All 2nd Semester Subjects

Professional English - II - HS3252 Engineering Graphics - GE3251

Statistics and Numerical Methods - Physics for Electronics Engineering -
MA3251 PH3254
Physics for Electrical Engineering - Physics for Civil Engineering - PH3201
PH3202
Materials Science - PH3251 Basic Electrical and Electronics
Engineering - BE3251
Physics for Information Science - Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering -
PH3256 BE3255
Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Electric Circuit Analysis (Circuit
Engineering - BE3254 Theory) - EE3251
Programming in C - CS3251 Circuit Analysis - EC3251
Data Structures Design - AD3251
 www.Poriyaan.in

CS8251 - PROGRAMMING IN C

UNIT-I
PART A

1. What are the various types of operators?

C supports the following types of operators
Unary
Unary Plus +
Unary Minus -
Increment ++
Decrement --
Binary
Arithmetic +,-,*,/,%
Relational <,>,<=,>=,==,!=
Logical &&,||,!
Bitwise &,|,^,<<,>>
Assignment =
Shorthand assignment +=, -=,*=,/=,%=
Ternary
?:
Special
Sizeof(), *. ->

2. Write a for loop to print from 10 to 1

for(i=10;i>0;i--)
printf(―%d‖,i);

3. Write any two preprocessor directives in C

Preprocessor directive instructions are used to instruct the preprocessor to
expand/translate the source program before compilation
The two types of preprocessor directives are,
#define to define Macro , Global constant
#include to include library files

4. List different datatypes available in C

Data types are used to specify the type of a variable. In c, the data types are
classified into 3 category. They are,
Primary or Built-in : int , char, float
Derived : array, enum, pointer
User defined : function, structure

5. Write a C program to find factorial of a given number using Iteration

void main()
{
int N=5,I,fact=1;
for(i=1;i<=N;i++)
fact=fact*i;
printf(―The factorial value of %d is =%d‖,N,fact);
}
6. What is the use of preprocessor directive?

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 1
 www.Poriyaan.in

- Used to translate one high level language statement into another high level
language statement.
- Used to instruct the preprocessor that how it performs the translation before
compilation.
- Used to perform conditional compilation.
- Used to include other C files or library files.

7. What is the variable? Illustrate with an example

- Variable is a named storage area
- Used to assign a name to a value
- To declare a variable, we need to specify the data type of the value and the variable
name
Data type variable _name ;
- Example
int reg; float avg;

8. Define static storage class

- Storage class specifies the visibility & life time of a variable
- Static storage class initializes a variable to 0.
- Longer life time – Exists throughout the execution of program
- Visibility to all-Any function can access the variable- Shared by all

9. What is the use of #define preprocessor

The #define preprocessor directive is used to define a
Global constant #define PI 3.14
Macro #define big(a,b) a>b?a:b
When a compiler reads the macro name, it replaces the macro name by its expansion. When
it reads the constant label, it replaces the label by its value.

10. What is the importance of keywords in C?

Keywords are reserved identifiers
They performs a specific task , specifies the data type
Keyword can not be used as an identifier
Ex: for , if , int

11. List out various Input & output statements in C

The input & output statements are classified into formatted & unformatted I?O
Formatted I/O : User can able to design/format the output
Unformatted I/O: doesn‘t allow the users to design the output
Type Input Output
Formatted scanf() printf()
Unformatted Getch(), getche() putch(), putchar()
getchar() puts()
gets()

12. What is meant by linking process?

Linking is a process of binding the function call to its definition and binding the label to its
reference. During the linking process the object file is created. This file can be loaded into
memory for execution

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 2
 www.Poriyaan.in

13. What is external storage class?

Ans: Extern stands for external storage class. Extern storage class is used when we have
global functions or variables which are shared between two or more files.
14.What is the difference between structure and union.

PART B
1.Explain the storage classes in c with example programs.

A storage class represents the visibility and a location of a variable. It tells from what part of code
we can access a variable. A storage class is used to describe the following things:
 The variable scope.
 The location where the variable will be stored.
 The initialized value of a variable.
 A lifetime of a variable.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 3
 www.Poriyaan.in

Auto storage class

The variables defined using auto storage class are called as local variables. Auto stands for
automatic storage class. A variable is in auto storage class by default if it is not explicitly specified.
The scope of an auto variable is limited with the particular block only. Once the control goes out of
the block, the access is destroyed. This means only the block in which the auto variable is declared
can access it.
A keyword auto is used to define an auto storage class. By default, an auto variable contains a
garbage value.
Example, auto int age;
The program below defines a function with has two local variables
int add(void) {
int a=13;
auto int b=48;
return a+b;}
We take another program which shows the scope level "visibility level" for auto variables in each
block code which are independently to each other:
#include <stdio.h>
int main( )
{
auto int j = 1;
{
auto int j= 2;
{
auto int j = 3;
printf ( " %d ", j);
}
printf ( "\t %d ",j);
}
printf( "%d\n", j);}
OUTPUT:
321

Extern storage class

Extern stands for external storage class. Extern storage class is used when we have global functions
or variables which are shared between two or more files.
Keyword extern is used to declaring a global variable or function in another file to provide the
reference of variable or function which have been already defined in the original file.
The variables defined using an extern keyword are called as global variables. These variables are
accessible throughout the program. Notice that the extern variable cannot be initialized it has
already been defined in the original file
Example, extern void display();

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 4
 www.Poriyaan.in

First File: main.c

#include <stdio.h>
extern i;
main() {
printf("value of the external integer is = %d\n", i);
return 0;}

Second File: original.c

#include <stdio.h>
i=48;
Result:
value of the external integer is = 48

Static storage class

The static variables are used within function/ file as local static variables. They can also be used as
a global variable
 Static local variable is a local variable that retains and stores its value between function calls
or block and remains visible only to the function or block in which it is defined.
 Static global variables are global variables visible only to the file in which it is declared.
Example: static int count = 10;
Keep in mind that static variable has a default initial value zero and is initialized only once in its
lifetime.
#include <stdio.h> /* function declaration */
void next(void);
static int counter = 7; /* global variable */
main() {
while(counter<10) {
next();
counter++; }
return 0;}
void next( void ) { /* function definition */
static int iteration = 13; /* local static variable */
iteration ++;
printf("iteration=%d and counter= %d\n", iteration, counter);}
Result:
iteration=14 and counter= 7
iteration=15 and counter= 8
iteration=16 and counter= 9
Global variables are accessible throughout the file whereas static variables are accessible only to the
particular part of a code.
The lifespan of a static variable is in the entire program code. A variable which is declared or
initialized using static keyword always contains zero as a default value.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 5
 www.Poriyaan.in

Register storage class

You can use the register storage class when you want to store local variables within functions or
blocks in CPU registers instead of RAM to have quick access to these variables. For example,
"counters" are a good candidate to be stored in the register.
Example: register int age;
The keyword register is used to declare a register storage class. The variables declared using
register storage class has lifespan throughout the program.
It is similar to the auto storage class. The variable is limited to the particular block. The only
difference is that the variables declared using register storage class are stored inside CPU registers
instead of a memory. Register has faster access than that of the main memory.
The variables declared using register storage class has no default value. These variables are often
declared at the beginning of a program.
#include <stdio.h> /* function declaration */
main() {
{register int weight;
int *ptr=&weight ;/*it produces an error when the compilation occurs ,we cannot get a memory
location when dealing with CPU register*/}
}
OUTPUT:
error: address of register variable 'weight' requested
The next table summarizes the principal features of each storage class which are commonly used in
C programming

Storage Declaration Storage Default Initial Scope Lifetime

Class Value

Auto Inside a Memory Unpredictable Within the function/block Within the

function/block function/block

register Inside a CPU Garbage Within the function/block Within the

function/block Registers function/block

Extern Outside all Memory Zero Entire the file and other files program runtime
functions where the variable is
declared as extern

Static Inside a Memory Zero Within the function/block program runtime

(local) function/block

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 6
 www.Poriyaan.in

Static Outside all Memory Zero Global program runtime

(global) functions

2. Explain the decision making statement in c with example programs.

DECISION STATEMENTS
It checks the given condition and then executes its sub-block. The decision statement decides the
statement to be executed after the success or failure of a given condition.
Types:
Decision making is about deciding the order of execution of statements based on certain conditions
or repeat a group of statements until certain specified conditions are met. C language handles
decision-making by supporting the following statements,

 if statement

 switch statement

 conditional operator statement (? : operator)

 goto statement

Decision making with if statement

The if statement may be implemented in different forms depending on the complexity of conditions
to be tested. The different forms are,

1. Simple if statement

2. if....else statement

3. Nested if....else statement

4. Using else if stateme

Simple if statement
The general form of a simple if statement is,

if(expression)

statement inside;

statement outside;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 7
 www.Poriyaan.in

If the expression returns true, then the statement-inside will be executed, otherwise statement-
inside is skipped and only the statement-outside is executed.
Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main( )

int x, y;

x = 15;

y = 13;

if (x > y )

printf("x is greater than y");

x is greater than y

if...else statement
The general form of a simple if...else statement is,

if(expression)

statement block1;

else

statement block2;

}
If the expression is true, the statement-block1 is executed, else statement-block1 is skipped
and statement-block2 is executed.
Example:

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 8
 www.Poriyaan.in

#include <stdio.h>

void main( )

int x, y;

x = 15;

y = 18;

if (x > y )

printf("x is greater than y");

else

printf("y is greater than x");

y is greater than x

Nested if....else statement

The general form of a nested if...else statement is,

if( expression )

if( expression1 )

statement block1;

else

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 9
 www.Poriyaan.in

statement block2;

else

statement block3;

}
if expression is false then statement-block3 will be executed, otherwise the execution continues
and enters inside the first if to perform the check for the next if block, where if expression 1 is true
the statement-block1 is executed otherwise statement-block2 is executed.
Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main( )

int a, b, c;

printf("Enter 3 numbers...");

scanf("%d%d%d",&a, &b, &c);

if(a > b)

if(a > c)

printf("a is the greatest");

else

printf("c is the greatest");

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 10
 www.Poriyaan.in

else

if(b > c)

printf("b is the greatest");

else

printf("c is the greatest");

else if ladder
The general form of else-if ladder is,

if(expression1)

statement block1;

else if(expression2)

statement block2;

else if(expression3 )

statement block3;

else

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 11
 www.Poriyaan.in

default statement;
The expression is tested from the top(of the ladder) downwards. As soon as a true condition is
found, the statement associated with it is executed.
Example :

#include <stdio.h>

void main( )

int a;

printf("Enter a number...");

scanf("%d", &a);

if(a%5 == 0 && a%8 == 0)

printf("Divisible by both 5 and 8");

else if(a%8 == 0)

printf("Divisible by 8");

else if(a%5 == 0)

printf("Divisible by 5");

else

printf("Divisible by none");

3. Explain the looping statement in c with example programs.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 12
 www.Poriyaan.in

LOOP CONTROL STATEMENTS

Loop is a block of statements which are repeatedly executed for certain number of times. Types
1. For loop
2. Nested for loops
3. While loop
4. do while loop
5. do-while statement with while loop

'C' programming language provides us with three types of loop constructs:

1. The while loop
2. The do-while loop
3. The for loop

While Loop

A while loop is the most straightforward looping structure. The basic format of while loop is as
follows:
while (condition) {
statements;
}
It is an entry-controlled loop. In while loop, a condition is evaluated before processing a body of the
loop. If a condition is true then and only then the body of a loop is executed. After the body of a
loop is executed then control again goes back at the beginning, and the condition is checked if it is
true, the same process is executed until the condition becomes false. Once the condition becomes
false, the control goes out of the loop.
After exiting the loop, the control goes to the statements which are immediately after the loop. The
body of a loop can contain more than one statement. If it contains only one statement, then the curly
braces are not compulsory. It is a good practice though to use the curly braces even we have a single
statement in the body.
In while loop, if the condition is not true, then the body of a loop will not be executed, not even
once. It is different in do while loop which we will see shortly.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int num=1; //initializing the variable
while(num<=10) //while loop with condition
{
printf("%d\n",num);
num++; //incrementing operation
}
return 0;
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 13
 www.Poriyaan.in

Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
The above program illustrates the use of while loop. In the above program, we have printed series
of numbers from 1 to 10 using a while loop.

