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FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Lesson 9: Types, Characteristics, and Identification of Learners with Difficulty
Remembering and Focusing
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to be able to:

 identify the key characteristics of different learning disabilities (e.g., dyslexia,

dyscalculia) and ADHD
 categorize specific impairments (reading, writing, mathematics) based on APA
diagnostic specifiers
 demonstrate empathy by expressing an understanding of the challenges faced by
individuals with learning disabilities and ADHD.
 value the importance of early diagnosis and intervention to support the academic
success and well-being of learners with disabilities

LEARNING DISABILITIES
Learning Disabilities have been given different definitions. The Individuals with
Disabilities Education (IDEA) defines specific learning disability as a disability in one or more
of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, whether
spoken or written, that may manifest in terms of imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read,
write, spell, or to perform mathematical calculations.
On the other hand, the National Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities
(NJCLD) defines learning disabilities as a general term referring to a heterogenous group of
disabilities manifested by significant difficulties in acquiring and using listening, speaking,
reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disabilities are inherent to the
individual and are caused by dysfunction in the central nervous system that is present during
one’s life span.
The definition of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) is usually used in
clinical and diagnostic settings. Instead of learning disabilities, it uses the term learning
disorders. Specific learning disorder is defined as a neurodevelopmental disorder that hinders
one from learning academic skills. Learners diagnosed with specific learning disorder perform
below average in terms of reading, writing, or mathematics (Heward et al., 2017).

Characteristics and Types of Learning Disabilities

Individuals with learning disabilities have problems in terms of listening, reasoning,
memory, retention, selecting and focusing on relevant stimuli, and in perceiving and
processing of visual and auditory information. Among the problems are reading problems,
written language deficits, math underachievement, poor social skills, attention deficit and
hyperactivity, behavior problems, and low self-esteem or self-efficacy.

Table 1. Characteristics of Learners with Learning Disability

Characteristics Description
Reading Problems Learners have difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word
(Dyslexia) recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.
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Written Language Learners' ability in terms of mechanics of writing (e.g., spelling,

Deficits punctuation) is way below what is expected of their age. They
also have difficulty communicating their ideas through writing.
Math Learners perform poorly than their peers in every type of math
Underachievement problem. They have significant difficulty in terms of retrieving
number facts and solving story problems.
Poor Social Skills They are prone to interpersonal problems, which often lead to
rejection, low social status, unpleasant interaction with teachers,
difficulty making friends, and loneliness.
Attention Deficit and They have difficulty paying attention to a particular task or
Hyperactivity become overly active. It is possible that a learner who exhibits
this may have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Behavior Problems Incidences of behavior problems among those with learning
disability are higher than usual. Upon adolescence, those with
learning disabilities are more likely to show risk-taking behaviors
such as smoking, marijuana use, delinquency, aggressiveness,
and gambling.
Low Self-esteem or Learners with a learning disability are more likely to have low
Self-efficacy self-efficacy, mood, effort, and hope than their peers.

APA (2013) uses the following specifiers in the diagnosis of learning disorders:
 With impairment in reading (dyslexia) - word reading accuracy; reading rate or
fluency; reading comprehension
 With impairment in written expression - spelling accuracy; grammar and
punctuation accuracy; clarity or organization or written expression
 With impairment in mathematics (dyscalculia) - number sense; memorization of
arithmetic facts, accurate or fluent calculations; accurate math reasoning

Severity may also be classified as:

 Mild - Some difficulties in learning skills in one or two domains but the learner is able
to compensate with appropriate accommodations or support services.
 Moderate - Marked difficulties learning skills in one or more academic domains that
the learner is unlikely to become proficient without some intervals of intensive and
specialized teaching in school.
 Severe - Severe difficulties in learning skills in several academic domains that the
learner is unlikely to learn those skills without ongoing intensive individualized and
specialized teaching in school.

Causes of Learning Disabilities

The following are possible causes of learning disabilities.
Table 2. Possible Causes of Learning Disabilities

Possible Cause Description

Heredity Learning disabilities often run in the family. It is not uncommon
for one with learning disabilities to have parents or other
relatives with the same condition.
Problems during Learning disabilities could be due to illness or injury before birth.
Pregnancy and Birth Also, it could be caused by low birthweight, lack of oxygen, drug
and alcohol use during pregnancy, and premature or prolonged
labor.
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Incidents After Birth It could also be due to head injuries, nutritional deprivation, and
exposure to toxic substances such as lead.

Identification and Assessment of Learners with Learning Disabilities

The following are used in the identification and assessment of learners with learning
disabilities.
Table 3. Identification and Assessment of Learners with Learning Disabilities

Method Description
Intelligence and Standardized IQ tests and individual achievement tests are
Achievement Tests typically administered during the referral process. Examples of
these tests are the following:
 Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (Hoover, Dunbar, & Frisbie,
2007)
 Woodcock – Johnson III Tests of Achievement
(Woodcock, Shrank, McGrew, & Mather, 2007)
 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test III (Wechsler,
2009)
Frequently administered reading achievement tests include the
following:
 Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (MacGinite, MacGinite,
Maria, Dreyer, & Hughes, 2006)
 Gray Oral Reading Tests (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2001)
 Test of Reading Comprehension (Brown, Wiederholt, &
Hammil, 2008)
 Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (Woodcock, 2011)
Criterion-Referenced Criterion-referenced tests, as opposed to norm-referenced tests,
Tests compare an individual’s score to a predetermined criterion rather
than that with other individuals. An example of criterion-
referenced test widely used by special educator is the Brigance
Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills (Brigance, 2010).
Curriculum-Based Also called progress monitoring, it entails measuring the growth
Measurement of students’ proficiency in the core skills that contribute to
success in school. It is a formative assessment method that
provides information on student learning as instruction takes
place over time.

