III.

INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

Concrete structures such as buildings, are prone to structural defects
during the course of time, also known as wear and tear. Listed below
are the most common defects on slabs, beams and columns. The most
severe defects are the structural cracks ranging from hairline to
superficial cracks.

Different types of defects in concrete structures can be cracking,

crazing, blistering, delamination, dusting, curling, efflorescence,
scaling and spalling. These defects can be due to various reasons or
causes.
Causes for Defects in Concrete Structures
Causes of defects in concrete structures can be broadly categorized as:

1. Structural deficiency resulting from errors in design, loading criteria,

unexpected overloading, etc.
2. Structural deficiency due to construction defects.
3. Damage due to fire, floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc.
4. Damage due to chemical attack.
5. Damage due to marine environments.
6. Damage due to abrasion of granular materials.
7. Movement of concrete due to physical characteristics.

Structural Defects due to Design and Detailing

In such case, the design is required to be reviewed in detail and remedial
measures worked out by the design team. Once this is done the methods
of carrying out the remedial measures will be similar to those arising out
of other defects
 .

Structural Deficiency due to Construction Defects

Defective construction methods form the largest segment of
source of distress to the beams. Such defects can be broadly
subdivided as follows:

1. Defects due to the quality of raw materials.

2. Non adoption of designed concrete mix.
3. Use of defective construction plant for producing, transporting,
and placing the concrete.
4. Defective workmanship.
5. Inadequate quality detailing.

It is very necessary to choose the right type of cement for the

concrete going into the structure under consideration. Ordinary
Portland cement is the most common of all cements. Provided the
quality of cement conforms to the relevant standard specifications,
at the time of use, normally no problem is encountered in respect of
ordinary Portland cement. Where the concrete is exposed to
aggressive environment, it may be necessary to use special cements,
such as, sulphate resisting Portland cement, blast furnace slag
cement, low C3A cement. The quality of aggregates, particularly in
respect of alkali-aggregate reaction, needs to be taken into account,
fortunately cases of defects / failures attributed to alkali aggregate
reaction in India are very rare. The use of water containing salt for
making concrete can also contribute to deterioration of the concrete.
 The design of concrete mix can be satisfactorily carried out using a
wide variety of aggregates. A reasonable continuity of grading of
aggregates should be ensured. Excessive use of water in the concrete
mix is the largest single source of weakness. The accuracy of
weighing the various components is very much dependent on the
quality of the weigh batching system, available. Spring loaded dials
of the weigh batchers contribute toward$ excessive variability in the
quality of weigh-batched concrete in India. Other contributory
factors that add to bad workmanship include segregation, improper
placement, inadequate or excessive vibration leakage of mortar
through shuttering joints, inadequate concrete cover, in sufficient
curing etc. Proper detailing of reinforcement, including adequate
cover is essential to ensure successful placement of concrete. Bad
detailing results in congestion of reinforcement to such an extent
that concrete just cannot be placed and compacted properly, even if
the concrete is workable. Detailing of reinforcement should be based
on a proper appreciation of how the concrete placement and
compaction is going to be carried out.

Other factors leading to poor design detailings

1. Re-entrant corners.
2. Abrupt changes in section.
3. Inadequate joint detailing.
4. Deflection limits.
5. Poorly detailed drips and scuppers.
6. Inadequate or improper drainage.
7. Poor detailing of expansion joints.

Types of Concrete Defects - Causes, Prevention

Various types of defects which can be observed in hardened concrete

surface and their prevention methods are explained below:
1. Cracking

Cracks are formed in concrete due to many reasons but when these
cracks are very deep, it is unsafe to use that concrete structure. Various
reasons for cracking are improper mix design, insufficient curing,
omission of expansion and contraction joints, use of high slump
concrete mix, unsuitable sub-grade etc. To prevent cracking, use low
water – cement ratio and maximize the coarse aggregate in concrete
mix, admixtures containing calcium chloride must be avoided. Surface
should be prevented against rapid evaporation of moisture content.
Loads must be applied on the concrete surface only after gaining its
maximum strength.