1. We have initialized a variable called num with value 1. We are going to print from 1 to 10
hence the variable is initialized with value 1. If you want to print from 0, then assign the
value 0 during initialization.
2. In a while loop, we have provided a condition (num<=10), which means the loop will
execute the body until the value of num becomes 10. After that, the loop will be terminated,
and control will fall outside the loop.
3. In the body of a loop, we have a print function to print our number and an increment
operation to increment the value per execution of a loop. An initial value of num is 1, after
the execution, it will become 2, and during the next execution, it will become 3. This
process will continue until the value becomes 10 and then it will print the series on console
and terminate the loop.
\n is used for formatting purposes which means the value will be printed on a new line.

Do-While loop

A do-while loop is similar to the while loop except that the condition is always executed after the
body of a loop. It is also called an exit-controlled loop.
The basic format of while loop is as follows:
do {
statements
} while (expression);
As we saw in a while loop, the body is executed if and only if the condition is true. In some cases,
we have to execute a body of the loop at least once even if the condition is false. This type of
operation can be achieved by using a do-while loop.
In the do-while loop, the body of a loop is always executed at least once. After the body is executed,
then it checks the condition. If the condition is true, then it will again execute the body of a loop
otherwise control is transferred out of the loop.
Similar to the while loop, once the control goes out of the loop the statements which are
immediately after the loop is executed.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 14
 www.Poriyaan.in

The critical difference between the while and do-while loop is that in while loop the while is written
at the beginning. In do-while loop, the while condition is written at the end and terminates with a
semi-colon (;)
The following program illustrates the working of a do-while loop:
We are going to print a table of number 2 using do while loop.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int num=1; //initializing the variable
do //do-while loop
{
printf("%d\n",2*num);
num++; //incrementing operation
}while(num<=10);
return 0;
}
Output:
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
In the above example, we have printed multiplication table of 2 using a do-while loop. Let's see
how the program was able to print the series.
1. First, we have initialized a variable 'num' with value 1. Then we have written a do-while
loop.
2. In a loop, we have a print function that will print the series by multiplying the value of num
with 2.
3. After each increment, the value of num will increase by 1, and it will be printed on the
screen.
4. Initially, the value of num is 1. In a body of a loop, the print function will be executed in this
way: 2*num where num=1, then 2*1=2 hence the value two will be printed. This will go on
until the value of num becomes 10. After that loop will be terminated and a statement which
is immediately after the loop will be executed. In this case return 0.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 15
 www.Poriyaan.in

For loop

A for loop is a more efficient loop structure in 'C' programming. The general structure of for loop is
as follows:
for (initial value; condition; incrementation or decrementation )
{
statements;
}
 The initial value of the for loop is performed only once.
 The condition is a Boolean expression that tests and compares the counter to a fixed value
after each iteration, stopping the for loop when false is returned.
 The incrementation/decrementation increases (or decreases) the counter by a set value.
Following program illustrates the use of a simple for loop:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number;
for(number=1;number<=10;number++) //for loop to print 1-10 numbers
{
printf("%d\n",number); //to print the number
}
return 0;
}
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
The above program prints the number series from 1-10 using for loop.
1. We have declared a variable of an int data type to store values.
2. In for loop, in the initialization part, we have assigned value 1 to the variable number. In the
condition part, we have specified our condition and then the increment part.
3. In the body of a loop, we have a print function to print the numbers on a new line in the
console. We have the value one stored in number, after the first iteration the value will be
incremented, and it will become 2. Now the variable number has the value 2. The condition
will be rechecked and since the condition is true loop will be executed, and it will print two
on the screen. This loop will keep on executing until the value of the variable becomes 10.
After that, the loop will be terminated, and a series of 1-10 will be printed on the screen.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 16
 www.Poriyaan.in

In C, the for loop can have multiple expressions separated by commas in each part.
For example:
for (x = 0, y = num; x < y; i++, y--) {
statements;
}
Also, we can skip the initial value expression, condition and/or increment by adding a semicolon.
For example:
int i=0;
int max = 10;
for (; i < max; i++) {
printf("%d\n", i);
}
Notice that loops can also be nested where there is an outer loop and an inner loop. For each
iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop repeats its entire cycle.
Consider the following example, that uses nested for loops output a multiplication table:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i, j;
int table = 2;
int max = 5;
for (i = 1; i <= table; i++) { // outer loop
for (j = 0; j <= max; j++) { // inner loop
printf("%d x %d = %d\n", i, j, i*j);
}
printf("\n"); /* blank line between tables */
}}
Output:
1x0=0
1x1=1
1x2=2
1x3=3
1x4=4
1x5=5

2x0=0
2x1=2
2x2=4
2x3=6
2x4=8
2 x 5 = 10
The nesting of for loops can be done up-to any level. The nested loops should be adequately
indented to make code readable. In some versions of 'C,' the nesting is limited up to 15 loops, but
some provide more.
4.Explain operators inC

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 17
 www.Poriyaan.in

C language supports a rich set of built-in operators. An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler
to perform a certain mathematical or logical manipulation. Operators are used in programs to
manipulate data and variables.
C operators can be classified into following types:

 Arithmetic operators

 Relational operators

 Logical operators

 Bitwise operators

 Assignment operators

 Conditional operators

 Special operators

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
C supports all the basic arithmetic operators. The following table shows all the basic arithmetic
operators.

Operator Description

+ adds two operands

- subtract second operands from first

* multiply two operand

/ divide numerator by denominator

% remainder of division

++ Increment operator - increases

integer value by one

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 18
 www.Poriyaan.in

-- Decrement operator - decreases

integer value by one

Relational operators
The following table shows all relation operators supported by C.

Operator Description

== Check if two operand are equal

!= Check if two operand are not equal.

> Check if operand on the left is greater than operand on

the right

< Check operand on the left is smaller than right operand

>= check left operand is greater than or equal to right

operand

<= Check if operand on left is smaller than or equal to right

operand

Logical operators

C language supports following 3 logical operators. Suppose a = 1 and b = 0,

Operator Description Example

&& Logical AND (a && b) is false

|| Logical OR (a || b) is true

! Logical NOT (!a) is false

Bitwise operators

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 19
 www.Poriyaan.in

Bitwise operators perform manipulations of data at bit level. These operators also perform shifting
of bits from right to left. Bitwise operators are not applied to float or double(These are datatypes,
we will learn about them in the next tutorial).

Operator Description

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

<< left shift

>> right shift

Now lets see truth table for bitwise &, | and ^

a b a&b a|b a^b

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

The bitwise shift operator, shifts the bit value. The left operand specifies the value to be shifted and
the right operand specifies the number of positions that the bits in the value have to be shifted

Assignment Operators
Assignment operators supported by C language are as follows.

Operator Description Example

= assigns values from right side a=b

operands to left side operand

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 20
 www.Poriyaan.in

+= adds right operand to the left a+=b is same

operand and assign the result as a=a+b
to left

-= subtracts right operand from a-=b is same

the left operand and assign the as a=a-b
result to left operand

*= mutiply left operand with the a*=b is same

right operand and assign the as a=a*b
result to left operand

/= divides left operand with the a/=b is same

right operand and assign the as a=a/b
result to left operand

%= calculate modulus using two a%=b is

operands and assign the result same as
to left operand a=a%b

Conditional operator

The conditional operators in C language are known by two more names

1. Ternary Operator

2. ? : Operator
It is actually the if condition that we use in C language decision making, but using conditional
operator, we turn the if condition statement into a short and simple operator.
The syntax of a conditional operator is :

expression 1 ? expression 2: expression 3

Explanation:

 The question mark "?" in the syntax represents the if part.

 The first expression (expression 1) generally returns either true or false, based on which it is
decided whether (expression 2) will be executed or (expression 3)

 If (expression 1) returns true then the expression on the left side of " : " i.e (expression 2) is
executed.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 21
 www.Poriyaan.in

 If (expression 1) returns false then the expression on the right side of " : " i.e (expression 3)
is executed.

Special operator

Operator Description Example

sizeof Returns the size of sizeof(x) return size

an variable of the variable x

& Returns the &x ; return address

address of an of the variable x
variable

* Pointer to a *x ; will be pointer to

variable a variable x

5.Explain preprocessor directive.

Introduction

 A program which processes the source code before it passes through the compiler is known
as preprocessor.
 The commands of the preprocessor are known as preprocessor directives.
 It is placed before the main().
 It begins with a # symbol.
 They are never terminated with a semicolon.

Preprocessor Directives

The preprocessor directives are divided into four different categories which are as follows:

1. Macro expansion
 There are two types of macros - one which takes the argument and another which does not
take any argument.
 Values are passed so that we can use the same macro for a wide range of values.

Syntax:

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 22
 www.Poriyaan.in

#define name replacement text

Where,
name – it is known as the micro template.
replacement text – it is known as the macro expansion.

 A macro name is generally written in capital letters.

 If suitable and relevant names are given macros increase the readability.
 If a macro is used in any program and we need to make some changes throughout the
program we can just change the macro and the changes will be reflected everywhere in the
program.
Example : Simple macro

#define LOWER 30
void main()
{
int i;
for (i=1;i<=LOWER; i++)
{
printf("\n%d", i);
}
}

Example : Macros with arguments

#define AREA(a) (3.14 * a * a)

void main()
{
float r = 3.5, x;
x = AREA (r);
printf ("\n Area of circle = %f", x);
}

Some of the predefined macros which are readily available are as follows:

Macro Description
___LINE___ It contains a current line number as a decimal constant.
___FILE___ It contains the current filename as a string literal.
___DATE___ It shows the current date as a character literal in the ―MMM DD YYYY‖ format.
___TIME___ It shows the current time as a character literal in ―HH:MM:SS‖ format.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 23
 www.Poriyaan.in

___STDC___ It is defined as 1 when the compiler complies with the ANSI standard.
___TIMESTAMP___ It is a sing literal in the form of ―DDD MM YYYY Date HH:MM:SS‖. It is used to speci
and time of the last modification of the current source file.