The following observation form provided by the New Brunswick Department of

Education (n.d.) may be useful for teachers in identifying learners with learning disabilities.
Table 4. Observation Form for Learning Disabilities
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ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined as a persistent pattern of

inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Its main symptoms include inattention and
hyperactivity and impulsivity. Inattention manifests in not attending to details; difficulty keeping
one's attention to tasks or activities; not listening; not following through on instructions;
disliking of tasks requiring sustained mental effort, frequent losing of things, being easily
distracted, or being forgetful. For instance, a learner may start doing a task, but then does not
follow through on it once sidetracked. Hyperactivity and impulsivity could cause one to fidget
and become restless. Children who have these symptoms may climb on furniture and become
too loud or noisy. It can be described by being often "on the go" and as if being "driven by a
motor." The learner may talk excessively, blurt out answers, have difficulty waiting for one's
turn, interrupt others, and act without thinking. One may also become impatient, rush through
the task, and may find it difficult to resist temptation. This could be a challenge for a learner
as, for example, one may start doing a task without first reading or listening to instructions
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Heward et al., 2017).

Characteristics of Learners with ADHD

The following shows the common characteristics of learners with ADHD. It is to be

noted, however, that those with ADHD may be (1) inattentive, but not hyperactive or impulsive;
(2) hyperactive and impulsive, but able to pay attention; or (3) inattentive, hyperactive, and
impulsive, which is the most common form of ADHD.

Table 5. Characteristics of Learners with ADHD

Characteristics Description
Inattention  Having trouble staying focused; easily gets distracted or gets bored
with a task before it is completed
 Appearing to not listen when spoken to
 Having difficulty remembering things and following instructions; not
paying attention to details or making careless mistakes
 Having trouble staying organized, planning ahead, and finishing
projects
 Frequently losing or misplacing homework, books, toys, or other items
Hyperactivity  Constant fidgeting or squirming
 Having difficulty sitting still, playing quietly, or relaxing
 Moving around constantly, often running or climbing inappropriately
 Talking excessively
 Having a quick temper or "short fuse"
Impulsivity  Acting without thinking
 Guessing rather than taking time to solve a problem or blurting out
answers in class without waiting to be called on or hearing the whole
question
 Intruding other people's conversations or games
 Often interrupting others; saying the wrong thing at the wrong time
 Inability keeping powerful emotions in check, resulting in angry
outbursts or temper tantrums
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Causes of ADHD

What causes ADHD exactly is still not yet fully understood. It is possible for children
with ADHD to manifest the same behaviors, yet these could be caused by different factors.
Whereas ADHD is considered a neurologically-based disorder, there is no clear and consistent
evidence that links it to brain damage or dysfunction. There are studies that show structural
or biochemical differences in brains of those with ADHD, but this observation is not present to
everyone who has ADHD; and what can be observed in brains of those with ADHD can also
be observed in some of those without, demonstrating the inconsistencies in research findings.
Genetic factors could be a possible cause as those with ADHD in the family are at greater risk
of having it. ADHD also shares symptoms with a lot of other genetically-linked disorders such
as fragile X syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Williams syndrome, which shares ADHD's
problems with attention and impulsivity. ADHD is also associated with other conditions,
including fetal alcohol syndrome, prenatal exposure to cocaine, and lead poisoning (Heward
et al., 2017).

Identification and Treatment of ADHD

One of the tools that teachers can use in order to identify learners with ADHD is the
Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Teacher Rating Scale which measures ADHD and other
associated symptoms such as oppositional defiant and conduct disorders, and anxiety or
depression symptoms. The following are some of the items of the scale that measures
symptoms of ADHD.

Table 6. The Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Teacher Rating Scale

Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Teacher Rating Scale

(ADHD items only; see Wolraich (n.d.) for the full scale)
 Behaviors are counted if they are scored two (often) or three (very often)
 Inattention – requires six or more counted behaviors from questions 1-9 for indication
of the predominantly inattentive subtype
 Hyperactivity/Impulsivity – requires six or more counted behaviors from questions 10-
18 for indication of the predominantly hyperactive/impulsive subtype
 Combined subtype – requires six or more counted behaviors each on both the
inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity dimensions
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ADHD may be treated through medication or behaviorally-based interventions.

Medication, (usually stimulants) is the most common treatment for children with ADHD.
Behaviorally-based interventions derived from behavior analysis are also used to manage
symptoms of ADHD. These interventions provide teachers and parents with practical
strategies for teaching and living with children with ADHD. Among the methods are positive
reinforcement for on-task behavior; modifying assignments and instructional activities to
promote success, and systematically teaching self-control. Teachers may restructure the
environment (e.g., let the child sit near the teacher; break the assignment down into smaller,
manageable chunks); provide differential consequences for the learner's behavior (e.g., use
of positive reinforcement such as praising or giving the learner tokens when appropriate
behaviors are shown). Interventions that are based on functional assessment of off-task,
disruptive, and distracting behavior by learners with ADHD have also been found effective
(Heward et al., 2017).

Typical and Atypical Development

The following shows the stages of attention development which could help teachers and
parents identify whether the child is still at par with peers or if there is a delay. This could be
helpful in identifying whether a child could be having difficulty in terms of remembering and
focusing and if intervention is needed.

Table 7. Development of Attention

Age Description
0 to 1 year Extremely distractible
1 to 2 years Concentrates on task of own choosing
2 to 3 years Can shift attention from one activity to another with adult’s help
3 to 4 years Can switch attention without adult’s help
4 to 5 years Attention is two-way
5 to 6 years Attention is established and sustained