2. Crazing

Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map cracking, is the

formation of closely spaced shallow cracks in an uneven
manner. Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top surface of
concrete due to high temperatures or if the mix contains excess water
content or due to insufficient curing. Pattern cracking can be avoided
by proper curing, by dampening the sub-grade to resist absorption of
water from concrete, by providing protection to the surface from rapid
temperature changes.
3. Blistering

Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of different sizes on

concrete surface due to entrapped air under the finished concrete
surface. It may cause due to excessive vibration of concrete mix or
presence of excess entrapped air in mix or due to improper finishing.
Excessive evaporation of water on the top surface of concrete will also
cause blistering. It can be prevented by using good proportion of
ingredients in concrete mix, by covering the top surface which reduces
evaporation and using appropriate techniques for placing and finishing.
4. Delamination

Delamination is also similar to blistering. In this case also, top surface

of concrete gets separated from underlying concrete. Hardening of top
layer of concrete before the hardening of underlying concrete will lead
to delamination. It is because the water and air bleeding from
underlying concrete are struck between these two surfaces, hence space
will be formed. Like blistering, delamination can also be prevented by
using proper finishing techniques. It is better to start the finishing after
bleeding process has run its course.

5. Dusting

Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of fine and loose

powdered concrete on the hardened concrete by disintegration. This
happens due to the presence of excess amount of water in concrete. It
causes bleeding of water from concrete, with this fine particles like
cement or sand will rise to the top and consequent wear causes dust at
the top surface. To avoid dusting, use low slump concrete mix to obtain
hard concrete surface with good wear resistance. Use water reducing
admixtures to obtain adequate slump. It is also recommended to use
better finishing techniques and finishing should be started after
removing the bleed water from concrete surface.
6. Curling

When a concrete slab is distorted into curved shape by upward or

downward movement of edges or corners, it is called curling. It occurs
mainly due to the differences in moisture content or temperature
between slab surface (top) and slab base (bottom). Curling of concrete
slab may be upward curling or downward curling. When the top surface
is dried and cooled before bottom surface, it begins to shrink and
upward curling takes place. When bottom surface is dried and cooled
due to high temperature and high moisture content, it will shrink before
top surface and downward curling occurs. To prevent curling, use low
shrink concrete mix, provide control joints, provide heavy
reinforcement at edges or provide edges with great thickness.
7. Efflorescence

Efflorescence is the formation of deposits of salts on the concrete

surface. Formed salts generally white in color. It is due to the
presence of soluble salts in the water which is used in making
concrete mix. When concrete is hardening, these soluble salts
gets lifted to the top surface by hydro static pressure and after
complete drying salt deposits are formed on the surface. It can be
prevented by using clean and pure water for mixing, using
chemically ineffective aggregates etc. And make sure that
cement should not contain alkalis more than 1% of its weight.
 8. Scaling and Spalling

Scaling and spalling, in both the cases concrete surface gets

deteriorated and flaking of concrete occurs. The main cause for
this type of cases is penetration of water through concrete
surface. This makes steel gets corroded and spalling or scaling
may occurs.

Some other causes are use of non-air entrained concrete mix,

inadequate curing and use of lo strength concrete etc. This type of
defects can be prevented by, using well designed concrete mixes,
by adding air entrainment admixtures, proper finishing and curing,
providing good slope to drain water coming on to the surface etc.

9. Structural Cracks

Structural cracks and non-structural cracks differ primarily in their

impact on the integrity and safety of a building or structure.
 Structural Cracks

o Definition: These are cracks that affect the load-bearing capacity or

stability of a structure. They can occur in various elements like shear
walls, beams, columns, slabs, or foundations.
o Causes: Structural cracks can result from factors such as foundation
settlement, soil movements, overloading, differential settlements,
seismic activity, design flaws, improper construction practices,
inadequate maintenance etc.
o Impact: They are a significant concern as they compromise the
structural integrity of the building, potentially leading to structural
failure or collapse if not addressed promptly and appropriately.
o Repair: Repairing structural cracks often involves comprehensive
assessments by structural engineers, followed by specialized repair
techniques such as underpinning, strengthening, or reinforcement of
affected elements.