2. File inclusion
 The file inclusion uses the #include.
Syntax:
#include filename
 The content that is included in the filename will be replaced at the point where the directive
is written.
 By using the file inclusive directive, we can include the header files in the programs.
 Macros, function declarations, declaration of the external variables can all be combined in
the header file instead of repeating them in each of the program.
 The stdio.h header file contains the function declarations and all the information regarding
the input and output.

There are two ways of the file inclusion statement:

i) #include ―file-name‖
ii) #include <file-name>

 If the first way is used, the file and then the filename in the current working directory and
the specified list of directories would be searched.
 If the second way, is used the file and then the filename in the specified list of directories
would be searched.
3. Conditional compilation
 The conditional compilation is used when we want certain lines of code to be compiled or
not.
 It uses directives like #if, #elif, #else, #endif
Syntax

#if TEST <= 5

statement 1;
statement 2;
#else
statement 3;
statement 4;
#endif

If there are a number of conditions to be checked we can use the #elif instead of #else and #if.

4. Miscellaneous directive
There are some directives which do not fall in any of the above mentioned categories.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 24
 www.Poriyaan.in

There are two directives:

i) #undef : This directive is used in relation to the #define directive. It is used to undefine a defined
macro.
ii) #pragma : It is a specialized and rarely used directive. They are used for turning on and off
certain features.

Summary of preprocessor directives

Following table will show you various directives that we have studied in this chapter:

Directives Description
#define It substitutes a preprocessor macro.
#include It inserts a particular header file from another file.
#undef A preprocessor macro is undefined.
#ifdef It returns true if the macro is defined.
#ifndef It returns true if the macro is not defined.
#if It tests if the compile time condition is true.
#else It is an alternative for #if.
#elif It has #else and #if in one statement.
#endif The conditional preprocessor is ended.
#error It prints the error message on stderr.
#pragma It issues special commands to the compiler by using a standardized method.

UNIT- II
PART A
1. Define Array
Array is a collection of similar type of values
All values are stored in continuous memory locations
All values share a common name
Linear data structure. The elements are organized in a sequential order.

2. Name any two library functions for handling string

strlen() – finds the length of a string. It returns an integer value. It counts the no. of
characters except null character & returns the count
strlen(str)
strcpy() – copies the source string into destination string. So, the source string should be
enough to store the destination string.
strcpy(source,destination)

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 25
 www.Poriyaan.in

3. Declare a float array of size 5 and assign 5 values to it

Declaration : float price[5];
Initialization : float price[5]={200.50,150.25,25.5,55.75,40.00}; (or)
float price[]={1.2,3.4,6.5,7.8,9.8};

4. Give an example for initialization of string array

String is a character array.
Collection of one or more characters- enclosed with in double quotes
Declaration : char name[10];
Initialization : char name[10]=‖India‖;
car name[10]={‗I‘,‘n‘,‘d‘,‘i‘,‘a‘};
The char array is terminated by ‗\0‘

5. How a character array is is declared

Declaration : char name[n];
This array can store n-1 characters.
Initialization : char name[10]=‖India‖;
car name[10]={‗I‘,‘n‘,‘d‘,‘i‘,‘a‘};
The char array is terminated by ‗\0‘

6. Write example code to declare two dimensional array

Two dimensional array is an array with two subscript values. First subscript specifies the
row & second subscript specifies the column. Used to process matrix operations.
Declaration : datatype array_name [r][c];
int matrixA[10][10];
This matrixA can store 100 elements in a row major order.

7. What is mean & median of a list of elements?

Mean : Average of the N elements can be computed by
sum of N elements/N
Ex: 2,1,3,4,5
Mean = (2+1+3+4+5)/5 = 3
Median : Middle element of a list. To find the median, the list must be sorted first.
If N is odd then Median= (N+1)/2
Ex: 1,2,3,4,5
Median= 6/2 . The element at 3rd position is the median

If N is even then then Median is the average of

Median= (a[(N+1)/2]+a[(N-1)/2])/2
Ex: 1,2,3,4,5,6
Median=(a[3]+a[2])/2
=4+3/2
=3.5
8. Define Searching
Searching is a process of finding the position of a given element in a list. The searching is
successful if the element is found. There are two types of searching.
Linear Search
Binary Search

9. Define Sorting
Sorting is a process of arranging the elements either in ascending order or descending order.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 26
 www.Poriyaan.in

10. Sort the following elements using selection sort method. 23,55,16,78,2
Step1:Find smallest element in the list & exchange the element with first element of the list
2,55,16,78,23
Step2: Find second smallest value & exchange it with the second element of the list
2,16,55,78,23
Step 3: Continue the process until all the elements are arranged in the order
2,16,23,78,55
Step 4: 2,16,23,55,78

PART B
1.Write a c program to multiply two matrices (2D array) which will be entered by a user.
Ans:
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int m, n, p, q, c, d, k, sum = 0;
int first[10][10], second[10][10], multiply[10][10];

printf("Enter number of rows and columns of first matrix\n");

scanf("%d%d", &m, &n);
printf("Enter elements of first matrix\n");

for (c = 0; c < m; c++)

for (d = 0; d < n; d++)
scanf("%d", &first[c][d]);

printf("Enter number of rows and columns of second matrix\n");

scanf("%d%d", &p, &q);

if (n != p)
printf("The multiplication isn't possible.\n");
else
{
printf("Enter elements of second matrix\n");

for (c = 0; c < p; c++)

for (d = 0; d < q; d++)
scanf("%d", &second[c][d]);

for (c = 0; m; c c++) { <

for (d = 0; d < q; d++) {
for (k = 0; k < p; k++) {
sum = sum + first[c][k]*second[k][d];
}

multiply[c][d] = sum;
sum = 0;
}
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 27
 www.Poriyaan.in

printf("Product of the matrices:\n");

for (c = 0; c < m; c++) {

for (d = 0; d < q; d++)
printf("%d\t", multiply[c][d]);

printf("\n");
}
}

return 0;
}

2.Write a c program to find scaling of two matrices (2D array) which will be entered by a user.(5)
Ans:
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
/* 2D array declaration*/
int disp[2][3];
/*Counter variables for the loop*/
int i, j;
for(i=0; i<2; i++) {
for(j=0;j<3;j++) {
printf(―enter the value to be scaled‖);
scanf(―%d‖,&z);
printf("Enter value for disp[%d][%d]:", i, j);
scanf("%d", &z*disp[i][j]);
}
}

3.Write a c program to find determinant of two matrices (2D array) which will be entered by a user.

#include <stdio.h>

void main()
{
int arr1[10][10],i,j,n;
int det=0;

printf("\n\nCalculate the determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix :\n");

printf("-------------------------------------------------\n");

printf("Input elements in the first matrix :\n");

for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("element - [%d],[%d] : ",i,j);
scanf("%d",&arr1[i][j]);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 28
 www.Poriyaan.in

}
}
printf("The matrix is :\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3 ;j++)
printf("% 4d",arr1[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}

for(i=0;i<3;i++)
det = det + (arr1[0][i]*(arr1[1][(i+1)%3]*arr1[2][(i+2)%3] -
arr1[1][(i+2)%3]*arr1[2][(i+1)%3]));

printf("\nThe Determinant of the matrix is: %d\n\n",det);

}

4.explain Matrix addition program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int r, c, a[100][100], b[100][100], sum[100][100], i, j;
printf("Enter the number of rows (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d", &r);
printf("Enter the number of columns (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d", &c);

printf("\nEnter elements of 1st matrix:\n");

for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &a[i][j]);
}

printf("Enter elements of 2nd matrix:\n");

for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &b[i][j]);
}

// adding two matrices

for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
sum[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
}

// printing the result

printf("\nSum of two matrices: \n");
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("%d ", sum[i][j]);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 29
 www.Poriyaan.in

if (j == c - 1) {
printf("\n\n");
}
}

return 0;
}

5.explain matrix transpose program

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a[10][10], transpose[10][10], r, c, i, j;
printf("Enter rows and columns: ");
scanf("%d %d", &r, &c);

// Assigning elements to the matrix

printf("\nEnter matrix elements:\n");
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &a[i][j]);
}

// Displaying the matrix a[][]

printf("\nEntered matrix: \n");
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("%d ", a[i][j]);
if (j == c - 1)
printf("\n");
}

// Finding the transpose of matrix a

for (i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
transpose[j][i] = a[i][j];
}

6.Explain selection sort

selection Sort in C
Selection sort is another algorithm that is used for sorting. This sorting algorithm, iterates through
the array and finds the smallest number in the array and swaps it with the first element if it is
smaller than the first element. Next, it goes on to the second element and so on until all elements are
sorted.
Example of Selection Sort
Consider the array:
[10,5,2,1]

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 30
 www.Poriyaan.in

The first element is 10. The next part we must find the smallest number from the remaining array.
The smallest number from 5 2 and 1 is 1. So, we replace 10 by 1.
The new array is [1,5,2,10] Again, this process is repeated.
Finally, we get the sorted array as [1,2,5,10].
Let us continue with this article on Selection Sort in C and see how the algorithm works,
Algorithm for Selection Sort:
Step 1 − Set min to the first location
Step 2 − Search the minimum element in the array
Step 3 – swap the first location with the minimum value in the array
Step 4 – assign the second element as min.
Step 5 − Repeat the process until we get a sorted array.
Let us take a look at the code for the the programmatic implementation,
Code for Selection Sort:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int a[100], n, i, j, position, swap;
5 printf("Enter number of elementsn");
6 scanf("%d", &n);
7 printf("Enter %d Numbersn", n);
8 for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
9 scanf("%d", &a[i]);
10 for(i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)
11 {
12 position=i;
13 for(j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
14 {
15 if(a[position] > a[j])
16 position=j;
17 }
18 if(position != i)
19 {
20 swap=a[i];
21 a[i]=a[position];
22 a[position=swap;
23 }
24 }
25 printf("Sorted Array:n");
26 for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
27 printf("%dn", a[i]);
28 return 0;
29 }

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 31
 www.Poriyaan.in

7.Explain Linear search in C

A linear search, also known as a sequential search, is a method of finding an element within a list. It
checks each element of the list sequentially until a match is found or the whole list has been
searched.

A simple approach to implement a linear search is

 Begin with the leftmost element of arr[] and one by one compare x with each element.

 If x matches with an element then return the index.

 If x does not match with any of the elements then return -1.

