.com/displacement/
laser02.php]

Fig. 4.14 Semiconductor-based sensor

 90 Introduction to Robotics

beam is focused on the target by a lens. The target reflects the beam, which is then
focused on to the PSD forming a beam spot. The beam spot moves on the PSD as
the target moves. The displacement of the workpiece can then be determined by
detecting the movement of the beam spot.

4.4 VISION
Vision can be defined as the task of
extracting information about the external Computer Vision vs. Computer Graphics
world from light rays imaged by a camera Computer vision can be thought of as
or an eye. Vision, also referred in the ‘inverse computer graphics.’ Computer
literature as computer vision or machine graphics deals with how to generate images
from a specification of the visual scene (e.g.,
vision or robot vision, is a major subject objects, scene structures, light sources),
of research and many textbooks, e.g., by whereas computer vision inverts this process
Haralick and Shapiro (1992, 1993), and to infer the structure of the world from the
others. A good coverage on the topic has observed image(s).
also appeared in Niku (2001). There are
also dedicated journals, e.g., Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, and
conferences in the area of robot vision. The area is so vast that it cannot be covered
in one section or chapter of a book. However, an attempt is made here to introduce
the basic concepts and techniques so that one is able to understand the systems and
methodologies used in robot vision. For detailed study and research, other references
in the area should be consulted.
Note in Fig. 4.1 that the vision systems or vision sensors are classified as external
noncontact type. They are used by robots to let them look around and find the parts,
for example, picking and placing them at appropriate locations. Earlier, fixtures
were used with robots for accurate positioning of the parts. Such fixtures are very
expensive. A vision system can provide alternative economic solution. Other tasks
of vision systems used with robots include the following:
1. Inspection Checking for gross surface defects, discovery of flaws in labeling,
verification of the presence of components in assembly, measuring for dimensional
accuracy, checking the presence of holes and other features in a part.
2. Identification Here, the purpose is to recognize and classify an object rather
than to inspect it. Inspection implies that the part must be either accepted or rejected.
3. Visual Servoing and Navigation Control The purpose here is to direct the
actions of the robot based on its visual inputs, for example, to control the trajectory
of the robot’s end-effector toward an object in the workspace. Industrial applications
of visual servoing are part positioning, retrieving parts moving along a conveyor,
seam tracking in continuous arc welding, etc.
All of the above applications someway require the determination of the
configuration of the objects, motion of the objects, reconstruction of the 3D geometry
of the objects from their 2D images for measurements, and building the maps of the
environments for a robot’s navigation. Coverage of vision system is from a few
millimetres to tens of metres with either narrow or wide angles, depending upon the
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 91

system needs and design. Figure 4.15 shows a typical visual system connected to an
industrial robot.

[Courtesy: PAR Lab., IIT Delhi]

Fig. 4.15 Hardware components of a vision system

4.4.1 Elements in a Vision Sensor

In vision systems, the principal imaging component is a complete camera including
sensing array, associated electronics, output signal format, and lens, as shown in
Fig. 4.16.

Fig. 4.16 Principal of a camera or vision system [Courtesy: Siciliano, 2010]

The task of the camera as a vision sensor is to measure the intensity of the light
reflected by an object, as indicated in Fig. 4.16, using a photosensitive element
termed pixel (or photosite). A pixel is capable of transforming light energy into
electric energy. The sensors of different types like CCD, CMOS, etc., are available
depending on the physical principle exploited to realize the energy transformation.
Depending on the application, the camera could be RS-170/CCIR, NTSC/PAL (These
are American RS-170 monocolor, European/Indian CCIR monocolor, NTSC color,
PAL color television standard signal produced by the video cameras, respectively)
progressive scan, variable scan, or line scan. Five major system parameters which
govern the choice of camera are field of view, resolution, working distance, depth of
field, and image data acquisition rate. As a rule of thumb, for size measurement, the
sensor should have a number of pixels at least twice the ratio of the largest to smallest
object sizes of interest.