Non-Structural Cracks:

o Definition: These are cracks that do not compromise the load-bearing

capacity or stability of a structure. They may appear in both load-
bearing and non-load-bearing elements.
o Causes: Non-structural cracks can result from factors like temperature
and moisture variations, settling of materials, corrosion, minor
movements in the building due to environmental changes, or wear and
tear of the material/element/component/system.
o Impact: While non-structural cracks are generally less critical than
structural ones, if not managed timely, deterioration may escalate and
even turn into a structural one. An example is reinforcement corrosion
due to chloride ion attack, concrete suffer from alkali-silica reaction etc.
o Repair: Repairing non-structural cracks typically involves cosmetic
fixes such as filling with sealants, chemical
injection, impregnation, patching materials, or repainting. However,
it’s essential to investigate and address any underlying causes to
prevent recurring cracks.
 In summary, structural cracks are a serious concern requiring thorough
assessment and specialized repairs to maintain the safety and stability
of a building, while non-structural cracks are typically less critical and
can often be addressed through cosmetic repairs.

Case Study

A live (active) crack is shown on a reinforced concrete wall in a

basement of a commercial building car park. Aging and deterioration
of the concrete structures and many other external factors such as
ground settlement can cause such cracking. The crack was identified as
a post-hardening structural crack caused by structural deficiency due
mainly to ground settlements.

A live (active) crack is usually referred to one that continues to increase

in width and/or length, while a dead (passive) crack does not change in
both width and length.
A structural crack is one that is usually caused by excessive stress
concentration due to overloading, differential movements etc., while
a non-structural crack is usually cause by material issues including
shrinkage and creep, wear and tear, reinforcement corrosion, or
environmental issues including water seepage, inadequate provisions
for thermal and moisture movements.

It must always be reminded that concrete although is strong in

compression, it is weak in tensile/flexural strength.

Cause of Defects

As concrete is weak in tensile/flexural strength, when a building is

subjected to loads that exceed its designed capacity, due to e.g. an
increase in live/dead loads, structural cracks may occur. With lack of
provision of movement joints, cracks, in this case, may be resulted due
to differential structural movement or differential settlement of
foundation caused by lateral movement together. Uneven settlement of
the soil and loading can result in differential settlement exceeding the
tensile/flexural stress of the reinforced concrete causing the crack. Such
differential settlement if continues, will result in the formation of a live
crack and must be treated seriously. Such cracks appear more apparent
on walls near the sinking foundation. The design and construction
phases must pay special attention to strengthen the control of the
uneven settlement of the foundation.

Based on the test results gathered from the Rebound Hammer Test, the
columns specifically on the ground floor level are structurally stable,
resulting to at least 4000psi(27.57MPa) concrete compressive strength,
with no manifestation of any settlements, deflection, and structural
cracks. Furthermore, the existing concrete beams on the 3rd floor level
at Office Area were structural stable with no defects at all, confirming
a minimum compressive strength readings of 4000psi(27.57MPa).
Second floor slabs at the Office Area exhibits the same concrete
 strength based on the Rebound Hammer Test. See attached Hammer
Rebound Test Result for appreciation.

On the other hand, Coring Test conducted on the exposed slab on the
second floor level shows fair result with corresponding compressive
strength between 2500psi(15.65MPa) to 3000psi(20.68MPa). The
values collected were normal to average since the sample collected
were obtained from an exposed portion of the structure, which may take
into consideration, wear and tear. See attached Coring test Result for
appreciation.

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

After having conducted two simple methods of determining the structural

capabilities of the structure such as coring test at hammer rebound test, it
was found out that the existing structure (3-storey office and facility
building) is STRUCTURALLY STABLE AND SAFE.

To extend the usage and life span of the existing structure of at least ten
(10) years, it is highly recommended to do some rectification works such
structural epoxy works on structural cracks, and to provide carbon fiber
on all exposed slabs and beams to further increase it capacity.