Implementing Linear Search in C

1 #include<stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int a[20],i,x,n;
6 printf("How many elements?");
7 scanf("%d",&n);
8
9 printf("Enter array elements:n");
10 for(i=0;i<n;++i)
11 scanf("%d",&a[i]);
12
13 printf("nEnter element to search:");
14 scanf("%d",&x);
15
16 for(i=0;i<n;++i)
17 if(a[i]==x)
18 break;
19
20 if(i<n)
21 printf("Element found at index %d",i);
22 else
23 printf("Element not found");
24
25 return 0;
26 }

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 32
 www.Poriyaan.in

8.Explain binary search in C

Binary Search: Search a sorted array by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. Begin with an
interval covering the whole array. If the value of the search key is less than the item in the middle of the
interval, narrow the interval to the lower half. Otherwise narrow it to the upper half. Repeatedly check
until the value is found or the interval is empty.
Example :

The idea of binary search is to use the information that the array is sorted and reduce the time
complexity to O(Log n).

Recursive implementation of Binary Search

// C++ program to implement recursive Binary Search

#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

// A recursive binary search function. It returns

// location of x in given array arr[l..r] is present,
// otherwise -1
int binarySearch(int arr[], int l, int r, int x)
{
if (r >= l) {
int mid = l + (r - l) / 2;

// If the element is present at the middle

// itself
if (arr[mid] == x)
return mid;

// If element is smaller than mid, then

// it can only be present in left subarray
if (arr[mid] > x)
return binarySearch(arr, l, mid - 1, x);

// Else the element can only be present

// in right subarray
return binarySearch(arr, mid + 1, r, x);
}

// We reach here when element is not

// present in array
return -1;
}

int main(void)
{
int arr[] = { 2, 3, 4, 10, 40 };
int x = 10;
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 33
 www.Poriyaan.in

int result = binarySearch(arr, 0, n - 1, x);

(result == -1) ? cout << "Element is not present in array"
: cout << "Element is present at index " << result;
return 0;
}

Output :
Element is present at index 3
Iterative implementation of Binary Search

// C++ program to implement recursive Binary Search

#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

// A iterative binary search function. It returns

// location of x in given array arr[l..r] if present,
// otherwise -1
int binarySearch(int arr[], int l, int r, int x)
{
while (l <= r) {
int m = l + (r - l) / 2;

// Check if x is present at mid

if (arr[m] == x)
return m;

// If x greater, ignore left half

if (arr[m] < x)
l = m + 1;

// If x is smaller, ignore right half

else
r = m - 1;
}

// if we reach here, then element was

// not present
return -1;
}

int main(void)
{
int arr[] = { 2, 3, 4, 10, 40 };
int x = 10;
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
int result = binarySearch(arr, 0, n - 1, x);
(result == -1) ? cout << "Element is not present in array"
: cout << "Element is present at index " << result;
return 0;
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 34
 www.Poriyaan.in

Output :
Element is present at index 3
Time Complexity:
The time complexity of Binary Search can be written as
T(n) = T(n/2) + c
The above recurrence can be solved either using Recurrence T ree method or Master method. It falls in
case II of Master Method and solution of the recurrence is .
Auxiliary Space: O(1) in case of iterative implementation. In case of recursive implementation, O(Logn)
recursion call stack space.
Unit III Functions and pointers

PART A

1. What is a function?
 Function is a set of instructions
 Self contained block
 Performs a specific task
 Used to avoid redundancy of code
2. What is the need for functions?
 To reduce the complexity of large programs
 To increase the readability
 To achieve reusability
 To avoid redundancy of code
 To save Memory
3. What are the uses of pointer?
 Saves Memory Space
 Used for dynamic memory allocation
 Faster execution
 Used to pass array of values to a function as a single argument
4. Define typedef .
 The typedef keyword enables the programmer to create a new data type name by
using an existing data type.
 By using typedef, no new data is created, rather an alternate name is given to a
known data type.

Syntax: typedef existing_data_type new_data_type;

5. What is an Address operator & Indirection operator?

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 35
 www.Poriyaan.in

 Address operator: & -used to assign the address to a pointer variable,

Referencing operator

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 36
 www.Poriyaan.in

 Indirection operator : *- Dereferencing operator is used to access the value at

the pointer variable
Ex: int a=5; int
*p=&a;

printf(―%d‖,*(p));

6. Compare actual parameter & formal argument

Actual argument: Specified in the function call statement. Used to supply the
input values to the function either by copy or reference

Formal argument: Specified in the function definition statement. It takes either copy
or address of the actual arguments

7. How is pointer arithmetic done?

Pointer Arithmetic:

Valid operation

 Pointer can be added with a constant

 Pointer can be subtracted with a Constant
 Pointer can be Incremented or Decremented Not
Valid
 Two pointers can not be added,subtracted,multiplied or divided
Ex: int a=10
int *p=&a; p 10a
2000
p=p+1;
2002

 The pointer holds the address 2000. This value is added with 1.
 The data type size of the constant is added with the address. p=
2000+(2*1)=2002
8. List out any 4 math functions
pow(x,y) : used to find power of value of xy .Returns a double value log10(x)
: used to find natural logarithmic value of x

sqrt(x) : used to find square root vale of x

sin(x) : returns sin value of x

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 37
 www.Poriyaan.in

9. What is a function prototype?

 Function prototype is a function declaration statement. Syntax
: return_type function_name( parameters_list) Example: int
factorial(int);

10.Differentiate call by value and call by reference.

Call by value: The values of the variables are passed by the calling function to the called
function.
Call by reference: The addresses of the variables are passed by the calling function to
the called function.

11.List the header files in ‘C’ language.

 <stdio.h> contains standard I/O functions
 <ctype.h> contains character handling functions
 <stdlib.h> contains general utility functions
 <string.h> contains string manipulation functions
 <math.h> contains mathematical functions
 <time.h> contains time manipulation functions

12.What are the steps in writing a function in a program?

Function Declaration (Prototype declaration):
 Every user-defined functions has to be declared before the main().
Function Callings:
 The user-defined functions can be called inside any functions like main(),
userdefined function, etc.
Function Definition:
 The function definition block is used to define the user-defined functions
with statements.

13.State the advantages of user defined functions over pre-defined function.

 A user defined function allows the programmer to define the exact function of the
module as per requirement. This may not be the case with predefined function. It
may or may not serve the desired purpose completely.
 A user defined function gives flexibility to the programmer to use optimal
programming instructions, which is not possible in predefined function.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 38
 www.Poriyaan.in

14.Write the syntax for pointers to structure.

Struct S

char datatype1;
int datatype2;
float datatype3;
};

Struct S *sptr //sptr ia pointer to structure S

15.Write the advantages and disadvantages of recursion.

Recursion makes program elegant and cleaner. All algorithms can be defined recursively
which makes it easier to visualize and prove.
If the speed of the program is vital then, you should avoid using recursion.
Recursions use

more memory and are generally slow. Instead, you can use loop.

16.What is meant by Recursive function?

 If a function calls itself again and again, then that function is called Recursive
function.

Example:
void recursion()

recursion(); /* function calls itself */

int main()

recursion();

17.Is it better to use a macro or a function?

 Macros are more efficient (and faster) than function, because their corresponding
code is inserted directly at the point where the macro is called.
 There is no overhead involved in using a macro like there is in placing a call to a

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 39
 www.Poriyaan.in

function. However, macros are generally small and cannot handle large, complex
coding constructs.
 In cases where large, complex constructs are to handled, functions are more suited,
additionally; macros are expanded inline, which means that the code is replicated
for each occurrence of a macro.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 40
 www.Poriyaan.in

18.List any five-library functions related to mathematical functions.

 ceil(x)
 sqrt(x)
 log(x)
 pow(x,y)
 sin(x)

19.What are the functions supports for dynamic memory allocation?

 The functions supports for dynamic memory allocation are,
 malloc()
 realloc()
 calloc()
 free()

20.What is linked list?

 A linked list is a collection of data elements called nodes in which the linear
 representation is given by links from one node to the next node.

PART B

1. What is a function in C? Explain the steps in writing a function in C program with Example.
Ans: A function is a block of statements that performs a specific task.
Syntax:
return_type function_name (argument list)
{
Set of statements – Block of code
}

#include <stdio.h>
int addition(int num1, int num2)
{
int sum;
sum = num1+num2;
return sum;
}

int main()
{
int var1, var2;
printf("Enter number 1: ");
scanf("%d",&var1);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 41
 www.Poriyaan.in

printf("Enter number 2: ");

scanf("%d",&var2);
int res = addition(var1, var2);
printf ("Output: %d", res);

return 0;
}

2. Classify the function prototypes with example C program for each.

A function prototype is a function declaration that specifies the data types of its arguments in the
parameter list. The compiler uses the information in a function prototype to ensure that the
corresponding function definition and all corresponding function declarations and calls within the
scope of the prototype contain the correct number of arguments or parameters, and that each argument
or parameter is of the correct data type.
Prototypes are syntactically distinguished from the old style of function declaration. The two styles can
be mixed for any single function, but this is not recommended. The following is a comparison of the
old and the prototype styles of declaration:
Old style:
 Functions can be declared implicitly by their appearance in a call.
 Arguments to functions undergo the default conversions before the call.
 The number and type of arguments are not checked.
Prototype style:
 Functions are declared explicitly with a prototype before they are called. Multiple declarations must be
compatible; parameter types must agree exactly.
 Arguments to functions are converted to the declared types of the parameters.
 The number and type of arguments are checked against the prototype and must agree with or be
convertible to the declared types. Empty parameter lists are designated using the void keyword.
 Ellipses are used in the parameter list of a prototype to indicate that a variable number of parameters
are expected.

Prototype Syntax

A function prototype has the following syntax:

function-prototype-declaration:
declaration-specifiers(opt) declarator;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 42
 www.Poriyaan.in

The declarator includes a parameter type list, which can consist of a single parameter of type void . In
its simplest form, a function prototype declaration might have the following format:
storage_class(opt) return_type(opt) function_name (
type(1) parameter(1), ..., type(n) parameter(n) );
Consider the following function definition:
char function_name( int lower, int *upper, char (*func)(), double y )
{}
The corresponding prototype declaration for this function is:
char function_name( int lower, int *upper, char (*func)(), double y );
A prototype is identical to the header of its corresponding function definition specified in the prototype
style, with the addition of a terminating semicolon (;) or comma (,), as appropriate (depending on
whether the prototype is declared alone or in a multiple declaration).
Function prototypes need not use the same parameter identifiers as in the corresponding function
definition because identifiers in a prototype have scope only within the identifier list. Moreover, the
identifiers themselves need not be specified in the prototype declaration; only the types are required.
For example, the following prototype declarations are equivalent:
char function_name( int lower, int *upper, char (*func)(), double y );
char function_name( int a, int *b, char (*c)(), double d );
char function_name( int, int *, char (*)(), double );
Though not required, identifiers should be included in prototypes to improve program clarity and
increase the type-checking capability of the compiler.
Variable-length argument lists are specified in function prototypes with ellipses. At least one parameter
must precede the ellipses. For example:
char function_name( int lower, ... );
Data-type specifications cannot be omitted from a function prototype.

3. What is recursion? Write a C program to find the sum of the digits, to find the factorial of a
number and binary search using recursion.
Ans: The process in which a function calls itself directly or indirectly is called recursion and
the corresponding function is called as recursive function.
Factorial:
#include<stdio.h>
long int multiplyNumbers(int n);
int main() {
int n;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Factorial of %d = %ld", n, multiplyNumbers(n));
return 0;
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 43
 www.Poriyaan.in

long int multiplyNumbers(int n) {

if (n>=1)
return n*multiplyNumbers(n-1);
else
return 1;
}

Binary search:
#include <stdio.h>
void binary_search(int [], int, int, int);
void bubble_sort(int [], int);

int main()
{
int key, size, i;
int list[25];

printf("Enter size of a list: ");

scanf("%d", &size);
printf("Enter elements\n");
for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
{
scanf("%d",&list[i]);
}
bubble_sort(list, size);
printf("\n");
printf("Enter key to search\n");
scanf("%d", &key);
binary_search(list, 0, size, key);

void bubble_sort(int list[], int size)

{
int temp, i, j;
for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
{
for (j = i; j < size; j++)
{
if (list[i] > list[j])
{
temp = list[i];
list[i] = list[j];
list[j] = temp;
}
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 44
 www.Poriyaan.in

}
}

void binary_search(int list[], int lo, int hi, int key)

{
int mid;

if (lo > hi)

{
printf("Key not found\n");
return;
}
mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
if (list[mid] == key)
{
printf("Key found\n");
}
else if (list[mid] > key)
{
binary_search(list, lo, mid - 1, key);
}
else if (list[mid] < key)
{
binary_search(list, mid + 1, hi, key);
}
}

4. Write a C program to design the scientific calculator using built-in functions.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#define PI 3.14159265
float sine(float x);
float cosine(float x);
float tangent(float x);
float sineh(float x);
float cosineh(float x);
float tangenth(float x);
float logten(float x);
float squareroot(float x);
float exponent(float x);
float power(float x,float y);
int main()
{
int x,y,n,answer;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 45
 www.Poriyaan.in

printf("What do you want to do?\n");

printf("1.sin 2.cos 3. tan 4. sinh 5.cosh 6.tanh 7.1og10 8. square root. 9.exponent 10.power.");
scanf ("%d",&n);
if (n<9 && n>0)
{
printf("\n What is x? ");
scanf("%f",&x);
switch (n)
{
case 1: answer = sine(x); break;
case 2: answer = cosine(x); break;
case 3: answer = tangent(x); break;
case 4: answer = sineh(x); break;
case 5: answer = cosineh(x); break;
case 6: answer = tangenth(x); break;
case 7: answer = logten(x); break;
case 8: answer = squareroot(x); break;
case 9: answer = exponent(x); break;
}
}
if (n==10)
{
printf("What is x and y?\n");
scanf("%f%f",&x,&y);
answer = power(x,y);
}
if (n>0 && n<11)
printf("%f",answer);
else
printf("Wrong input.\n");
return 0;
}
float sine(float x)
{
return (sin (x*PI/180));
}
float cosine(float x)
{
return (cos (x*PI/180));
}
float tangent(float x)
{
return (tan(x*PI/180));
}
float sineh(float x)
{
return (sinh(x));

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 46
 www.Poriyaan.in

}
float cosineh(float x)
{
return (sinh(x));
}
float tangenth(float x)
{
return (sinh(x));
}
float logten(float x)
{
return (log10(x));
}
float squareroot(float x)
{
return (sqrt(x));
}
float exponent(float x)
{
return(exp(x));
}
float power(float x, float y)
{
return (pow(x,y));
}

5. Explain about pointers and write the use of pointers in arrays with suitable example.
Ans: Pointers in C language is a variable that stores/points the address of another variable. A Pointer in
C is used to allocate memory dynamically i.e. at run time. The pointer variable might be belonging to
any of the data type such as int, float, char, double, short etc.
Pointer Syntax : data_type *var_name; Example : int *p; char *p;
Where, * is used to denote that ―p‖ is pointer variable and not a normal variable.
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i;
int a[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *p = a; // same as int*p = &a[0]
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
printf("%d", *p);
p++;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 47
 www.Poriyaan.in

return 0;
}

6. Explain the concept of pass by value and pass by reference. Write a C program to
swap the content of two variables using pass by reference.

` Pass by value: In this approach we pass copy of actual variables in function as a parameter.
Hence any modification on parameters inside the function will not reflect in the actual variable. For
example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int a=5,b=10;
swap(a,b);
printf("%d %d",a,b);
return 0;
}
void swap(int a,int b){
int temp;
temp =a;
a=b;
b=temp;
}
Output: 5 10

(b)Pass by reference: In this approach we pass memory address actual variables in function as a
parameter. Hence any modification on parameters inside the function will reflect in the actual variable.
For example:

#incude<stdio.h>

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 48
 www.Poriyaan.in

int main(){
int a=5,b=10;
swap(&a,&b);
printf("%d %d",a,b);
return 0;
}
void swap(int *a,int *b){
int *temp;
*temp =*a;
*a=*b;
*b=*temp;
}

Output: 10 5

UNIT IV
STRUCTRES

1. Compare arrays and structures.

Comparison of arrays and structures is as follows.
Arrays Structures
A structure is a collection of data items of
An array is a collection of data items of same different data types. Structures can be declared
data type. Arrays can only be declared. and defined.

There is no keyword for arrays. The keyword for structures is struct.

An array cannot have bit fields. A structure may contain bit fields.
An array name represents the address of the A structure name is known as tag. It is a
starting element. Shorthand notation of the declaration.

2. Compare structures and unions.

Structure Union

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 49
 www.Poriyaan.in

Every member has its own memory. All members use the same memory.
The keyword used is struct. The keyword used is union.
All members occupy separate memory location, Different interpretations for the same memory
hence different interpretations of the same location are possible. Conservation of memory
memory is
location are not possible. Consumes more space possible
compared to union.

3. Define Structure in C.
C Structure is a collection of different data types which are grouped together and
each element in a C structure is called member.
If you want to access structure members in C, structure variable should be declared.
Many structure variables can be declared for same structure and memory will
be allocated for each separately.
It is a best practice to initialize a structure to null while declaring, if we don‘t
assign any values to structure members.
4. What you meant by structure definition?
A structure type is usually defined near to the start of a file using a typedef
statement. typedef defines and names a new type, allowing its use throughout the
program. typedefs usually occur just after the #define and #include statements in a
file.
Here is an example structure
definition. typedef struct {
char
name[64];
char
course[1
28]; int
age;

int year;
} student;

This defines a new type student variables of type student can be declared as
follows. student st_rec;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 50
 www.Poriyaan.in

5. How to Declare a members in Structure?

A struct in C programming language is a structured (record) type[1] that
aggregates a fixed set of labeled objects, possibly of different types, into a single
object. The syntax for a struct declaration in C is:
struct tag_name
{
type attribute; type
attribute2;
/* ... */
};
6. What is meant by Union in C?
A union is a special data type available in C that enables you to store different
data types in the same memory location. You can define a union with many members,
but only one member can contain a value at any given time. Unions provide an
efficient way of using the same memory location for multi-purpose.
7. How to define a union in C.
To define a union, you must use the union statement in very similar was as
you did while defining structure. The union statement defines a new data type, with
more than one member for your program. The format of the union statement is as
follows:
union [union tag]

{
member definition;
member definition;
...
member definition;
} [one or more union variables];

8. What are storage classes?

A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life time of variables
and/or functions within a C Program.
9. What are the storage classes available in C?

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 51
 www.Poriyaan.in

There are following storage classes which can be used in a C Program

1. auto
2. register
3. static
4. extern
10. What is register storage in storage class?
Register is used to define local variables that should be stored in a register instead of

RAM. This means that the variable has a maximum size equal to the register size
(usually one word) and cant have the unary '&' operator applied to it (as it does not
have a memory location).

{
register int Miles;
}

11. What is static storage class?

Static is the default storage class for global variables. The two variables below
(count and road) both have a static storage class.
static int Count; int Road;
{
printf("%d\n", Road);
}

12. Define Auto storage class in C.

auto is the default storage class for all local variables.

{
int Count; auto int Month;

}
The example above defines two variables with the same storage class. auto can only
be used within functions, i.e. local variables.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 52
 www.Poriyaan.in

13. Define Macro in C.

A macro definition is independent of block structure, and is in effect from
the #define directive that defines it until either a corresponding #undef directive or
the end of the compilation unit is encountered.

Its format is: #define identifier replacement

Example:
#define
TABLE_SIZ
E 100
int
table1[TAB
LE_SIZ E]; int
table2[TAB
LE_SIZ E];

14. What is Line control? Line control (#line)

When we compile a program and some error happens during the compiling
process, the compiler shows an error message with references to the name of the file
where the error happened and a line number, so it is easier to find the code generating
the error.
The #line directive allows us to control both things, the line numbers within the

code files as well as the file name that we want that appears when an error
takes place. Its format is:
#line number "filename"
Where number is the new line number that will be assigned to the next code line.
The line numbers of successive lines will be increased one by one from this point on.

15. What is the use of ‘typedef’’?

It is used to create a new data using the existing type.
Syntax: typedef data type name;
Example:
typedef int hours: hours hrs;/* Now, hours can be used as new datatype */
16. Write the syntax for pointers to structure.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 53
 www.Poriyaan.in

Struct S

{
char datatype1; int

datatype2; float

datatype3;

};

Struct S *sptr; //sptr ia pointer to structure S

17. Define self referential data structure
A self referential data structure is essentially a structure definition which
includes at least one member that is a pointer to the structure of its own kind. A
chain of such structures can thus be expressed as follows.

struct name {

member 1;

member 2;

...

struct name *pointer;

};

The above illustrated structure prototype describes one node that comprises of two
logical segments. One of them stores data/information and the other one is a
pointer indicating where the next component can be found. .Several such inter-
connected nodes create a chain of structures.

18. What is singly linked list?

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 54
 www.Poriyaan.in

A linear linked list is a chain of structures where each node points to the next
node to create a list. To keep track of the starting node's address a dedicated pointer
(referred as startpointer) is used. The end of the list is indicated by a NULLpointer.
In order to create a linked list of integers, we define each of its element (referred as
node) using the following declaration.

struct node_type {

int data;

struct node_type *next;

};

struct node_type *start = NULL;

Note: The second member points to a node of

same type. A linear linked list illustration:

19. What are the various dynamic memory allocation functions?

 malloc() - Used to allocate blocks of memory in required size of bytes.

 free () - Used to release previously allocated memory space.
 calloc() - Used to allocate memory space for an array of elements.
 realloac() - Used to modify the size of the previously allocated memory space.

20. How to create a node in linked list?

The basic thing is to create a node. It can be done by using the malloc function.

start = (node*) malloc(sizeof(node))

This statement creates the starting node of list. A block of memory whose
size is equal to the sizeof(node) is allocated to the node pointer start. Typecasting
is used because otherwise malloc will return pointer to character.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 55
 www.Poriyaan.in

PART-B

1. What is a structure? Create a structure with data members of various

types and declare two structure variables. Write a program to read data into
these and print the same. Justify the need for structured data type.

It is the collection of dissimilar data types or heterogenous data types

grouped together. It means the data types may or may not be of same type.