Using Epoxy Injections for Structural Repairs

If you’ve got a structure that’s experienced damage due to an overload,

vehicle impact, earthquake, or any other “one-time” event, then you may
want to consider using epoxy injection for your structural repairs. The
epoxy injection method is an easy way to repair cracks in a structure, and
it works great for horizontal, vertical, and overhead applications.
The epoxy injection method has a fairly simple application process. The
basic materials needed are: capping paste, injection ports, injection
equipment, and injection resin. The type of injection resin you will need
varies on how deep the structural cracks are, as well as whether or not
you’re dealing with a blind side crack. Typically, an epoxy injection resin
is a low-viscosity, moisture-tolerant material that is slowly setting and has
a high modulus.

Epoxy Injection Process

The epoxy injection process begins with the application of a capping paste,
which serves to seal the surface of the crack and help bond the injection
ports to the concrete. The injection ports, which can be either surface
mount ports or socket mount ports, are the means by which the epoxy resin
will be delivered into the cracks. Ports are generally spaced about 6-10
inches apart and may include a reservoir port for more rapid material
delivery.

Once capping paste is used, ports are drilled or installed, and any loose
material and dust is cleared from within the cracks, epoxy injection can
begin. Epoxy injection begins at the lowest port for vertical applications
and at the widest part of the crack for overhead or horizontal applications.
Injection methods will vary depending on whether you use tube ports or
reservoir ports. The epoxy will take a minimum of 12 hours to cure and
will not cure in very low temperatures or cure very slowly in temperatures
beneath 50 degrees F. Once the epoxy has cured, ports can be removed
and grinding of the capping paste can occur. In many cases, the surface can
even be coated to remove any visual evidence of cracks.

As a new material, carbon fiber has gradually become a new generation of

structural strengthening technology after increasing the cross-section of
concrete and sticking steel plate.
 How to use carbon fiber to strengthen the concrete slabs.

1. Find cracks;

2. Check whether the exposed steel bar is corroded, if there is any corroded,
carry out necessary treatment;

3. Remove the original concrete leveling layer along the two sides of the
crack, the width is generally 300mm, until the poured concrete surface layer;

4. When cleaning the surface of the concrete, it is necessary to repair the

uneven structural layer with leveling glue. After the repaired material is dried,
the surface polishing treatment is carried out with a hand-type polisher
(diamond sander);
5. Use an appropriate plastic bucket to configure carbon fiber cloth glue on
site (mix it evenly according to the proportion of glue), and cut the selected
carbon fiber cloth according to the length of construction needs;

6. Apply the primer on the concrete surface, and roll the brush back and
forth to ensure that the glue roller brush on the concrete surface is in place
and has soaked into each carbon fiber wire;

7. Paste the carbon fiber cloth to the vertical cracks, and compact the carbon
fiber cloth with a plastic plate to ensure the effective bonding of the carbon
fiber cloth and the concrete without air bubbles. Then brush the carbon fiber
cloth glue on the carbon fiber cloth for the second time;

8. When the carbon fiber cloth to be pasted is quick-drying, use coarse sand
(river sand at the drying point) to sprinkle on the carbon fiber cloth (to play
the role of finding wool, mainly for the next process);

9. At normal temperature, generally do not carry out the next process

construction within 3-5 days, and do not encounter obstacles, use something
to cover it as far as possible or isolate it with objects around;

10. About 3-5 days after construction (depending on the construction site
temperature and curing conditions), the final surface decoration can be
carried out.

The carbon fiber reinforced concrete floor slab has the characteristics of
space saving, simple construction, light weight, corrosion resistance and
good durability, and can greatly increase the service life of the building and
reduce the cost of reinforcement. Therefore, it plays an increasingly
important role in structural reinforcement projects.
In view of the above test results and recommendation, I hereby certify that
Existing 3-Storey Office and Facility Building of Mead Johnson (Phils)
located at Chino Roces Avenue, is structurally stable and safe and can still
withstand the load usage and seismic loads, and can still be utilized in the
next ten (10) years after performing structural rectification works such as
structural epoxy injections on cracks and proving carbon fiber to slabs to
further strengthen the existing compressive stresses.

Furthermore, a separate CERTIFICATE OF STRUCTURAL STABILITY,

is do hereby issued to whatever purpose and reference it may served.

SIGNED:

ENGR. BENJAMIN A. BAUN

Civil Structural Engineer
PRC No: 062485
PTR No: 5562328