Structure

declaration- struct

tagname

Data type

member1; Data

type member2;

Data type

member3;

………

………

Data type member n;

struct

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 56
 www.Poriyaan.in

Data type member1;

Data type member2;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 57
 www.Poriyaan.in

Data type member3;

………

………

Data type member n;

struct tagname

struct element 1;

struct element 2;

struct element 3;

………

………

struct element n;

};

Structure variable declaration;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 58
 www.Poriyaan.in

struct student

int age; char name[20];

char branch[20];

}; struct student s;

Initialization of structure variable-

Like primary variables structure variables can also be initialized when they are
declared. Structure templates can be defined locally or globally. If it is local it can be used
within that function. If it is global it can be used by all other functions of the program.

We cant initialize structure members while defining the structure

struct student

int age=20;

char
name[20]=‖sona‖;

}s1;

The above is invalid.

A structure can be

initialized as struct student

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 59
 www.Poriyaan.in

int age,roll;

char name[20];

} struct student

s1={16,101,‖sona‖}; struct student

s2={17,102,‖rupa‖};

If initialiser is less than no.of structure variable, automatically rest values are taken as zero.

Accessing structure elements-

Dot operator is used to access the structure elements. Its associativety is from left to right.

structure variable ; s1.name[];

s1.roll; s1.age;

Elements of structure are stored in contiguous memory locations. Value of structure variable can be
assigned to another structure variable of same type using assignment operator.

Example:

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main()

int roll, age; char branch;

} s1,s2;

printf(―\n enter roll, age, branch=‖);

scanf(―%d %d %c‖, &s1.roll, &s1.age, &s1.branch); s2.roll=s1.roll;

printf(― students details=\n‖);

printf(―%d %d %c‖, s1.roll, s1.age, s1.branch); printf(―%d‖, s2.roll);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 60
 www.Poriyaan.in

Unary, relational, arithmetic, bitwise operators are not allowed within structure variables.
2. Write a C program to store the employee information using structure and
search a particular employee using Employee number.
/*C program to read and print employee's record using structure*/

#include <stdio.h>

/*structure declaration*/
struct employee{
char name[30];
int empId;
float salary;
};

int main()
{
/*declare structure variable*/
struct employee emp;

/*read employee details*/

printf("\nEnter details :\n");
printf("Name ?:"); gets(emp.name);
printf("ID ?:"); scanf("%d",&emp.empId);
printf("Salary ?:"); scanf("%f",&emp.salary);

/*print employee details*/

printf("\nEntered detail is:");
printf("Name: %s" ,emp.name);
printf("Id: %d" ,emp.empId);
printf("Salary: %f\n",emp.salary);
return 0;}
}
3. Define and declare a nested structure to store date, which including day, month
and year.
Nesting of structure within itself is not valid. Nesting of structure can be extended to any
level.

struct time

int hr,min;

};

struct day

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 61
 www.Poriyaan.in

int date,month; struct time t1;

};

struct student

char nm[20];

struct day d;

}stud1, stud2, stud3;

4. Explain about array of structures and pointers in structures with example program.
Array of structures

When database of any element is used in huge amount, we prefer Array of structures.

Example: suppose we want to maintain data base of 200 students, Array of structures is used.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

struct student

char name[30]; char

branch[25]; int roll;

};

void main()

struct student s[200]; int i;

s[i].roll=i+1;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 62
 www.Poriyaan.in

printf("\nEnter information of students:");

for(i=0;i<200;i++)

printf("\nEnter the roll no:%d\n",s[i].roll);

printf("\nEnter the name:"); scanf("%s",s[i].name);

printf("\nEnter the branch:");

scanf("%s",s[i].branch); printf("\n");

printf("\nDisplaying information of students:\n\n");

for(i=0;i<200;i++)

printf("\n\nInformation for roll no%d:\n",i+1);

printf("\nName:");

puts(s[i].name);

printf("\nBranch:");

puts(s[i].branch);

In Array of structures each element of array is of structure type as in above example.

Array within structures

struct student

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 63
 www.Poriyaan.in

char name[30];

int roll,age,marks[5];

}; struct student s[200];

We can also initialize using same syntax as in array.

5. Write a C program to create mark sheet for students using self referential structure.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

struct mark_sheet{

char name[20];

long int rollno;

int marks[10];

int total;

float average;

char rem[10];

char cl[20];

}students[100];

int main(){

int a,b,n,flag=1;

char ch;

clrscr();

printf("How many students : \n");

scanf("%d",&n);

for(a=1;a<=n;++a){

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 64
 www.Poriyaan.in

clrscr();

printf("\n\nEnter the details of %d students : ", n-a+1);

printf("\n\nEnter student %d Name : ", a);

scanf("%s", students[a].name);

printf("\n\nEnter student %d Roll Number : ", a);

scanf("%ld", &students[a].rollno);

students[a].total=0;

for(b=1;b<=5;++b){

printf("\n\nEnter the mark of subject-%d : ", b);

scanf("%d", &students[a].marks[b]);

students[a].total += students[a].marks[b];

if(students[a].marks[b]<40)

flag=0;

students[a].average = (float)(students[a].total)/5.0;

if((students[a].average>=75)&&(flag==1))

strcpy(students[a].cl,"Distinction");

else

if((students[a].average>=60)&&(flag==1))

strcpy(students[a].cl,"First Class");

else

if((students[a].average>=50)&&(flag==1))

strcpy(students[a].cl,"Second Class");

else

if((students[a].average>=40)&&(flag==1))

strcpy(students[a].cl,"Third Class");

if(flag==1)

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 65
 www.Poriyaan.in

strcpy(students[a].rem,"Pass");

else

strcpy(students[a].rem,"Fail");

flag=1;

for(a=1;a<=n;++a){

clrscr();

printf("\n\n\t\t\t\tMark Sheet\n");

printf("\nName of Student : %s", students[a].name);

printf("\t\t\t\t Roll No : %ld", students[a].rollno);

printf("\n------------------------------------------------------------------------");

for(b=1;b<=5;b++){

printf("\n\n\t Subject %d \t\t :\t %d", b, students[a].marks[b]);

printf("\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n");

printf("\n\n Totl Marks : %d", students[a].total);

printf("\t\t\t\t Average Marks : %5.2f", students[a].average);

printf("\n\n Class : %s", students[a].cl);

printf("\t\t\t\t\t Status : %s", students[a].rem);

printf("\n\n\n\t\t\t\t Press Y for continue . . . ");

ch = getche();

if((ch=="y")||(ch=="Y"))

continue;

return(0);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 66
 www.Poriyaan.in

6. Discuss about dynamic memory allocation with suitable example C program.

Dynamic memory Allocation

The process of allocating memory at the time of execution or at the runtime, is called dynamic
memory location.
Two types of problem may occur in static memory allocation.

If number of values to be stored is less than the size of memory, there would be wastage of
memory.

If we would want to store more values by increase in size during the execution on assigned size
then it fails.

Allocation and release of memory space can be done with the help of some library function called
dynamic memory allocation function. These library function are called as dynamic memory
allocation function. These library function prototype are found in the header file, ―alloc.h‖ where
it has defined.

Function take memory from memory area is called heap and release when not required.

Pointer has important role in the dynamic memory allocation to allocate memory.

malloc():
This function use to allocate memory during run time, its declaration is void*malloc(size);

malloc ()

returns the pointer to the 1st byte and allocate memory, and its return type is void, which can be
type cast such as:

int *p=(datatype*)malloc(size)

If memory location is successful, it returns the address of the memory chunk that was allocated
and it returns null on unsuccessful and from the above declaration a pointer of type(datatype) and
size in byte.

And datatype pointer used to typecast the pointer returned by malloc and this typecasting is
necessary since, malloc() by default returns a pointer to void.

Example int*p=(int*)malloc(10);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 67
 www.Poriyaan.in

So, from the above pointer p, allocated IO contigious memory space address of 1st byte and is
stored in the variable.

We can also use, the size of operator to specify the the size, such as

*p=(int*)malloc(5*size of int) Here, 5 is the no. of data.

Moreover , it returns null, if no sufficient memory available , we should always check the malloc
return such as, if(p==null)

printf(―not sufficient memory‖);

Example:

/*calculate the average of mark*/ void

main()

int n , avg,i,*p,sum=0;

printf("enter the no. of marks ‖);

scanf(―%d‖,&n);

p=(int *)malloc(n*size(int));

if(p==null)

printf(―not sufficient‖); exit();

for(i=0;i<n;i++)

scanf(―%d‖,(p+i));

for(i=0;i<n;i++)

Printf(―%d‖,*(p+i));

sum=sum+*p;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 68
 www.Poriyaan.in

avg=sum/n;

printf(―avg=%d‖,avg);

7. Explain about singly linked list with suitable example C program.

Linked list is one of the most important data structures. We often face situations, where the data
is dynamic in nature and number of data can‘t be predicted or the number of data keeps changing
during program execution. Linked lists are very useful in this type of situations.

The implementation of a linked list in C is done using pointers

A linked list is made up of many nodes which are connected in nature. Every node is mainly
divided into two parts, one part holds the data and the other part is connected to a different node. It
is similar to the picture given below.

include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<stdbool.h>

struct test_struct
{
int val;
struct test_struct *next;
};

struct test_struct *head = NULL;

struct test_struct *curr = NULL;

struct test_struct* create_list(int val)

{
printf("\n creating list with headnode as [%d]\n",val);
struct test_struct *ptr = (struct test_struct*)malloc(sizeof(struct test_struct));
if(NULL == ptr)
{
printf("\n Node creation failed \n");
return NULL;
}
ptr->val = val;
ptr->next = NULL;

head = curr = ptr;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 69
 www.Poriyaan.in

return ptr;
}

struct test_struct* add_to_list(int val, bool add_to_end)

{
if(NULL == head)
{
return (create_list(val));
}

if(add_to_end)
printf("\n Adding node to end of list with value [%d]\n",val);
else
printf("\n Adding node to beginning of list with value [%d]\n",val);

struct test_struct *ptr = (struct test_struct*)malloc(sizeof(struct test_struct));

if(NULL == ptr)
{
printf("\n Node creation failed \n");
return NULL;
}
ptr->val = val;
ptr->next = NULL;

if(add_to_end)
{
curr->next = ptr;
curr = ptr;
}
else
{
ptr->next = head;
head = ptr;
}
return ptr;
}

struct test_struct* search_in_list(int val, struct test_struct **prev)

{
struct test_struct *ptr = head;
struct test_struct *tmp = NULL;
bool found = false;

printf("\n Searching the list for value [%d] \n",val);

while(ptr != NULL)
{
if(ptr->val == val)
{
found = true;
break;
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 70
 www.Poriyaan.in

else
{
tmp = ptr;
ptr = ptr->next;
}
}

if(true == found)
{
if(prev)
*prev = tmp;
return ptr;
}
else
{
return NULL;
}
}

int delete_from_list(int val)

{
struct test_struct *prev = NULL;
struct test_struct *del = NULL;

printf("\n Deleting value [%d] from list\n",val);

del = search_in_list(val,&prev);
if(del == NULL)
{
return -1;
}
else
{
if(prev != NULL)
prev->next = del->next;

if(del == curr)
{
curr = prev;
}
else if(del == head)
{
head = del->next;
}
}

free(del);
del = NULL;

return 0;
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 71
 www.Poriyaan.in

void print_list(void)
{
struct test_struct *ptr = head;

printf("\n -------Printing list Start------- \n");

while(ptr != NULL)
{
printf("\n [%d] \n",ptr->val);
ptr = ptr->next;
}
printf("\n -------Printing list End------- \n");

return;
}

int main(void)
{
int i = 0, ret = 0;
struct test_struct *ptr = NULL;

print_list();

for(i = 5; i<10; i++)

add_to_list(i,true);

print_list();

for(i = 4; i>0; i--)

add_to_list(i,false);

print_list();

for(i = 1; i<10; i += 4)
{
ptr = search_in_list(i, NULL);
if(NULL == ptr)
{
printf("\n Search [val = %d] failed, no such element found\n",i);
}
else
{
printf("\n Search passed [val = %d]\n",ptr->val);
}

print_list();

ret = delete_from_list(i);
if(ret != 0)
{
printf("\n delete [val = %d] failed, no such element found\n",i);
}
else

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 72
 www.Poriyaan.in

{
printf("\n delete [val = %d] passed \n",i);
}

print_list();
}

return 0;
}

UNIT V
FILE PROCESSING
1. Why files are needed?
 When a program is terminated, the entire data is lost. Storing in a file will preserve
your data even if the program terminates.
 If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time to enter them all.
However, if you have a file containing all the data, you can easily access the contents
of the file using few commands in C.

 You can easily move your data from one computer to another without any changes.

2. Types of Files
When dealing with files, there are two types of files you should know about:

1. Text files
2. Binary files

Text files

Text files are the normal .txt files that you can easily create using Notepad or any simple text
editors.

When you open those files, you'll see all the contents within the file as plain text. You can
easily edit or delete the contents.

They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable, and provide least security and
takes bigger storage space.

Binary files

Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer.

Instead of storing data in plain text, they store it in the binary form (0's and 1's).

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 73
 www.Poriyaan.in

They can hold higher amount of data, are not readable easily and provides a better security
than text files.

3. Enlist the File Operations.

In C, you can perform four major operations on the file, either text or binary:

1. Creating a new file

2. Opening an existing file
3. Closing a file
4. Reading from and writing information to a file
Working with files
When working with files, you need to declare a pointer of type file. This declaration is
needed for communication between the file and program.

FILE *fptr;

4. How to open a file?

Opening a file is performed using the library function in the "stdio.h" header file: fopen().
The syntax for opening a file in standard I/O is:

ptr = fopen("fileopen","mode")

5. List the opening modes in standard I/O

File Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file

Mod
e
r Open for reading. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns
NULL.
rb Open for reading in binary mode. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns
NULL.
If the file exists, its contents are
w Open for writing.
overwritten. If the file does not exist, it
will be created.
If the file exists, its contents are
wb Open for writing in binary mode.
overwritten. If the file does not exist, it
will be created.
Open for append. i.e, Data is
a If the file does not exists, it will be created.
added to end of file.

Open for append in binary mode.

ab If the file does not exists, it will be created.
i.e, Data is added to end of file.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 74
 www.Poriyaan.in

r+ Open for both reading and writing. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns
NULL.
Open for both reading and
rb+ If the file does not exist, fopen() returns
writing in binary mode.
NULL.
If the file exists, its contents are
w+ Open for both reading and writing.
overwritten. If the file does not exist, it
will be created.
Open for both reading and If the file exists, its contents are
wb+
writing in binary mode. overwritten. If the file does not exist, it
will be created.
a+ Open for both reading and If the file does not exists, it will be created.
appending.
Open for both reading and
ab+ If the file does not exists, it will be created.
appending in binary mode.
6. How to close a file?
The file (both text and binary) should be closed after reading/writing.
Closing a file is performed using library function fclose().
fclose(fptr); //fptr is the file pointer associated with file to be closed.
Reading and writing to a text file

For reading and writing to a text file, we use the functions fprintf() and fscanf().

They are just the file versions of printf() and scanf(). The only difference is that, fprint and
fscanf expects a pointer to the structure FILE.

7. What are two main ways a file can be organized?

1. Sequential Access — The data are placed in the file in a sequence like beads on a
string. Data are processed in sequence, one after another. To reach a particular item of
data, all the data that proceeds it first must be read.
2. Random Access — The data are placed into the file by going directly to the location
in the file assigned to each data item. Data are processed in any order. A particular
item of data can be reached by going directly to it, without looking at any other data.

8. What is file?
A file is a semi-permanent, named collection of data. A File is usually stored on
magnetic media, such as a hard disk or magnetic tape.

Semi-permanent means that data saved in files stays safe until it is deleted or
modified.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 75
 www.Poriyaan.in

Named means that a particular collection of data on a disk has a name,

like mydata.dat and access to the collection is done by using its name.

9. State Report Generation.

A very common data processing operation is report generation. This is when the
data in a file (or files) is processed by a program to generate a report of some kind. The report
might be a summary of the financial state of a corporation, or a series of bills for its
customers, or a series of checks to be mailed to its employees.

Large corporations have very large databases kept on many high capacity disks and
processed by programs running on large computers called mainframe

10. State Transaction Processing.

As data flows into an organization, the files that keep track of the data must be
updated. For example, data flows into a bank from other banks and ATM machines. Often
this data is gathered as it occurs into a transaction file. Periodically (often overnight) the
data in the transaction file is used to update the main file of data.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 76
 www.Poriyaan.in

The picture shows the main file and the transaction file as input to a program. The
output is a new, updated main file. The previous version of the file can be kept as backup.

Management information science is the field that studies how to organize and
manage the information of a corporation using computers and files. Usually the business
school of a university has a management information science department.

11. List the Types of Files.

There are two main ways a file can be organized:

1. Sequential Access — The data are placed in the file in a sequence like beads on a
string. Data are processed in sequence, one after another. To reach a particular item of
data, all the data that proceeds it first must be read.
2. Random Access — The data are placed into the file by going directly to the location
in the file assigned to each data item. Data are processed in any order. A particular
item of data can be reached by going directly to it, without looking at any other data.

A sequential file works like a reel of tape. (In fact, sequential files are often stored on reels of
magnetic tape.) Data in a sequential file are processed in order, starting with the first item, the
processing the second, then the third and so on. To reach data in the middle of the file you
must go through all the data that preceeds it.

A random access file works like a sampler box of chocolate. You can access a particular item
by going directly to it. Data in a random acess file may be accessed in any order. To read data
in the middle of the file you can go directly to it. Random access files are sometimes
called direct access files.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 77
 www.Poriyaan.in

You might think that all files should be random access. But random access files are much
more difficult to imp.

12. What is command line arguments?

It is possible to pass some values from the command line to your C programs when
they are executed. These values are called command line arguments and many times they are

important for your program especially when you want to control your program from outside
instead of hard coding those values inside the code.

The command line arguments are handled using main() function arguments
where argc refers to the number of arguments passed, and argv[] is a pointer array which
points to each argument passed to the program.

13. Write an example program for command line arguments.

#include <stdio.h>
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
if( argc == 2 ) {
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else
{
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}
}
14. Write the functions for random access file processing.
1. fseek()
2. ftell()
3. rewind()

15. Write short notes on fseek().

fseek():

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 78
 www.Poriyaan.in

This function is used for seeking the pointer position in the file at the specified byte.
Syntax: fseek( file pointer, displacement, pointer position);
Where
file pointer -----It is the pointer which points to the file.
displacement ---- It is positive or negative.This is the number of bytes which are
skipped backward (if negative) or forward( if positive) from the current position.This is
attached with L because this is a long integer.
Pointer position:
This sets the pointer position in the file.
Value pointer position
0 Beginning o
1 Current position
2 End of file
16. Give an example for fseek().
1) fseek( p,10L,0)
0 means pointer position is on beginning of the file,from this statement pointer
position is skipped 10 bytes from the beginning of the file.
2) fseek( p,5L,1)
1 means current position of the pointer position.From this statement pointer position

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 79
 www.Poriyaan.in

is skipped 5 bytes forward from the current position.

3) fseek(p,-5L,1)
From this statement pointer position is skipped 5 bytes backward from the current
position.

17. Give an example for ftell().

ftell()
This function returns the value of the current pointer position in the file.The value is
count from the beginning of the file.
Syntax: ftell(fptr);
Where fptr is a file pointer.

18. Give an example for rewind().

rewind()
This function is used to move the file pointer to the beginning of the given file.
Syntax: rewind( fptr);
Where fptr is a file pointer.

19. State Block read/write.

It is useful to store the block of data into the file rather than individual elements. Each
block has some fixed size, it may be of structure or of an array. It is possible that a data file
has one or more structures or arrays, So it is easy to read the entire block from file or write
the entire block to the file. There are two useful functions for this purpose

20. Write short notes on fwrite().

This function is used for writing an entire block to a given file.
Syntax: fwrite( ptr, size, nst, fptr);
Where ptr is a pointer which points to the arrayof struture in which data is written.
Size is the size of the structure
nst is the number of the structure
fptr is a filepointer.
Example program for fwrite():

21. Write short notes on fread().

This function is used to read an entire block from a given file.
Syntax: fread ( ptr , size , nst , fptr);
Where ptr is a pointer which points to the array which receives structure.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 80
 www.Poriyaan.in

Size is the size of the structure

nst is the number of the structure
fptr is a filepointer.

22. Write short notes on fprintf ().

This function is same as the printf() function but it writes the data into the file, so it
has one more parameter that is the file pointer.
Syntax: fprintf(fptr, "controlcharacter",variable-names);
Where fptr is a file pointer
Control character specifies the type of data to be printed into file.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 81
 www.Poriyaan.in

Variable-names hold the data to be printed into the file.

23. Write short notes on fscanf ().

This function is same as the scanf() function but this reads the
data from the file, so this has one more parameter that is the file
pointer.
Syntax: fscanf(fptr, "control character", &variable-names);
Where fptr is a file pointer
Control character specifies the type of data to be read from the file.
Address of Variable names are those that hold the data read from the file.

24. Write short notes on fscanf ().

The macro feof() is used for detecting whether the file pointer is
at the end of file or not.It returns nonzero if the file pointer is at the end
of the file otherwise it returns zero.
Syntax: feof(fptr);
Where fptr is a file pointer .
25. Write
short notes on
ferror().
ferror()
The macro ferror() is used for detecting whether an error
occur in the file on filepointer or not.It returns the value nonzero
if an error,otherwise it returns zero.

Syntax: ferror(fptr);
Where fptr is a file pointer.

PART-B

1. Explain about files and with it types of file processing.

Files: As we know that Computers are used for storing the information for a
Permanent Time or the Files are used for storing the Data of the users for a Long time
Period. And the files can contains any type of information means they can Store the text,
any Images or Pictures or any data in any Format. So that there must be Some
Mechanism those are used for Storing the information, Accessing the information and
also Performing Some Operations on the files

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 82
 www.Poriyaan.in

There are Many files which have their Owen Type and own names. When we Store a
File in the System, then we must have to specify the Name and the Type of File. The
Name of file will be any valid Name and Type means the application with the file has
linked.

So that we can say that Every File also has Some Type Means Every File belongs to
Special Type of Application software‘s. When we Provides a Name to a File then we
also specify the Extension of the File because a System will retrieve the Contents of the
File into that Application Software. For Example if there is a File Which Contains Some
Paintings then this will Opened into the Paint Software.
1) Ordinary Files or Simple File: Ordinary File may belong to any type of Application
for example notepad, paint, C Program, Songs etc. So all the Files those are created by a
user are Ordinary Files. Ordinary Files are used for Storing the information about the
user Programs. With the help of Ordinary Files we can store the information which
contains text, database, any image or any other type of information.
2) Directory files: The Files those are Stored into the a Particular Directory or Folder.
Then these are the Directory Files. Because they belongs to a Directory and they are
Stored into a Directory or Folder. For Example a Folder Name Songs which Contains
Many Songs So that all the Files of Songs are known as Directory Files.
3) Special Files: The Special Files are those which are not created by the user. Or The
Files those are necessary to run a System. The Files those are created by the System.
Means all the Files of an Operating System or Window, are refers to Special Files. There
are Many Types of Special Files, System Files, or windows Files, Input output Files. All
the System Files are Stored into the System by using. sys Extension.
4) FIFO Files: The First in First Out Files are used by the System for Executing the
Processes into Some Order. Means To Say the Files those are Come first, will be
Executed First and the System Maintains a Order or Sequence Order. When a user
Request for a Service from the System, then the Requests of the users are Arranged into
Some Files and all the Requests of the System will be performed by the System by using
Some Sequence Order in which they are Entered or we can say that all the files or
Requests those are Received from the users will be Executed by using Some Order
which is also called as First in First Out or FIFO order.

Types of File Operations

Files are not made for just reading the Contents, we can also Perform Some other
operations on the Files those are Explained below As :

1) Read Operation: Meant To Read the information which is Stored into the Files.
2) Write Operation: For inserting some new Contents into a File.
3) Rename or Change the Name of File.
4) Copy the File from one Location to another.
5) Sorting or Arrange the Contents of File.
6) Move or Cut the File from One Place to Another.
7) Delete a File
8) Execute Means to Run Means File Display Output.

2. Compare sequential access and random access.

Sequential Access to a data file means that the computer system reads or writes
information to the file sequentially, starting from the beginning of the file and
proceeding step by step.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 83
 www.Poriyaan.in

On the other hand, Random Access to a file means that the computer system can read or
write information anywhere in the data file. This type of operation is also called ―Direct
Access‖ because the computer system knows where the data is stored (using Indexing)
and hence goes ―directly‖ and reads the data.
Sequential access has advantages when you access information in the same order all the
time. Also is faster than random access.
On the other hand, random access file has the advantage that you can search through it
and find the data you need more easily (using indexing for example). Random Access
Memory (RAM) in computers works like that.

3. Write a C program to read name and marks of n number of students from

user and store them in a file.
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main(){
char name[50];
int marks,i,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
FILE *fptr;
fptr=(fopen("C:\\student.txt","w"));
if(fptr==NULL){
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("For student%d\nEnter name: ",i+1);
scanf("%s",name);
printf("Enter marks: ");
scanf("%d",&marks);
fprintf(fptr,"\nName: %s \nMarks=%d \n",name,marks);
}
fclose(fptr);
getch();
return 0;
}
4. Write a C program to read name and marks of n number of students from
user and store them in a file. If the file previously exits, add the
information of n students.
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 84
 www.Poriyaan.in

int main(){
char name[50];
int marks,i,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
FILE *fptr;
fptr=(fopen("C:\\student.txt","a"));
if(fptr==NULL){
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("For student%d\nEnter name: ",i+1);
scanf("%s",name);
printf("Enter marks: ");
scanf("%d",&marks);
fprintf(fptr,"\nName: %s \nMarks=%d \n",name,marks);
}
fclose(fptr);
getch();
return 0;
}
5. Write a C program to write all the members of an array of strcures to a
file using fwrite(). Read the array from the file and display on the screen.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct s
{
char name[50];
int height;
};
int main(){
struct s a[5],b[5];
FILE *fptr;
int i;
clrscr();
fptr=fopen("file.txt","wb");
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{
fflush(stdin);

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 85
 www.Poriyaan.in

printf("Enter name: ");

gets(a[i].name);
printf("Enter height: ");
scanf("%d",&a[i].height);
}
fwrite(a,sizeof(a),1,fptr);
fclose(fptr);
fptr=fopen("file.txt","rb");
fread(b,sizeof(b),1,fptr);
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{ printf("Name: %s\nHeight: %d",b[i].name,b[i].height);
}
fclose(fptr);
getch();
}

6. Describe command line arguments with example C program.

Command line arguments are the arguments specified after the program name in the
operating system's command line, and these arguments values are passed to your
program at the time of execution from your operating system. For using this concept in
your program, you have to understand the complete declaration of how the main
function works with this command-line argument to fetch values that earlier took no
arguments with it (main() without any argument).
So you can program the main() is such a way that it can essentially accept two
arguments where the first argument denotes the number of command line arguments
whereas the second argument denotes the full list of every command line arguments.
This is how you can code your command line argument within the parenthesis of main():
int main ( int argc, char *argv [ ] )
In the above statement, the command line arguments have been handled via main()
function, and you have set the arguments where
 argc (ARGument Count) denotes the number of arguments to be passed and

 argv [ ] (ARGument Vector) denotes to a pointer array that is pointing to every argument
that has been passed to your program.
#include <stdio.h>

int main( int argc, char *argv [] )

{
printf(" \n Name of my Program %s \t", argv[0]);

if( argc == 2 )
{

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 86
 www.Poriyaan.in

printf("\n Value given by user is: %s \t", argv[1]);

}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("\n Many values given by users.\n");
}
else
{
printf(" \n Single value expected.\n");
}
}

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 87
Programming in C

Unit I (a): Introduction to Programming

Introduction to Computer Software | Classification of Computer Software | Programming Languages |
Generation of Programming Languages
Unit I (b): Introduction to C
Introduction, Background, Characteristics, Uses of C Programming | Structure of a C Program | Writing the First
C Program | Files Used in a C Program | Compiling and Executing C Programs | Using Comments | C Tokens |
Character Set in C | Keywords | Identifiers | Basic Data Types in C | Variables | Constants | Input/Output |
Statements in C | Operators in C | Type Conversion and Typecasting
Unit I (c): Decision Control and Looping Statements
Introduction to Decision Control Statements | Conditional Branching Statements | Iterative Statements | Nested
Loops | The Break and Continue Statements | goto Statement
Unit I (d): Preprocessor Directives
Introduction of Preprocessor Directives | Types of Preprocessor Directives | #define | #include | #undef | #line |
Pragma Directives | Conditional Directives | Defined Operator | #Error Directive | Predefined Macro Names
Unit II (a): Arrays
Introduction to Arrays in C Programming | Declaration of Array in C | Accessing the Elements of an Array in C |
Storing Values in Arrays | Operations on Arrays | Passing Arrays to Functions | Two-Dimensional Arrays |
Operations on Two-Dimensional Arrays | Passing Two-Dimensional Arrays to Functions | Multidimensional
Arrays | Sparse Matrices (Array Representation) | Applications of Arrays
Unit II (b): Strings
Introduction to Strings in C | Suppressing Input | Strings Taxonomy | Operations on Strings | Miscellaneous
String and Character Functions | Arrays of Strings
Unit III (a): Functions
Introduction to Functions | Using Functions | Function Declaration/Function prototype | Function Definition |
Function Call | Return Statement | Passing Parameters to Functions | Scope of Variables | Storage Classes |
Recursive Functions | Types of Recursion | Tower of Hanoi (recursion) | Recursion Versus Iteration
Unit III (b): Pointers
Understanding the Computer's Memory | Introduction to Pointers | Declaring Pointer Variables | Pointer
Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic | Null Pointers | Generic Pointers | Passing Arguments to Function Using
Pointers | Pointers and Arrays | Passing an Array to Functions | Difference Between Array Name and Pointer |
Pointers and Strings | Arrays of Pointers | Pointers and 2D Arrays | Pointers and 3D Arrays | Function Pointers |
Array of Function Pointers | Pointers to Pointers | Memory Allocation in C Programs | Memory Usage | Dynamic
Memory Allocation | Drawbacks of Pointers
Unit IV: Structures and Union
Structure | Nested Structures | Arrays of Structures | Structure and Functions | Self-referential Structures |
Unions | Arrays of Union Variables | Unions Inside Structures | Structures Inside Unions | Enumerated Data Type
| Memory Allocation and Deallocation for a Linked List | Singly Linked Lists
Unit V: File Processing
Introduction to Files | Using Files in C | Read Data From Files | Writing Data From Files | Detecting the End-of-
File | Error Handling During File Operations | Accepting Command Line Arguments | Function for Selecting a
Record Randomly | Remove()| Renaming the File | Creating a Temporary File
 All 2nd Semester Subjects
Professional English - II - HS3252 Engineering Graphics - GE3251
Statistics and Numerical Methods - Physics for Electronics Engineering -
MA3251 PH3254
Physics for Electrical Engineering - Physics for Civil Engineering - PH3201
PH3202
Materials Science - PH3251 Basic Electrical and Electronics
Engineering - BE3251
Physics for Information Science - Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering -
PH3256 BE3255
Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Electric Circuit Analysis (Circuit
Engineering - BE3254 Theory) - EE3251
Programming in C - CS3251 Circuit Analysis - EC3251
Data Structures Design - AD3251
 Civil
CSE
Home Mech
e
EEE
ECE

2nd Semester 3rd Semester

1st Semester
Professional English II Discrete Mathematics
Professional English I
Statistics and Numerical
Methods Digital Principles and
Matrices and Calculus
Computer Organization
Engineering Graphics
Engineering Physics
Foundation of Data
Physics for Information
Science Science
Engineering Chemistry

Physics
Basic for Engineering
Electrical and Data Structure
Problem Solving and Science Engineering
Electronics
Python Programming Object Oriented
Programming in C
Programming

4th Semester 5th Semester 6th Semester

Theory of Computation Computer Networks Object Oriented Software
Engineering
Artificial Intelligence Compiler Design
and Machine Learning Embedded Systems IoT
Cryptography and
Database Management Cyber Security Open Elective I
System
Professional Elective III
Algorithms Distributed Computing
Professional Elective IV

Introduction to Operating Professional Elective I Professional Elective V

Systems
Professional Elective II Professional Elective VI
Environmental Sciences
and sustainability Mandatory Course I Mandatory Course II

7th Semester 8th Semester

Human Values and Ethics Project Work/Internship

Elective-Management

Professional Elective II

Professional Elective III

Professional Elective IV